The French Revolution

 On the morning of 14th July 1789, Paris was in a state of alarm. The king had
commanded the troops to move into the city. Rumors spread that he would soon order
the army to open fire upon the citizens.
 Some 7000 men and women gathered in front of the town hall and decided to form a
peoples’ militia. They broke into a no. of government buildings in the search of arms.
 A group of a few hundred people marched to the eastern side of the city and stormed
the fortress prison, the Bastille, where they killed the commander head and rescued the
seven prisoners.
 The Bastille was hated by all. The fortress was demolished and its stone fragments were
sold in the market to the people who wished to keep a souvenir of its destruction.

The French society during the late eighteenth century

 In 1774 Louis the sixteenth of the bourbon family of the kings ascended the
throne of France.
 He was 20 years old. He married the Austrian princess Marie Antoinette.
 Upon his accession he found empty treasury.
 Added to this was the cost of maintaining an extravagant court at the immense
palace of Versailles.
 Under Louis the sixteenth, France helped the thirteen American colonies to gain
independence from the common enemy, Britain. The war added more than a
billion livres to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion livres.
 The lenders who gave the state credit began to charge 10% interest on loans and
in order to maintain the cost of the army, the court, running government offices
or universities the government had to increase the taxes but this was not gonna
suffice as out of the three estates that France was divided in, only the third
estate had to pay the taxes.
 The society of estates was part of the feudal system that dated back to the
middle ages. The term old regimes are usually used to describe the society and
institutions of France before 1789.
 Peasants made up about 90% of the population but only a small number of them
owned the land they cultivated. About 60% of the land was owned by nobles, the
church and the other richer members of the third estate.
 The member of the first two estates mostly consisted of clergy and the nobility.
They enjoyed certain privileges from birth that included exemption from paying
the taxes and feudal dues extracted from the peasants. The peasants were
 obliged to render services to the lord – to work in his house and fields- to serve
in the army or help building roads.
 The church to extracted taxes from the peasants called the tithes and finally all
members had to pay taxes to the state. These included direct taxes called taille
and a number of indirect taxes which were levied on articles, and everyday
consumption like salt or tobacco. The burden of the taxes was borne alone by
the third estate.
The struggle to survive
 The population 0of France rose from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789.
This led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains. Production of grains
could not keep pace with the demand and this led to the increase in the price of
bread that was the staple diet of the majority. Most workers were employed as
laborers in workshops whose owners fixed their wage but the wages did not
keep in pace with the prices.
 The gap between the rich and the poor widened and during drought or hail,
things became worst as the harvest reduced. This led to subsistence crisis,
something that occurred frequently in France during the old regime.
A growing middle class envisages an end to privileges
 In the past the peasants and workers had participated in revolts against increasing taxes
and food scarcity but had lacked the means and programmers to carry out the full scale
measures that would bring about a change. This was left to the educated people of the
third estate.
 The eighteenth century witnessed the emergence of social groups termed as middle
class who earned their wealth through an expanding overseas trade and from the
manufacture of goods such as wool or silk that were either exported or bought by the
richer members of society.
 In addition to merchants and manufacturers, the third estate included professions such
as lawyer or administrative officials. All of these were educated and believed that no
group in society should be privileged by birth. Rather, a person’s social position must
depend on their merits. These ideas based on freedom and equal laws and
opportunities for all were put forward by philosophers such as John Locke and Jean
Jacques Rousseau. In hi TWO TREATIES OF GOVERNMENT, Locke sought to refute the
doctrine of the divine and absolute right of the monarch. Rousseau carried the idea
forward, proposing a form of government based on a social contract between the
people and its representatives.
 In “the spirit of the laws”, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the
government between the legislatives, the executives and the judiciary. This model was
 put into force in the USA, after the thirteen colonies declared independence from
Britain. The American constitution and its guarantee of individual rights was an
important example for the political thinkers of France.
 The ideas of these philosophers were discussed in coffeehouses and salons and were
read aloud to people who could not read and write. When people got to know that king
Louis 16 was increasing the taxes in order to meet the demands then people were angry
and started a protest against those who were born with privileges.
 In France of the old regime, the monarch did not have the power to impose new taxes.
A meeting with the estate general which consisted of selected members of each estates
had to be called and then they would decide on the laws. The last meeting was called on
1614 and only the monarch can set the date and time of the meeting.
 On May 5th 1789 Louis 16th had called a meeting with the estate general that was held in
the resplendent hall in Versailles. The first and second estates sent 300 representatives
each who sat facing each other while the 600 representative of the third estate had to
stand in the back. Only the high educated men of the third estate were allowed in. the
entry of peasant’s women and artisans was denied but they sent around 40000 letters
to express their grief with their representatives.
 From the olden times, the voting in the meeting was counted as one vote per estate and
Louis 16th was determined to do that but the people of the third representatives argued
that each person gets one vote but as this was denied, they started walking out of the
assembly in protest.
 The representatives of the third estate found themselves as the spokesperson of the
whole nation. On 20th June, they assemble in an open tennis court in Versailles and
decided that they would draft a constitution that would limit the powers of the
