HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND
MANAGEMENT

THEME: RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION

Focus area (Courses):

Introduction to Educational Management

Educational organization and Management 1
Human Resource Management in Education
Finance and Property Management in Education

Compiled by:

Tadesse Hailu (PhD)

Yordanos Tekle
Guyasa Desalegn
4/1/2023
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 Table of Contents

PART ONE (Introduction to Educational Management) 5

UNIT 1 ............................................................................................................................................ 6
1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT .................................. 6
1.1. Concept and Definition of Organization .............................................................................. 6
1.2. Characteristics of Modern Organizations ............................................................................ 6
1.3. What is Management? Its Nature and Aspects................................................................. 7
1.4. The Management Dilemmas ................................................................................................ 7
1.4.1. Management Vs Administration ................................................................................... 7
1.4.2. Is Management Science or an Art? ............................................................................... 8
1.4.3. Management Vs Leadership ......................................................................................... 8
1.5. Levels and Skills of Management ........................................................................................ 9
1.5.1. Levels of Management .................................................................................................. 9
1.5.2. Skills of Management ................................................................................................. 10
1.6. Managerial Functions......................................................................................................... 11
1.7. Managerial Roles ............................................................................................................... 12
1.8. Unique Features of Educational Organization and Management ...................................... 13
UNIT 2 .......................................................................................................................................... 15
2. EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT ................................................................... 15
2.2. The Classical Approach to Management ........................................................................... 17
2.3. Human Relations School of Management Thought ........................................................... 28
2.4. The Behavioral School of Management Thought .............................................................. 32
2.5. The Contemporary Management Views ............................................................................ 33
2.5.1 The Systems Approach: ............................................................................................... 34
2.6. Recent Management Positions ....................................................................................... 36
UNIT 3 .......................................................................................................................................... 37
3. MANAGEMENT SKILLS IN EDUCATION.......................................................................... 37
3.1. PLANNING ....................................................................................................................... 37
3.1.1. Nature of Planning .......................................................................................................... 38

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 3.1.2. Importance of Planning ............................................................................................... 39
3.1.3. The Process of Planning.......................................................................................... 39
3.1.4. Types /Classification of Plans ..................................................................................... 41
3.1.6. Principles of Educational Planning ............................................................................. 44
3.2. ORGANIZING .................................................................................................................. 45
3.2.1. The Benefits of Organizing ......................................................................................... 45
3.2.2. The principles of organizing ....................................................................................... 46
3.2.3. Components of Organizing ......................................................................................... 46
3.3. STAFFING ........................................................................................................................ 49
3.5. CONTROLLING ............................................................................................................... 52
3.5.1. The Control Process .................................................................................................... 52
3.5.2. Characteristics of Controlling .................................................................................... 53
3.5.3. Types of Control ......................................................................................................... 55
3.5.4. Methods of Controlling ............................................................................................... 55
UNIT FOUR ................................................................................................................................. 58
4.1. Organizational Environment .................................................................................................. 58
4.2. Types of the organizational environment .......................................................................... 58
4.3. Factors affecting organizational environment ................................................................... 59
PART TWO (Educational Organization and Management 1) ............................................... 60
UNIT ONE .................................................................................................................................... 61
1. COMMUNICATION ............................................................................................................ 61
1.1. The functions and importance of Communication in Management ............................... 61
1.2. The Communication Process .......................................................................................... 62
1.3. Forms of Communication............................................................................................... 62
1.4. Barriers to Effective Communication ............................................................................ 64
1.5.Improving Communication in Organizations ..................................................................... 65
UNIT 2 .......................................................................................................................................... 66
2. DECISION MAKING IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION ........................................ 66
2.1. Definitions of Decision Making ..................................................................................... 66
2.2. The Process of Decision Making ................................................................................... 66
2.3. Factors Influencing Decision Making ................................................................................ 66
UNIT 3 .......................................................................................................................................... 67
3. CONCEPT AND MEANING OF MOTIVATION .................................................................. 67
3.1. Theories of Motivation ...................................................................................................... 67

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 3.1.1. Theories of Motivation that Focus on Needs (Content Approach) ............................. 67
3.1.2. Theories of Motivation / Process Approach ........................................................... 71
UNIT 4 .......................................................................................................................................... 74
4. CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS OF LEADERSHIP ............................................................. 74
4.1. Leadership Theories ........................................................................................................... 74
4.1.1. Trait Theories .............................................................................................................. 74
4.1.2. Behavioral Theories .................................................................................................... 75
4.1.3. Situational Leadership Theory .................................................................................... 75
UNIT 5 .......................................................................................................................................... 76
5. WORK AND TEACHER ASSIGNMENT .............................................................................. 76
5.1. Meaning of Work assignment ............................................................................................ 76
5.1.1. The aspects of the Assignment of Work ..................................................................... 76
5.1.2. Variations in Work Assignments: depends on: ........................................................... 76
5.2. Teacher Assignment........................................................................................................... 77

Part Three: Human Resource Management in Education …………….………..80

Part Four: Finance and Property Management in Education……… …….…100
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 110

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PART ONE: (Introduction to Educational
Management)

5
UNIT 1

1.BASIC CONCEPTS OF ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

Different authors define management in many different ways. As they suggested Management is
the process of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling the work of organization
members and of using all available organizational resources to reach stated organizational goals.
It is the art of getting things done with and through others. Generally management is a process,
composed of some basic functions for getting the objectives of any organization accomplished
through and with the efforts of its personnel.
1.1. Concept and Definition of Organization
As human being always we shaped our activities and behavior by organizations. Schools,
colleges and universities, hospitals, local state and central governments, manufacturing and,
clubs, societies, cultural, social and professional bodies are some of the organizations which
most of us have to deal in life. Several scholars define organization in different way. But
commonly Organization can define as is “a system of consciously coordinated personal activities
or forces of two or more persons”. And Organizations are social units deliberately constructed
and reconstructed to seek specific goals.

1.2. Characteristics of Modern Organizations

 Social Entities: Organizations exist to serve the needs of people. An organization comes
into being when: There are persons able to communicate with each other; Who are
willing to contribute action; and To accomplish a common purpose
 Large Sized: Modern organizations are invariably large sized. The field of their activities
has been increasing consistently over the past few decades.
 Complex: The ever expanding/ diversifying scope and array of functioning have
elaborated procedure and added to ramifications to a decision.
 Work towards a Purpose: Cooperative endeavor is directed towards accomplishing a
preset, mutually agreed purpose.
 Set Pattern of Behavior: Hierarchy structures behavior within an organization. Limits
of positional authority at each level are clearly stipulated.
 Continuing System: an organization is a continuing consistent system which modifies/
adjusts but does not eclipse.

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  Differentiation: Task specialization and hierarchical levels lead to differentiation. There
is task differentiation, and status differentiation accompanies task differentiation.
 Co-ordination: Coherence is the watchword for smooth functioning of any enterprise.
Conscious Rationality: Organizing is also an academic venture. Hence it has been
explained as “Co-operative rational action”.
 Import–Conversion–Export: The organization is related to its substratum
(environment).
1.3.What is Management? Its Nature and Aspects

Different authors define management in many different ways. As they suggested and mostly
agreed Management is the process of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling the
work of organization members and of using all available organizational resources to reach stated
organizational goals. It is the art of getting things done with and through others.
1.4. The Management Dilemmas
1.4.1. Management Vs Administration
There have been controversies in the conceptual difference between the terms “management”
and “administration”. For many writers in the field, management and administration are roughly
synonyms. For some writer, however, there are some conceptual differences. Accordingly, the
following concepts are slightly considered by some writers while using these two terms:

The term management is referred to organization in business-oriented institutions, while the term
administration is used for others, none business oriented institutions. Another distinction
between administration and management relates with outcome orientation of enterprise. That is,
the term administration is used in organizations which have no explicit results to achieve, while
the term management is used in organizations which have explicit results to achieve.

For some scholars the conceptual differences between the term administration and management
is that the later concerns with the overall determination of major policies and objectives, while
the former is conceived as an executive function that concerns with carrying out of policies lay
down by administration. In other words, administration lays down original objective, and broad
policies under which management operates to achieve those objectives. In this sense, therefore,
management is a technical aspect rather than the policy-forming aspect of administration. For
most writers, however, the term management and administration are used interchangeably.

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1.4.2. Is Management Science or an Art?
Science is a systematized body of knowledge pertaining to an area of study and contains some
general truths explaining past events or phenomena. In other words, the science of management
provides a body of principles or laws for guidance in the solution of scientific management
problems and in the objective evaluation of results. The analysis of basic management functions
has led to the development or certain principles which can be applied as general guides for
solving concrete problems in the future.

On the hand, the art of management deals with the application of skill and effort for producing
desirable results or situations in specific cases. The art of management, to be effective, must be
grounded in the knowledge of principles. Fundamental principles always react up on the art and
shape the way of doing specific things. That is, the science and art are interrelated and
complementary. With every increase in the knowledge of science, the art is bound to be
improved. The science and art of management are thus interwoven and overlapping in nature.
Moreover, since of management involves dealing with people, human efforts, it is not as easy as
dealing with lifeless objects. Managerial activities calls up on skills developed by experience and
forward the necessary judgment when the scientific aspects fell to be applicable to the issue put
in to the gear. Therefore, the use of art and science is not mutually exclusive, rather they are
complementary.
Therefore, it is understood that management is both a science and an art. That is to say,
management as practice is an art; the organized knowledge underlying the practice is referred to
as a science. In general, management as a science accumulate knowledge and facts, focuses on
principles, teaches people to know, and deals with theory. As an art, applies knowledge and
facts, focuses on techniques, teaches people to do, and deals with practices.
1.4.3. Management Vs Leadership

Management is defined as the process of working with and through individuals (and/or groups)
and other resources (Such as equipment, capital, and technology) to accomplish organizational
goals. The achievement of organizational objectives through leadership is management.
Management is a special kind of leadership in which the achievement of organizational goals is
paramount.

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Leadership occurs whenever one person attempts to influence the behavior of an individual or
group, regardless of the reason. It may be for one‟s own goals or for the goals of others and these
goals may or may not be congruent with organizational goals.
Management and leadership are often thought of as one and the same thing. However, there is an
important distinction between the two. The distinction between management and leadership was
given by W. Bennis as follows: In summary: The distinction between management and
leadership was given by W. Bennis as follows: Table 1.
Managers / Management Leaders/ Leadership
The manager administrates The leader innovates
The manager is a copy The leader is an original
The manager maintains; The leader develops
The manager focuses on system and structure The leader focuses on people
The manager relies on control‟ The leader inspires trust.
The manager has a short-range view The leader has long-range perspective
The manager asks how and when The leader asks what and why
The manager has an eye on the bottom line The leader has an eye on the horizon
The manager imitates; The leader originates
The manager accepts the statuesque; The leader challenges it
Mangers do things right leaders do the right things

1.5. Levels and Skills of Management

1.5.1. Levels of Management

Managers are people in an organization who hold positions of authority and make decisions
about the allocation of resources. Managers may also be defined as those people in an
organization who are responsible to carry out major activities of management. Managers from
hierarchical positions divided in to top-level managers, middle level managers and first
line/supervisory level managers.
1) Top Level Management: - This is the management level at the top of organizational
hierarchy. Top-level managers are involved in very broad issues of organization such as
strategic planning, policy making and other strategic issues. They do also control the
activities of middle level managers.
2) Middle Level Management:- At the middle of organizational hierarchy there are middle
level managers. Middle level managers are concerned with interpreting the strategic plans
and police set down by top-level managers and communicate down to lower level

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 managers. They are also responsible for organizing and controlling the activities of lower
level managers and communicate with their immediate managers (top level managers).
They serve as a bridge between top level and first line managers.
3) First Line Management:- Managers at this level, manage the activities of the organization
at the grassroots level. They are managers who are directly involved in the day-to-day
activities of the organization. These managers are the only managers who do not manage
other mangers.
1.5.2. Skills of Management
In order to perform the functions of management and to assume multiple roles, manager must be
skilled. Accordingly there are three managerial skills that are essential to successful
management: technical, human, and conceptual skills.
1. Technical skill: It refers to the ability to use tools, techniques, or approaches in a specialized
manner. It implies an understanding of proficiency in a specific kind of activity particularly one
involving methods, processes, procedures or techniques. Technical skill involves specialized
knowledge, analytical ability within that specialty, and facility in the use of the tools and
techniques of the specific discipline. In education, technical skill assumes an understanding of
proficiency in the methods, procedures, and techniques of the teaching-learning activities. In non
instructional areas it also includes specific knowledge in finance, accounting, scheduling,
purchasing, construction and maintenance.
Hence, for the manager, the nurture of technical skills has two folds. First, the manager should
have developed some expertise in the work being clone. Secondly, he/she should have the skills
requisite for managing the work being done.
2. Human skill:- it refers to the ability to integrate and coordinate the organization‟s activities as
a whole. This skill is related with the ability to see the “total picture”, how different parts of the
organization fit together and depend on each other, and how a change.
Conceptual skill is used for abstract, reflective thinking, and for the concept development
involved in planning (creative strategy formulation) and policy making. Therefore, it involves
the formulation of ideas. Thus, technical skill deals with things, human skill concerns about
people, and conceptual skill has to do with ideas.
In summary, educational managers, like the rest of their counterparts deal with people (i.e.,
students, teachers, family, clerks, etc), they have to relate schools to other organizations in the

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environment. Hence, the skill required of them in working with others to be an effective group
member and to be able to build cooperation within the team they lead (i.e. human skill), and
ability to recognize the inter relationships of the various factors involved in the situation (i.e. the
conceptual skill) tend to be similar to that of the managers in other types of organizations. The
difference in their activities seems to lie more in the mechanisms of the particular job for which
they are responsible (i.e. the technical skill).
Whereas organization and management in all organizations has similarities in most of its general
processes, it varies from organization to organization particularly in the technical skills required.
1.6. Managerial Functions

Management functions are a set of interrelated activities and sometimes called management
process. Regardless of the type of organizations, all managers have certain basic functions: -
planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. See them in detail in unit 3.

Planning

Controlling Organizin
Manageri
al
Functions
Staffing
Directing

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1.7. Managerial Roles

The term management role refers to behaviors attributed to a job or positions. It represents
specific tasks that managers undertake to ultimately accomplish managerial functions. Henry
Mintzberg(1973) has identified ten roles common to the work of all managers. These roles are
divided into three groups: interpersonal, informational, and decisional roles. The performance of
managerial roles and the requirements of these roles can be played at different times by the same
manager and to different degrees depending on the level and function of management. The ten
roles are described individually, but they form an integrated whole.
1. The interpersonal roles ensure that information is provided. The three interpersonal roles are
primarily concerned with interpersonal relationships.
a. The figurehead role: the manager represents the organization in all matters of formality.
School director, for example, represents the school legally and socially to those outside of
the organization. The department heads represents the department members to higher
management and higher management to the work group.
b. The liaison role: the manger interacts with people within and outside the organization. The
top level manager uses the liaison role to gain favors and information, while the
supervisor uses it to maintain the routine flow of work.
c. The leader role: defines the relationships between the manger and employees.
2. The informational roles link all managerial work together. The direct relationships with
people in the interpersonal roles place the manager in a unique position to get information.
Thus, the three informational roles are primarily concerned with the information aspects of
managerial work. These are:
d. The monitor role: the manager receives and collects information.
e. The role of disseminator: the manager transmits special information into the organization.
The top level manager receives and transmits more information from people outside the
organization than the supervisor.
f. The role of spokesperson: the manager disseminates the organization's information into its
environment. Thus, the top level manager is seen as an industry expert, while the
supervisor is seen as a unit or departmental expert.

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3. The decisional roles make significant use of the information. Here, The unique access to
information places the manager at the center of organizational decision making. There are four
decisional roles.
g. The entrepreneur role: the manager initiates change.
h. The disturbance handler role: the manger deals with threats to the organization.
i. The resource allocator role: the manager chooses where the organization will expand its
efforts.
j. The negotiator role: the manager negotiates on behalf of the organization. The top level
manager makes the decisions about the organization as a whole, while the supervisor
makes decisions about his or her particular work unit.