monarch. They were known as the national assembly. They were led by Mirabeau and
Abbe Sieyes. Mirabeau was from a noble family but he was against the society of feudal
privilege. He brought out a journal and delivered powerful speeches to the crowds
assembled at Versailles. Abbe Sieyes was a priest who wrote an influential pamphlet
called “what is the third estate?”
 While the national assembly was busy at Versailles drafting a constitution, the nation
seethed with turmoil. A severe winter had affected the harvest due to which the price of
bread increased and the bakers exploited the situation and hoarded supplies. The
women were angry after waiting for hours and then the king ordered the troops to
march into Paris. On 14th July the agitated crowd stormed and destroyed the Bastille.
 Rumors spread that the lords of the manor had hired bands of brigand who were on
their way to destroy ripe crops. Out of fear, the peasants attacked the castle using
pitchforks and destroyed the papers of manorial dues. Many nobles fled from the
country to neighboring countries.
 Finally King Louis 16th recognized the national assembly and declared that hi powers were
restricted to a constitution. On the night of 4th august, 1789 the assembly passed a decree that
abolished the feudal system of obligations and taxes. Members of the clergy too were forced to
give up on their privileges and the property of the church was confiscated. As a result, the
government acquired assets worth at least 2 billion livres.
France becomes a constitutional monarch
 The national assembly completed the constitution in 1791. Its main objective was to limit the
powers of the monarch. The power was not separated into hands of three different institutions-
the legislature, the judiciary and the executive. This made France a constitutional monarchy.
 The constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the national assembly which was
indirectly elected. The citizens voted for a group of electors who in turn chose the assembly.
Not all citizens however were allowed to vote. Only men above the age of 25 who paid taxes
equal to at least 3 days of a laborer’s wage were allowed to vote.
 The constitution began with a declaration of the rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the
right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, equality before law, were established as
“natural and inalienable rights” that is, they belonged to each and every human being from
birth. It was the duty of the state to check whether there were no discriminations.
France abolishes monarchy and becomes a republic
 Although Louis 16th had signed the constitution, he was secretly negotiating with the King of
Prussia. Seeing the developments of France, kings of the other countries decided to sent
troupes there. But before this could happen, the nation assembly voted in April 1792 to declare
a war against Prussia and Austria. Thousands of volunteers from all over Europe came as they
thought it was a war against the citizens and the kings. Among the patriotic song, they sang
Marseillaise composed by the poet Roget de L’Isle. It was sung for the first time by volunteers
from marsailles as they marched into Paris and thus this became the national anthem of France.
 The revolutionary wars brought economic difficulties and losses to the people. While the men
were away, the women had to earn a living for their families. Large sections of the population
were convinced that the revolution had to be carried further as the constitution of 1791 only
gave the political rights to the rich. Thus political clubs were formed and many of them started
protesting. The most successful club was the Jacobins which derived there name from a
convent called st. Jacob in Paris. The women were also very active throughout this period and
they formed their own clubs.
 The Jacobins were mainly made of the less prosperous sections of the society. They included
small shopkeeper, artisans such as shoemakers, pastry cooks, watch makers, printers, as well as
servants and daily wage workers. Their leader was Maximilian Robespierre. A large group
started wearing long striped trousers like those of dock workers. This was to set themselves
apart from the fashionable sections of the society and the nobles who wore knee breeches.
 They were eventually known as the sans-culottes that literally meant ‘those without knee
breeches’. In addition they also wore a red cap that symbolizes liberty. Women however were
not allowed to do so.
 In the summer of 1792 the Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large no. of Parisians who
were angered by the short supplies and high prices of food. On the morning of august 10 th then
stormed the palace of Tuileries, massacred the kings men and held the king hostage for several
hours. Later the assembly voted for the imprisonment of the royal family. Elections were held
and from then on all men above the age of 21 were allowed to vote despite their wealth.
 The newly elected assembly was called the convention. On 21st September 1792 it abolished the
monarchy from France and declared France a republic. A republic is a form of government
where the people elect the government including its head. There is no hereditary monarchy.
 Louis 16th was sentenced to death on the charge of treason. On 21t January 1793 he was
executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde. The queen Marie Antoinette met with the same
fate shortly after.
The reign of terror
 The period of 1793-1794 is referred to as the reign of terror. Robespierre followed a policy of
severe control and punishment. All those whom he saw as being enemies of the republic- the
nobles and the clergy, the members of other political party and members of his party who were
against this idea of republic- were arrested, imprisoned and then tried by a revolutionary
tribunal. If the court found them guilty, they were guillotined. The guillotine is a device
consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. It was named after dr
guillotin who invented it.
 Robespierre government issued laws placing ceiling on wages and prices. Meat and bread were
rationed. Peasants had to transport their grains to the cities and sell them for the prices foxed
by the government. The use of more expensive white flour was forbidden and all citizens had to
eat the pain d’égalité (equality bread) a loaf made of whole wheat. Equality was practiced
through speech and address. Instead of the traditional monsieur [sir] and Madame [madam] all
French men and women were henceforth Citoyen and Citoyenne [citizen]. Churches were shut
down and offices and barracks were made in their place.
 Robespierre pursued his policies so relentlessly that even his supporters started demanding
moderation. Finally he was convicted in July 1794 arrested and on the next day sent to the
guillotine.