1.8. Unique Features of Educational Organization and Management

Educational management is a field of study and practice concerned with the operation of
educational organizations. Most authors have argued consistently that educational management
has to be centrally concerned with the purpose of education (Bush, 2003). These purposes or
goals provide the crucial sense of direction to underpin the management of educational
institutions. In this regard Campbell John (1970, has identified six factors that distinguish
educational organization and its management from other organization.
1) Crucially to society: Educational institutions are unique in the range (type) of their functions,
and centrality of relationships to other social institutions. Social services (such as health,
construction, water supply of other economic sectors) require qualified manpower, the training of
which is carried by educational institutions. In addition to this, educational institutions are
charged with the responsibility for socialization (way of life), political system and culture of the
society. Hence, educational supervisors should know that school organizations are very unique
institutions that act efficiently to satisfy the needs of other organization of society at large.

2) Public visibility and sensitivity: School and its activities are visible to society more than any
other organizations. Society is also sensitive to educational institutions more than other
organization because of the contribution of education to the overall development of a nation. So,
educational managers should be sensitive to the different members of the community. And this
requires them to create intimate relationship with individuals and groups in the community.

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3) Complexity of functions: In school organizations, educational administrator deals with many
people: teachers, non- teaching personnel, students, and members of the community. These
people have different individual and group interests. This makes the functions of educational
administrator very difficult.

4) Intimacy of necessary relationship: In school organizations there is intimate relationship

among school personnel, in between school personnel and community. It is obvious that this
intimacy maximizes behavioral problems. As a result of this the organization and management of
educational institutions demand competent leaders who can deal with various problems.

5) Difficulty in appraisal: The school is charged with the responsibility of bringing about a
desirable change of behavior in the learner. Unlike products of other organizations changes in
behavior of people are not immediately or easily attainable. Since behavioral changes may not be
manifested in a short- period of time, supervisors have to know that teachers and educational
administrator are in a difficulty to appraise or measure the degree of performance.

6) Staff Professionalization: More than other service-giving organizations, schools comprise

professionally trained man-power. In such a case, personal disposition (qualities and characters)
of the staff are affected by different factors such as professional values, superior intelligence, and
communication. Hence, supervisors in schools must pay greater attention to personal dispositions
in the school than supervisors in other organizations.

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UNIT 2

2. EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

In 19th century the industrial revolution has transformed the job of manager from owner-manager
to professional, salaried manager. Prior to industrialization, almost all of the Western Europe
including United States was predominantly an agricultural society and the manufactured goods
was in its handicraft stage which was consisted of household manufacturing, small shops, and
local mills. The inventions, machines, and processes of the Industrial Revolution transformed the
then organizations. With the industrial innovations the factory-produced goods, transportation,
and distribution, big business came into being. New ideas and techniques were required for
managing these large-scale corporate enterprises. However, there are management practices,
principles and techniques developed in earlier time by military and church organizations as well
as other pioneer contributors. In the first part of this unit, you will learn about the pre classical
management period and its contributions to the development of management.
2.1. Pre Classical Management Period
The pre scientific management period includes the time from cooperative efforts up to the
approach to study management scientifically (up to about 1889s). Very little is known about the
philosophies of early managers, but there were organizations and individual contributors to the
pre industrial period like military organizations, Roman Catholic Church, the Camera lists,
Robert Owen , Charles Babbage and others.
Many major accomplishments such as: the building of the pyramids of Egypt, and the great wall
of china- indicated the existence and application of considerable skills in the various
management functions of ancient time. Therefore, it is possible to say that many of the principles
of management which are true today were in one or the other form in old civilization. The
following are some of the major contributors of Pre-classical era:
The following are some of the major contributors of Pre-classical era:
a) The Roman catholic Church contributed the following:-
 The development of hierarchy of authority.
 The specialization of activities along functional lines,
 The early use of staff device for efficiency
b) The Military Organizations contributed terms like-superior, subordinate, line, staff, etc.

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 c) The Camera lists: A group of camera lists from Austria and German public management
(16th up to 18th centuries), have given emphasis on:-
 The principles of specialization of functions
 The selection and training of subordinates for administrative positions;
 The establishment of the office of controller in the government organizations.
Contributions of Robert Owen (1771-1858) to Management
The basic challenge facing management in the early years of the industrial revolution was that of
developing rational and scientific principles for handling human and non-human resources. How
to increase productivity by making the work easier to perform and how to motivate the workers
to take advantage of these new methods are two forms of the challenge. Robert Owen was one of
those individuals who developed approaches for meeting these challenges and laid the
foundation for scientific management.

The specific problems that won the attention of Owen were:

a. Exploitation of child labor

b. Poor working conditions, and
c. Brutal labor exploitation.
Owen believed that this challenge could be tackled by understanding human nature. He
approached to solve these problems by instituting work reforms as follows:

 No children under age ten were employed, instead they were sent to school.
 Working hours per day was limited to 10:45
 Provided improved facilities such as meal, evening recreation, schooling, housing,
and through his personal influence thought thrift, cleanliness, and order.
 Opened a store where goods could be bought at fewer price.
 Forbid punishment of employees.
Generally he showed great concern to the human side of organizations. Owing to this, Owen is
described as a social reformer. He is also called as father of modern Personnel management.
Contributions of Charles Babbage (1792-1871) to Management
Charles Babbage was another thinker who contributed to the development of management
thought. He was also faced with the same challenge that Owen faced. Babbage paid particular
attention to methods that would increase efficiency of the workers. However, the approach he

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used was different from that of Owen. He believed that by systematically studying the operations
of factories and management could find out ways to improve efficiency. He visited many British
factories to observe their operations. During these visits, he examined manufacturing processes,
tools, skills, and machinery to find ways to improve efficiency. He was a devoted proponent of
division of labor, economies of scale in manufacturing, incentive pay, and profit sharing.

Contributions of Henri Varnum Poor (1855)

Poor was the editor of the “American Rail Road Journal” in the latter half of the nineteenth
century. From his capacity, he closely watched and analyzed the maladministration of the rail
road system and ultimately came up with certain recommendations. Some of the
recommendations he give, which night be termed as modern, were the following.
 Clear organizational structure in which people have clear responsibility and can be held
accountable.
 Clear communication and reporting system
 Maintaining feeling of unity, appreciation of work and esprit de corps (team spirit).

In general, since the socio-economic, technical and legal environment had not provided the
necessary condition to concentrate on the improvement of organizational management, the
developments attained before the twentieth century did not involve integrated efforts to study
management scientifically. By the end of the 19thc, the stage was set for a group of people to
tackle management problems in a systematic manner.
2.2. The Classical Approach to Management

The classical approach to organization is the first concentrated and well- though- out effort to
develop a body of administrative /organization theory. The foundation for this school of thought
was laid down by earlier contributors.
A classical approach is a perspective on management that emphasizes on finding "one best way"
to manage work and organization.
The classical approaches consist primarily of three streams of thoughts. These include
1. Scientific management approach: it is mainly concerned with productivity and the jobs of
workers at lower level of organization. Scientific management theory consists of the work
of Frederick .W. Taylor, Frank and Lillian Gilbreth , Henry Gantt and Emerson etc.

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2. Administrative management /classical organization theory: this theory concerns with the
whole administration of an organization. It emphasizes on universally applicable
administrative principles. The primary contributor to this theory is Henri Fayol and some
other scholars like Gulick and Urwick
3. Bureaucratic organization theory: the main concern of this theory is setting a guideline for
structuring organizations in the most efficient manner. The major contributor to
bureaucratic theory is Max Weber. He Identified bureaucracy as an ideal form of
organization structure.
1. Scientific Management: Getting the most out of Workers( Taylor's Concept of
Management)
Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The principal
object of management, according to Taylor is to secure the maximum prosperity for the
employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity for each employee. His philosophy of scientific
management is that there is no inherent conflict in the interest of the employers, workers and
consumers. The primary concern of Taylor was that results of higher productivity should equally
benefit all people i.e., workers, employers and consumers in the shape of higher wages to the
workers, greater profits to the management and payment of lower prices for the products by the
consumers. Taylor observed that management neglected its functions and shifted its burden to
the labor while keeping for itself minor responsibilities. He advised that management should take
the responsibility for determining standards, planning work, organizing, controlling and devising
incentive schemes.
Principles of Scientific Management
Taylor‟s philosophy of management was based on mutual interests and on four basic principles
of scientific management:
 Development of a true science
 Scientific selection of the workmen
 Scientific education and development of workmen and
 Intimate and friendly cooperation between the management and the men.
a. Development of a True Science
When science is viewed as an organized knowledge every act of workmen can be reduced to a
science. In the interest of the worker and management, it is necessary to know as to what

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constitutes a fair day's work. It saves the worker from unnecessary criticism of the boss, and
enables the management to get the maximum work from worker. This needs a scientific
investigation of a large daily task to be done by qualified workers under optimum conditions.
This can be done by gathering traditional knowledge of the workers, which is his lifelong fixed
capital and a most valuable property. The results of investigation have to be classifies and a most
valuable property. The results of investigation have to be classified, tabulated and reduced into
rules and laws to find out the ideal working methods or what is called 'one best way of doing
job". Such development of science of work enables the organization to produce more; enables
the worker to receive higher wages and a much larger profit to the company.
b. Scientific selection of the workmen
To ensure effective performance of the scientifically developed work, there is also need to select
the worker scientifically possessing physical and intellectual qualities. This needs a deliberate
study of the aptitude, nature and performance of the worker and finding out what possibilities
and limitations one has for future development. Taylor believed that every worker has
potentialities for development. He insisted that every worker must be systematically and
thoroughly trained. Taylor felt that it is the responsibility of the management to develop the
worker offering him opportunities for advancement to do the job to the fullest realization of his
natural capacities. It is necessary to ensure that the employees accept the new methods, tools and
conditions willingly and enthusiastically.
c. Scientific education and development of workmen
To enable the worker to do his job and to ensure that he may not slip back to the earlier methods
of doing work, there must be somebody to inspire the workers. This Taylor felt is the exclusive
responsibility of the management. He believed that workers are always willing to cooperate with
the management, but there is more opposition from the side of management. Taylor maintained
that this process of bringing together causes the mental revolution.
d. Intimate and friendly cooperation between the management and the men
In the traditional management theory, the worker bore the entire responsibility for work and
management had lesser responsibility between management and worker. This division of work
creates between them an understanding and mutual dependence. There will also be constant and
intimate cooperation between them. All this resulted in elimination of conflicts and strikes.

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However, none of these principles could be isolated and called scientific management. it is a
combinations of all elements described above. The philosophy of these principles may be
summarized as under:
 Science, not a rule of thumb;
 Harmony, not discord
 Cooperation, not individualism
 Maximum output, in place of restricted output; and
 Development with greatest efficiency and prosperity
Taylor doubled the efficacy of the linear system or the military type of organization in which
each worker is subordinate to only one boss. He replaced this system with what is called
functional foremanship in which the worker receives orders from eight narrowly specialized
supervisors. Thus he divided work not only among workers, but also all the supervisory level.
Of the eight functional bosses four will be responsible for planning and the remaining four for
execution.
The order of work and route clerk, the instruction card clerk, the time and cost clerk, and the
shop disciplinarian are the four planning bosses.
The gang-boss, the repair boss, speed boss and inspector are the four execution functional
bosses. Taylor believed that in this functional type of organization, the foreman can be trained
quickly and specialization becomes very easy. This concept of division of work between
planning and execution was subsequently incorporated in the staff specialist in line and staff
concept. Taylor also specified nine qualities, which will make a good foreman. They are
education, special / technical knowledge, manual dexterity and strength, tact, energy, grit,
honesty, judgment and good health.
In general, Taylor thought that, to find the best way, workers‟ performance of a task should be
examined scientifically, objectively, and in great detail, using an empirical and experimental
approach. Only then could a more productive way of doing the job be found. After finding the
“one best way” of performing a job, the manager should then teach it to the workers. He also
thought that an incentive system rewarding fast workers and penalizing slow workers would
encourage them to adopt the new system quicker. Moreover, he believed that scientific methods
would eventually replace intuition and rule-of-thumb, which had been used in organizations up
until then.

20
Their focus was to find ways to eliminate waste and discovery of the „one best way‟ of doing
works. They spent their lives searching for the “one best way” to perform tasks. The Gilbreths
were particularly concerned with minimizing hand movements in physical tasks. For example,
they broke down hand motions into seventeen separate movements (called therbligs Gilbreth
spelled backwards with the th transposed). Each of these movements was analyzed on film to
determine if effort was wasted. Gilbreths made their greatest contribution in the area of time and
motion study. Their work led to today‟s job simplification, meaningful work standards, and
incentive pay plans. They developed an improved method for laying bricks that required
significantly fewer body motions and increased threefold the number of bricks a person could lay
in a day.
In areas other than time and motion study, the Gilbreths developed the “white list” personnel
card system that was the forerunner of today‟s merit-rating systems. They also tried to simplify
the English alphabet, the typewriter keyboard, and spelling. They also investigated into worker
fatigue and its effect on productivity.
Henry Gantt
The place of Henry Gantt (1861 1919) in history was imprinted during his fourteen-year
association with F. Taylor, first as an engineer at the Midvale Steel Works and later at Simonds
Rolling Machine Company and Bethlehem Steel.
F.B. and L.M. Gilbreth
Frank Bunker Gilbreth (1868 - 1924) and his wife, Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878 -1972) were
contemporaries of Taylor and important part of the original scientific management pioneers.
Although Gantt became an important disciple of Taylor, his approach to organizational problems
often differed and their points of view often clashed. The following are some of the areas where
they differed:
Unlike Taylor‟s plan, Gantt‟s task and bonus plan system did not penalize workers who failed to
complete their work in the allotted time.
Unlike Taylor‟s incentive plan, Gantt‟s plan also provided bonuses for supervisors. Each
supervisor was given a bonus for every worker who met the standard, plus an extra bonus if all
workers did so. This plan was the first financial reward for supervisors who taught workers
proper work methods. Gantt focused on the time to finish a given job whereas Taylor focused on
the quantity of produce.

21
The following are the major ones among Gantt‟s contributions:
Task and bonus plan. This is a pay system where workers received a bonus for completing all of
their daily tasks. Bonus was also awarded to supervisors who were successful in getting all of
their subordinates to meet the output goal.
Training of personnel. Gantt claimed that workers should be trained to produce more.
Social responsibility management. This is a concept emphasizing that management should not
only be responsible to the owners interest but also to the needs of the society in general.
Gantt chart. This is a graphic method of depicting plans and control of activities performance.
Along the horizontal axis time, work scheduled, and works completed are measured. The vertical
axis identifies the individuals, and machines assigned to these work schedules. The chart
provides effective planning and control techniques.
Criticisms on the Theory of Scientific Management
The theory however has been subjected to a number of criticisms: -
 Labor‟s negative reaction (the workers become a mere cog in the wheel) was a major
impediment in the continuation and vindication of the theoretical postulates of scientific
management. Trade Unions were against the modern methods of increasing output by the
introduction of the premium bones system. They saw the theory as destroying not only
trade unionism but also the principle of collective bargaining as they apprehended a
marked increase in unemployment as a result of
 It was a micro theory as it concentrated only on the shop floor level.
 Even managers had reservations, in that those who wanted quick promotions to high
managerial positions without any merit based on higher education opposed Taylor, who
advocated training by highly trained experts.
 It neglected the social environment as a variable in determining worker motivation and
level of production.
 It promoted individualism instead of team spirit.
 It was felt that specialization makes the worker unfit for other types of job, and places him
at the mercy of his employer. The employee grows as an individual and gets adapted
(mechanically) to certain routine type of jobs.
 It is difficult to develop proper team spirit with scientific management precepts. If planning
is totally divorced from execution, it is difficult to secure the participation of workers in

22
 the progress of the firm. Also, planning and execution are separate aspects of the same job;
they cannot be totally divorced.
 This theory considered man as solely driven by economic concerns. This was criticized as
an oversimplification of worker motivation
 The scientific management avoided the human element and was mechanical in nature; man
was reduced to being a mere cog in the machine.
 It ignores the average worker. Because of tough competition a worker is hard pressed to be
increasingly efficient and productive.
Scientific Management and its Impact on Education
Although some have questioned whether scientific management is suitable only for
manufacturing, Taylor himself advocated scientific management for all sorts of work, including
the management of universities and government School system. Accordingly, scientific
management was applied in education system in the following ways:

 Educational objectives were re-examined (liberal to vocational).