A directory rules France

 The fall of the Jacobin allowed the wealthier middle classes to seize power. A new constitution
came into being in which non-propertied people were denied to vote. It consisted of two
elected legislative councils. These then appointed the directory, an executive of five members.
 This was meant as a safeguard against the concentration of the power in a one man executive
under the Jacobins. But the directors often clashed with the legislative council and thus they
decided to dismiss them. This paved the way for the rise of a military dictator Napoleon
Bonaparte.
Did women have a revolution?
 Women were very active during the French revolution. They hoped that their involvement
would pressurize the revolutionary government to introduce measures that would improve
their lives. Most women of the third estate had to work to earn a living. They worked as
seamstresses, laundresses, sold flowers fruits or vegetables at the market or work in domestic
houses of the prosperous people. Most women did not have the access to education or job
training. Only women which were born in wealthy families were educated at convents and then
were married off. Working women also had to take care of her family like cooking, fetching
water, queue up for bread and look after their children. Their wages were lower than that of
men.
 In order to discuss and voice their interests, women started their own political clubs and
newspapers. About sixty women’s clubs came up in different French cities. The society of
Revolutionary and Republic women was the most famous of them. One of their main demands
was that women enjoy the same political rights as men. Women were disappointed that the
constitution of 1791 had made them passive citizens. They demanded the right to vote and to
be elected as a part of the assembly and to hold political office. Only then would the
government listen to their interests.
 In the early years, the revolutionary government did introduce laws that improved women’s
life. Together with the creation of state schools, schooling was made compulsory for all girls.
Fathers could not forcefully marry off their daughters and divorce was then legal and was
applicable for men and women both. Women could now train for jobs and even be an artist or
run small businesses.
 However the women’s demands for political rights were held on hold. During the reign of
terror, the new government issued laws ordering closure of women’s clubs and newspapers.
Many women were arrested and some even executed.
 Women’s struggle for voting rights still continued. It spread all over the world during the late
nineteenth and early twentieth century’s. The example of the political movement in France was
an inspiration for other women all over the world. In 1946 women in France finally won the
right to vote.

The abolition of slavery

 The Jacobin regime helped the in the process of the abolition of slavery. The colonies in the
Caribbean- Martinique, Guadeloupe and san Domingo were important producers of tobacco,
 indigo, sugar and coffee. But the reluctance of Europeans to go to an unfamiliar place caused
shortage of hands on the plantations.
 This was met by a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and the Americans. The slave
trade began in the seventeenth century. French merchant sailed from the ports of Bordeaux or
Nantes to the African coast, where they bought slaves from local chieftains. Branded and
shackled they were then packed lightly into ships for the three month long voyage across the
Atlantic Ocean to the Caribbean. There they were sold to plantation owners. The exploitation of
slave labor made it possible to reach the rising demands of the European countries.
 Throughout the 18th century, there was little criticism of this slavery as the people of the
assembly were scared of the big businessmen whose income depended on this. It was finally in
1794, that all slaves were freed in the French overseas possessions. This however was not a
long term measure. Ten years later, Napoleon reintroduced slavery and this time the plantation
owners understood their freedom as including the right to enslave African Negroes in pursuit of
their economic interests. Finally slavery was banned in France in 1848.

The revolution and everyday life

 One important law that came into effect soon after the storming of the Bastille in summer1789
was the abolition of censorship. In the old regime all written material and cultural activities-
books, plays, newspapers- had to be published after being censored by the king. Due to the
Rights of Man and Citizen, which pointed to the fact that the freedom of speech and
recognition was a natural right, the written displays were not needed to be censored anymore.
 This meant that people would voice different opinions everywhere and thus the principles of
liberty and equality were voiced.
 Conclusion- in 1804, napoleon crowned himself as the emperor of France. He
then set out to capture the neighboring countries of France by the help of his
family. He saw himself as the modernizer of Europe. He introduced many laws such
as the protection of private properties and a uniform system of weights and
measures provided by the decimal system. Many people saw him as the one who
would help them climb their ladders to freedom but they were wrong. Soon
napoleon’s armies began invading force. People who followed his principles of
liberty later saw its bad effects after he was gone. This was inspiration for many
other colonies and helped many other colonies in gaining freedom. Thus the French
revolution was an inspiration for many others