 Curricula were modified to become practical and vocational.
 School organizational patterns were changed to double and triple session,
departmentalization were introduced.
 New classroom teaching methods and testing procedures were introduced, tests were
more standardized.
 Supervision was made more “scientific” by the use of detailed rating devices to measure
the efficiency of teachers and principals.
 Accounting methods were tightened and school budgets were scrutinized to eliminate
wasteful expenditures.
2. Administrative Management Theory: Getting the Most out of Management
The second major sub-field within the classical/traditional view is known as the administrative
management theory. Scientific management was aimed at improving the efficiency and
productivity of workers; consequently, it provided little guidance for managers above the
supervisory level. But, realizing the importance of efficient operations at all organizational
levels, theorists began to focus on organizations as a whole.
The administrative management was based on three fundamental aspects; the division of work,

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the application of an administrative process and the formulation of technical criteria that must
orient the administrative function.
Henri Fayol

Perhaps the single greatest contributor to the field of classical administrative theory was Henri
Fayol (1841 - 1925), the French industrialist now considered the “father of modern
management theory.”
Fayol primarily attempted to categorize all activities in business undertakings. He concluded
that activities in business undertakings could be grouped into six essential groups:
i. Technical (production, manufacture, adaptation)
ii. Commercial (buying, selling, exchange)
iii. Financial (finding, acquiring, and using capital optimally)
iv. Security (protection of people and property)
v. Accounting (costing, preparation and analysis of financial statements)
vi. Managerial (planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling).
Fayol held that these six groups of activities are always present in any undertaking (simple or
complex). He asserted that these activities are interdependent and it is management‟s role to
ensure that the smooth working of all activities in order to achieve enterprise goals. However, he
noted that managerial activities had been the most neglected aspects of business operations.
Fayol and his followers advocated the idea that management was a universal function that could
be defined in terms of the various processes. He emphasized that the managerial principles that
he developed could be applicable not only to business but also to governmental, military,
religious, and other organizations. The following is a summary of his fourteen principles.
1. Division of work: There should be division of work/specialization in order to increase
organizational efficiency through repeated operation. Division of labor encompasses three
basic concepts:
 Breaking down a task into its components,
 Training workers to become specialists in specific duties, and
 Putting activities in sequence so that one person‟s efforts build on another‟s
2. Authority and responsibility: Authority is the right to give directives or to command action.
This right rests in the job the manager holds in an organization. Responsibility, on the other
hand, is a sense of obligation that goes with authority. Authority should be delegated only to

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subordinates who are willing to assume commensurate responsibility.
3. Discipline: Employees and employers of an organization are required to perform their function
in relation to others, respect the laws, norms and customs, and agreements that govern the
organization. Obedience and respect can help the organization run smoothly and be successful.
Discipline can be maintained by:
 Having good superiors at all levels.
 Agreements those are clear and fair.
 Penalties appropriately imposed in case of insubordination.
4. Unity of command: An employee should receive directives from only one superior regarding a
particular operation. Violating this principle undermines authority and jeopardizes discipline and
stability.
5. Unity of direction: All activities geared toward achieving the same objective should be
directed and controlled by one person. This improves coordination and ensures that energies are
channeled in the proper direction.
6. Subordination of individual to general interest: The overall interest of the firm is more
important than the interest of any person or group of people who work for it.
7. Remuneration of personnel: Wages should be fair and equitable to both the workers and the
company.
8. Centralization:Centralization and its counterpart, decentralization, mean how much authority
is concentrated at the top of an organization or dispersed throughout the management hierarchy.
The question of centralization or decentralization is a question of proportion. It is important to
find the optimal degree of each in an organization.
9. Scalar chain: Often called the chain of command, this is the line of managers from highest to
lowest in an organization. All organizational requests and directives must follow this chain. The
only time a departure from the chain of command can be tolerated is when the welfare of the
organization is at stake.
10. Order: Order refers to the right person on the right job and everything in its proper place.
Both material things and people should be in their right place.
11. Equity: Subordinates should be treated with justice, kindness, and fairness at all levels. This
develops their devotion and loyalty to the enterprise.
12. Stability of tenure of personnel: Experienced, well-trained managers and workers are crucial

25
to the success of a business, so a stable work force should be maintained. Some turnover,
however, is expected and desirable. Retirement, death, illness, and job promotions lead to
turnover.
13. Initiative: Fayol defined initiative as the ability to think through and develop a plan of action
without any external pressure. He believed that the most capable managers must instill this
attribute in their subordinates.
14. Esprit de corps: In union, there is strength. All members of an organization should work
together harmoniously to achieve a common goal. The job of the manager is to “coordinate
effort, encourage keenness, use each man‟s abilities, and reward each one‟s merit without
arousing possible jealousies and disturbing harmonious relations.”
It‟s important to note that Fayol considered the principles to be flexible and adaptable - not rigid
rules. Moreover, he pointed out that there is no limit to the number of management principles
that can improve an organization‟s operation.
3. Bureaucratic organization theory (Max Weber and the Bureaucracy)
Weber (1864 – 1920) is a German sociologist who was mainly concerned with the issue of how
organizations are structured. His fundamental emphasis was on outlining the characteristics of
what he termed bureaucratic structures. Weber basically sought bureaucracy as a method of
structuring and improving the performance of social organizations. He believed that any goal-
oriented organization consisting of thousands of individuals require carefully controlled
regulation of its activity. Authority exists as long as it is accepted as legitimate by the ruled. An
organization thus can rule or administer only when it has legitimacy. Explaining the authority of
different kinds in various organizations, Weber concluded "all administration means
domination". Weber defined administration as domination or exercises it as service or
performance of duty. He prescribed three states of legitimacy each with a different type of
apparatus to justify the power of command. These are:
a) Legal authority: Manifestations of legal authority are found in organizations where rules
are applied judicially and in accordance with ascertainable principles valid for all members
in the organization. The members who exercise the power are the superiors and area
appointed or elected by legal procedures to maintain the legal order.
b) Traditional authority: Traditional authority derives its legitimacy from the acceptance of it
since hoary past. The person exercising authority generally is called Masters who enjoy the

26
 personal authority by virtue of their inherited status. Their commands carry legitimacy
because of the customs but they can also give orders based on their personal arbitrariness are
two characteristics of traditional authority. The persons who obey the orders here are called
Followers. They carry out the commands of the master out of sheer personal loyalty and a
pious regard for his time honored status. In this particular patrimonial regime the persons
who carry out the orders are personal retainers, household officials, relatives, favorites of the
masters.
c) Charismatic authority: The power exercised by the leader - maybe a prophet, a hero, or a
demagogue - substantiating the claim by virtue of his magical powers or heroism or other
extraordinary gift or qualities. Charisma and its acceptance form the basis of legitimacy in
this system. The persons who receive the commands obey the leader because they believe in
his extraordinary abilities rather than the stipulated rules or the dignity of a position. The
charismatic leader selects his disciples / followers as his officials based purely on their
personal devotion to him rather than on their special qualification or status.
Characteristics of Weber’s ideal bureaucracy
The six essential characteristics of Weber‟s ideal bureaucracy are summarized as follows.
1. Clear-cut division of work: labor is divided with clear definitions of authority and
responsibility that are legitimized as official duties.
2. Managerial hierarchy: positions are organized in a hierarchy of authority, with each position
under the authority of a higher one.
3. Formal selection: all personnel are selected and promoted based on technical qualifications,
which are assessed by examination or according to training and experience.
4. Separation: management is separate from the ownership of the organization.
5. Formal rules and regulations: all employees are administered through well-defined formal
rules and procedures. Administrative acts and decisions are recorded in writing. Record keeping
provides organizational memory and continuity over time.
6. Impersonality: Impersonality of relationships between persons.

Merits of Bureaucracy

As you could have observed, the ideal bureaucracy has the following advantages:
 Division of labor will lead to increased efficiency.

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 Hierarchy of authority: it develops a clear chain of command that extends from the highest to
the lowest level of the enterprise.
 Employees can be hired and promoted based on merit system and expertise.
 The hiring of professionals based on career orientation leads to continuity of operations.
 Enterprise efficiency will increase as formal rules and controls relating to employee
performance are enforced.
 It protects workers from arbitrary dismissal and avoids the involvement of personalities.
Demerits of Bureaucracy
 Rules and controls may take on significance of their own, as a result become ends in them.
Recordkeeping and paper work become more important in its own than as a means to the
end.
 Extreme devotion to rules and procedures may lead to blind repetition of past decisions
without concern for changed conditions. It results in managers to be paid for doing only what
they are told, not for thinking. When the situation is not covered by the existing rules and
procedures, managers are inflexible and cannot adapt the changed circumstances.
 Decision making tend to be categorized or choices are previously programmed. This
discourages the search for further alternatives and initiatives. Workers are expected to work
to the prevailing rules and nothing more.
 Impersonal relations can lead to stereotype behavior and lack of responsiveness to individual
incidents or problems.
 While delegation of authority to lower levels may increase enterprise effectiveness, it may
also encourage an emphasis on sub-unit rather than overall enterprise goals, thereby
promoting sub-unit conflict and decreased effectiveness.
 As rules and controls define unacceptable behaviors, it is possible for workers to remain
apathetic, for they know just how little they can do and still remain secured.
2.3. Human Relations School of Management Thought
The Human Relations arose as a reaction against the „mechanistic‟ classical school, which
arguably made a major omission by not considering the human factor while theorizing on
administration. Personnel are the moving force of any organization. Technology alone cannot
bring about enhanced work output. Other factors need to be taken into account.

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Accordingly, the human relations movement in industry began with the research of Elton Mayo
and his associates in a series of studies carried out at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric
Company between 1927 and 1932. The background of the Hawthorne experiments provides an
interesting picture of the transition from scientific management to the early human relations
movement.
Hawthorne Study
The most important study conducted by the human relations is a series of studies carried out at
the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company. The stimulus for the Hawthorne
experiments resulted from earlier studies based on the scientific management tradition. Initially
the Hawthorne studies were to determine the effect of physical conditions on workers‟
productivity. Employees had been considered as mechanistic elements in the productive system.
Industrial engineers and psychologists made many investigations on the relationship of work
environment to productivity. Studies on fatigue, rest periods and physical surroundings were
prevalent during the early part of 20th century.

Elton may and his colleagues continued conducting further studies on the issue. The basic
studies by Mayo and his group took place over a five-year period and covered three phases:

i. The illumination experiment,

ii. The relay assembly test room experiment,
iii.The interviewing program, and
iv. The bank wiring observation room.
The first phase of the Hawthorne studies was the illumination experiment. At the Hawthorne
plant, the Western Electric Company initiated a study to determine the relationship between
intensity of illumination and productivity of workers.
However, the experiment failed to show any simple relationship between the intensity of
illumination and rate of output. In fact, when the engineers reversed the experiment and reduced
the illumination in the experimental room, instead of output declining as predicted, it actually
increased. This experiment suggested that variables other than physical conditions might be
affecting output. Psychological and sociological factors might have an important bearing not
only on worker motivation and attitude but on output as well.

The relay assembly test room experiment involved the prolonged observation of six women

29
making telephone assemblies. The objective of the research team was to determine the effects on
output of working conditions, length of working day, frequency and length of rest periods, and
other factors relating to the physical environment.
As these studies continued, it was found that, regardless of variations in these conditions,
production increased. Even more amazing, production continued to increase even after the
workers were returned to the original conditions with longer working days, without rest pauses,
and with poor surroundings. Mayo and his group hypothesized that the increased production was
a result of changes in social relations, motivation, and supervision of workers.
This experiment provided a break from the tradition of scientific management and industrial
psychology that held that illumination, work conditions, rest periods, fatigue, and other physical
and physiological variables combined with strong monetary incentives were the primary factors
influencing output and productivity. Social and psychological factors were now seen as
important in determining worker satisfaction and productivity.
The second stage of the Hawthorne studies was the interview program, in which over 21,000
people were interviewed during a three-year period. Although this phase of the program did not
lead to a quantifiable result, it did indicate the importance of humans and social factors in the
total work situation.
The third and final phase of the research program consisted of a study to observe and record
group behavior of workers. The bank wiring room study was an intensive observation of a small
work group of fourteen male operators for a period of six months. The informal work group
established production norms that were in conflict with those set forth by management. In spite
of the fact that the workers were paid on a group piecework incentive plan, each worker
restricted output, thereby reducing possible earnings. The work group established many other
types of social norms in addition to output standards. These norms set forth various roles for
individual workers and supervisory personnel.

The bank wiring room observations indicated the strength of the informal social organization
based on sentiments and feelings, status roles, and social interactions that were often far removed
from the formal; organizational policies and procedures.
The Contributions of the Human Relations School
The Hawthorne studies provided scientific verification for the changing view of many students
of industrial organizations. Early human relationists brought to the forefront the concept of the

30
organization as a social system encompassing individuals, informal groups, and intergroup
relationships as well as formal structure. In fact, this view put the human element back into the
organization – the aspect that the traditionalists had minimized.
Mayo and other early human relationists developed many concepts about human behavior in
organizations. The following are some of their ideas:
1. The business organization is a social system as well as a technical-economic system. This
social system defines individual roles and establishes norms that may be at variance with
those of the formal organization.
2. The individual is motivated by diverse social and psychological factors as well as
economic incentives. Behavior is affected by feelings, sentiments, and attitudes.
3. The informal work group is a focal unit of consideration. The group has an important role
in determining the attitudes and performance of individual workers.
4. Leadership patterns based on the formal structure and authority of position in the
organization under the traditional view should be modified substantially in order to
consider psychosocial factors. The human relations school emphasized “democratic”
rather than “authoritarian” leadership patterns.
5. Worker satisfaction is generally associated with productivity. The human relations school
emphasized that increasing satisfaction would lead to increased effectiveness.
6. Effective communication channels should be developed between the various levels in the
hierarchy to allow the exchange of information. Thus, “participation” became an
important approach of human relations movement.
7. Management requires effective social skills as well as technical skills.
8. Participants are motivated in the organization by having certain social psychological
needs fulfilled. In spite of the fact that the human relations school had a major impact on
management thought, there have been substantial weaknesses.
1. The human relation overemphasized the psychosocial aspects.
2. They viewed human relations in a closed system and did not consider economic,
political, and other environmental forces
3. They ignored the role of unions in industrial societies

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Educational Organizations and Human Relations Movement

The human relations thought brought into the field of education by the writings of John Dewey.
In his book „Democracy and Education‟ he advocated that an ideal school is a miniature society
in which students are best prepared for life, by living in a democratic climate. School according
to Dewey, should emphasize, above all, respect for individuality and increased freedom for
teachers and students. This school has also affected the thinking and practices of supervisor‟s
levels. Supervisors emphasize human relation concepts like: morale, group cohesiveness (unity),
collaboration, democratic administration, democratic supervision and dynamics of informal
organizations.

2.4. The Behavioral School of Management Thought

The Behavioral school (also called organizational theory movement or social science approach)
is a synthesis of classical and human relation schools with some modifications and additional
insights. That is, it does not reject the contributions of previous schools but suggests their
shortcomings.
Writers of this school are concerned with the description of actual conditions; they search for
what is rather than what should be. What makes this school of thought mainly different from the
previously discussed schools of thought is that it gave equal importance to employees‟ goal in an
organization and the goal of organization itself. In addition, it also deals with all types of
organizations: formal, and informal.
Behavioral school is a synthesis of both classical and human relation schools. But it considered
the classicalist as economic model and the human relationists‟ as a social model to be incomplete
representations of employees in the work setting. A number of writers attempted to show points
of conflict between classical and human relation schools theory, thus, the behavioral science
approach was emerged.
Contributors to Behavioral School of Management
Behavioral school is not a unified school of study; rather it is a contribution of different authors.
Some major authors of this school are discussed below.
Chester Bernard
He was one of the first authors to take the behavioral approach. His best- known idea about
management was the cooperative system. Cooperative system was an attempt to integrate human

32
relation management and classical management principles in a single framework. Barnard argued
that if cooperation and financial success are to be attained, the executive must meet two
conditions, effectiveness and efficiency. Effectiveness is the degree to which the common
purpose of the organization is achieved, while efficiency is the satisfaction of individual motives
of employees. His major focus was that an organization can operate and survives only when both
the organization's goals and the goals of the individuals working for it are kept in equilibrium.
E. Wight Bake
Another contributor to the behavioral approach was E.W. Bake. He views the organization as
embodying a fusion process. He argues that individual attempts to use the organization to further
her/his own goals, and organization also uses the individual to further its own goals. In this
fusion process, according to Bake, the organization remakes the individual to some degree which
is known as personalization process. Individual also remakes the organization which is known
as socialization process. This fusion of the “Personalization process” of the individual and the
"socialization process" of the organization is accomplished through the bonds of organization
which include formal organization, informal organization, the work flow, the task (s) to be
completed, and the system of rewards and punishments.
Jacob Getzels and Egon Guba
Another useful theoretical formulation for studying behavioral school management thought is the
social system analysis developed by Jacob Getzel, and Egon Gaba. These authors view social
system as involving two classes of phenomena which are dependent and interactive. The first on
is institution, which encompass certain roles and expectations that together constitute the
homothetic dimension of activates in the social system. The second phenomenon is individual
with certain personalities and need dispositions that together constitute the idiographic
dimension of activities in the social system. For Getzel and Guba, behavior in any social system
can be seen as a function of the infraction between personal needs and institutional goals.
According to the authors, conformity to the institution; its roles and its expansions results in
organization effectiveness, where as conformity to individuals; their personality, and the need's
positions results in individual efficiency.
2.5. The Contemporary Management Views

The previous thoughts considered their respective views as best and universally applicable. One
simply criticizes the other and rejects in its totality. They studied management by taking things

33
independently. They assumed that the whole is explained in terms of its parts. However,
beginning from world war-II and sometime in the 1960‟s, modern management theorists have
tried to integrate the findings of the scientific-management thoughts, administrative management
theories, and human relation movements to solve wartime problems. This section attempts to
integrate these different perspectives through two approaches: the systems approach and the
contingency theory of management and will try to treat some other recently evolving concepts of
management.
2.5.1 The Systems Approach:
The system approach has its roots in many disciplines. It was initially developed by a team of
mathematicians, physicists, sociologists, psychologists, operations researchers, biologists and
other. This diversity of origins makes the systems approach truly an integrative approach and
provides it with greater explanatory power than that of any of its constituent disciplines alone.
The approach unified the goods from all the previous management approaches and studied
management by putting things together. It assumes that the whole is greater than the sum of its
parts. A system is an organized unitary whole composed of two or more parts or subsystems
delineated by identifiable boundaries from its environments and established with purpose.

Key Concepts in the Systems Approach

 Subsystems or Components: A system by definition is composed of interrelated parts or ele-
ments. This is true for all systems - mechanical, biological, and social. Every system has at
least two elements, and these elements are interconnected.
 Holism: The simultaneous action of different parts of an open system functioning in a
harmonious and integrated manner produces more total effect than the sum of the separated
efforts of individual parts. That is, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
 Open Systems View. Systems can be considered in two ways; (1) closed or (2) open. Open
systems exchange information, energy, or material with their environments. Biological and
social systems are inherently open systems; mechanical systems may be open or closed. The
concepts of open and closed systems are difficult to defend in the absolute. I prefer to think of
open - closed as a dimension; i.e., systems are relatively open or relatively closed. The
systems approach views organizations as open systems.
 Input-Transformation-Output Model. The open system can be viewed as a transformation
model. In a dynamic relationship with its environment, it receives various inputs, transforms

34
 these inputs in some way, and exports outputs. The following table exemplifies the model.

Inputs Process Output

Floor, sugar, salt, water, Baking Breads of different sizes, etc
1 A bakery
heat, staff, etc
Patients, physicians, nurses, Diagnosis, Healthy people
2 A hospital equipment, support staff, ameliorate, cure,
fees. prevent
Students, faculty/lecturers, Teaching, Graduates, books, articles,
support staff, tuition, research, and outreach activities.
3 A university
contracts, and grants. community
service
In sum, the systems approach views organizations including schools as organic and open systems
having interdependence and interactions between the organization and its environment and
among various sub-systems to exchange information and energy. It recognizes organizations are
systems that procure and transform inputs to outputs (goods and services), which are
subsequently discharged into their external environment.
The open systems concept gives principals and supervisors a better and more complete
understanding of the situations, realities, and options they have to deal with. It enables one to see
how social, psychological, economic, political, and technological forces determine the goals of
the organization. It helps to see the problems of the organization in an integrative manner by
considering internal and external forces.
2.5.2. The Contingency Approach: The contingency approach has gained popularity since the
1970‟s although the idea is not new. It attempts to understand the effectiveness of different
managerial techniques under varying conditions and in specific circumstances. It seeks to match
different situations with different methods and rejects the universality of management syndrome
of all the previous management theories.
The basic idea of contingency approach is that there is no one best way of managing. No plans,
no organization structure, no leadership style, no control system fits every situation. Every
organization is unique, existing in a unique environment, with unique employees and unique
goals. Managerial practices and technique that are appropriate in one situation may not be
appropriate in another. This is because the world is too complex to be managed by a single
approach in all situations and the contingency theorists believe that there are many ways to
perform the various managerial functions. Thus, students of management must learn multiple

35
ways to compete, innovate, create, motivate, and lead in the future.
The contingency view becomes more important due to certain changes. Some of these changes
are listed below.

 Increased globalization of enterprises and the need for more government business
alliances to compete internally.
 The need for ethical and socially responsive leadership.
 Changing demographics and skill requirements of the workforce.
 The emergence of new organizational structure that emphasizes speed in reacting to
environmental changes.
 Changing needs, preferences, and desires of employees for job security, participation,
ownership, and personal fulfillment..
2.6. Recent Management Positions

The dynamic environment of rapid change, global competition and more knowledgeable
customers, have all made it necessary for the management of organizations to be visionary and
strive for excellence in all areas of organizational operations. Therefore, the focus of these days
is on total quality Management (TQM) i.e. creating an environment of continuous improvement
for ever-increasing product and service quality in order to achieve full customer satisfaction.
Total Quality Management (TQM): People are willing to pay a higher price for a high quality
product because of its reliability of service over a longer period of time. So,Quality is multi-
dimensional. It is not a single characteristic. Most people believe that quality “lies in the eyes of
the beholder”, just as beauty does. Total Quality (TQ) is a total system approaches not a separate
area or program). TQ is a people-focused management system that aims at continual increase in
customer satisfaction at continually lower real cost. Total Quality Management is a real and
meaningful effort by an organization to change its whole approach to production/service
rendering to making quality a guiding factor in everything the organization does. It stresses a
commit meant by management to have a continuing drive towards excellence in all aspects of
products and service. In summary, the major ingredients in TQM are shown in the following
figure.

36
 Figure 4: The major ingredients in TQM

.Employee
Involvement

.Technology
. Strategic
Commitment
.Improved Quality

.Materials

.Methods
UNIT 3
3. MANAGEMENT SKILLS IN EDUCATION

Management functions are a set of interrelated activities and sometimes called management
process. Regardless of the type of organizations, all managers have certain basic functions:
planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. And the scope and nature of these
functions differ from manger to manger and form organization to organization.
3.1. PLANNING
Planning is the first and fundamental function of management. It involves the determination of
objectives of the organization, formulation of programs and courses of action for their
attainment, development of schedules and timings of action and assignment of responsibilities
for their implementation. It is an ongoing process that reflects and adapts to changes in the
surrounding environment in each organization. Planning is the basis of all the other activities of
management. It precedes the execution of all other managerial activities. Planning is deciding in
advance the objective of the organization, and the means for attaining them. That is, it is an
attempt to determine what should happen and then to take steps that will make it likely to
happen. It includes: Setting of objectives and goals, and Formulation and selection of alternative
strategies and courses of action to reach the goals and objectives.
Thus, Planning tells us to think over five elements in advance.
a) What will be done: i.e. short and long term objectives of the organization?
b) What resources will be required: involves estimation of available and potential resources.

37
 c) How it will be done : involves two things: determination of tasks, activities, projects,
programs etc required for attainment of objectives, and formulation of strategies, polices,
procedures, methods, standards and budgets
d) Who will do it: assignment of duties and responsibilities to various managers in
accordance with their contribution to attain objectives?
e) When it will be done: determination of timing and sequence.
Several reasons /rationales/, enforce government and non-government organizations to adopt
planning. Of these reasons the major ones include:
Growing complexity of modern organizations: Rapid changes in technology, consumer taste,
and increasing tough competition necessitate orderly operations not only in the current
environment but also for the coming future. Since planning promotes future looks it takes in to
account possible future developments.
Performance improvements: It is clearly observed that, organizations that are engaged in
formal planning activities achieve better performance standards. The levels of performances can
be measured and decision activities are facilitated with respect to the growth and expansion of an
organization.
Scarcity of resources: As it is clearly observed from the resource position of almost all
organizations in particular, and from the concept of availability of resources in general, resources
are scarce and the human need/particularly problems/ are unlimited so as to set priorities to
address the most sensitive /critical problems/ we design plans.
The increasing demand of service users: Service users expect the quality of services provided
to them at differing level. So, as to meet the changing demands of service users for quality of
services within certain period of time, planning serves as an instrument of customer satisfaction
by creating an environment to gain competitive advantage.
3.1.1. Nature of Planning

The following characteristics of planning indicate its nature.

 Continuity: Planning is a continuous process. Planning deals with the future, and the future is
uncertain, although it depends on intelligent estimate. As a result, it requires on-going
improvement. So, planning is a never ending is continuous process.

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 Primacy: planning precedes all other functions of management. Obviously, without setting
the goals to be reached and courses of action to be followed, there is nothing to organize,
direct or control in the organization.
 Flexibility: planning is based on the estimation of the future, which is not certain as explained
earlier. And this situation begets the change of the course of action when it is found to be
wrong. So, flexibility needs to be ingrained in planning to adapt the demands of current
situations.
 Unity: planning is made by all managers in the organization. This requires consistency or
unity of planning objectivities, which provide the common focus for unifying managerial
action.
 Pervasiveness: planning covers the entire parts of organization and every level of
management. Planning is the responsibility of top, middle as well as lower managers.
3.1.2. Importance of Planning

Planning has the following benefits in the management of organizations:

a) Helps to overcome change and uncertainty: organizations face various uncertainties in the
future. Planning helps to foresee the future in advance and get prepared to face it there by
adding strength to the organizations‟ survival and growth.
b) Facilitates coordination: Planning integrates /coordinates different units of an organization
through common objectives they seek to achieve.
c) Focuses on attainment of objectives: All activities of an organization are performed to
achieve the objectives set by plans. So, planning defines concrete objectives and focuses
every attention to them.
d) Helps in controlling: Planning provides the guidelines for controlling. Controlling involves
the measurement or check of accomplishment of events against plans and any deviation take
place to correct according to plans.
e) Economizes operation: Planning decides the best course of action that would lead to best
result at minimum cost and time.
3.1.3. The Process of Planning

39
As a result of differences in risk, complexity and environment of organizations, there are no
fixed steps of planning that work for all types of organizations. But there are some common
elements in any planning process in any organization.
1. Awareness of internal and external strengths and weaknesses as well as opportunities and
threats/problems (SWOT). Planning realistic objectives depends on the diagnosis of problem
and opportunity situations. Actually, it is not a part of the planning process. It is looking to
the conditions in the external environment as well as within an organization that will
facilitate and/ or hinder the plan.
2. Establishing objectives: In fact, the first step in the planning process is the determination of
organization‟s objectives. It is establishing objectives for the entire organization and then for
sub-departments up to lower unit. This will be done for long-term as well as for short-range.
3. Developing premises: Planning premises are factors which affect the organizational function.
They are assumptions about the environment in which the plan is to be carried out.This step
is to establish, circulate and obtain agreement to utilize critical planning premises such as
forecasts, applicable basic policies, and existing organizational plans. These are assumptions
about the environment in which the plan is to be carried out. Assumptions again depend on
fore casting. Different sources can be used to prepare for cast. However, it is advisable to
limit premising to those factors which are strategic to the planning process/ long-term effect/.
4. Determining alternative courses of action to achieve the objectives set:
There are several alternative courses of action for any plan. The alternatives should be
examined in light of planning premises, to reduce their number. The most promising
alterative to contribute to the achievement of objectives should be emphasized.
5. Evaluating alternative courses: After seeking out many alternative courses, the next step is to
evaluate alternatives in light of goals and premises. It involves decision-making, i.e deciding
upon suitable course of action. Courses of action could be evaluated in terms of costs and
risk involved availability of resources and long-term objectives of the organization.
6. Selecting the best course: Analysis /evaluation of alternative courses of action will
occasionally disclose two or more are advisable, and the manager may decide to follow
several courses rather than the one best course. Any way, they have to select the most
feasible course of action.

40
 7. Formulation of derivative plans: after formulating the basic plan, various plans are derived
for departments, units, activities, etc. Derivative plans include objectives, policies,
procedures, methods, rules, etc.
3.1.4. Types /Classification of Plans

There are different ways of classifying plans. A plan includes any course of future action.
Accordingly, plans can be classified on the basis of various parameters: The most common
ingredient of all plans is time, and with respect to time, plans are classified as:
1. Long-range plans or -over 5 years
2. Short and intermediate range plans -1 to 5 years
1. Long-range planning, also called strategic planning has a longer time horizon. Every
organization has some objectives which cannot be accomplished within a short span of one or
two years, therefore, has to plan for a longer time period. The period covered by long-range
plans generally varies from five to ten years, but it may extend to twenty years or even more,
depending on the kind of organization. Long-range planning is tentative in nature, as it deals
with more distant future which is more uncertain.
2. Short-range planning, also called operating planning, usually spreads over a period of one to
two years. It is more specific and more formal in nature, and includes programs, projects,
budgets and courses of action for the achievement of specific objectives. Short-range plans are
an integral part of long-range plans, and the implementation of each of them is aimed at
contributing to the achievement of results expected at the end of long-range plans.
Plans could also be classified on the basis of their importance as: strategic (developmental) and
operative (routine, repetitive).
1.Strategic Planning: A simple definition for strategic planning is figuring out where your
organization wants to go and how it is going to get there. Strategic planning begins by asking
questions regarding the main purposes and operations to which an organization is devoted.
Strategic planning is the cornerstone of every organization. Without strategic planning, the
organization will never know where it is going. An important concept of strategic planning is an
understanding that in order for an organization to flourish, everyone needs to work to ensure the
organization‟s main goals are met.
Key concepts in strategic planning

41
A clearly stated vision, Clearly articulated values, A mission, articulated in a mission statement,
The overall goal of the project or organization, The immediate objective of the project or
organization, The key result areas on which the project or organization intends to focus and An
understanding of the gaps between where an organization or project is and where it needs to be
to achieve its goals and objectives.
Strategic planning consists of six distinct steps:
i. Determining objectives
ii. Gathering and analyzing information
iii. Assessing strategic dimensions of environment affecting the organization/SWOT analysis/
iv. Conducting resource audit
v. Establishing strategic alternatives for courses of action, and
vi. Choosing a strategic alternative to pursue and implement.
2. Operative Plans: plans could also be sub-divided based on the length of their utilization as:
A. Single use plans (program, project, budget, strategy)
1. Program: is a sequence of activities directed to achieve stated set of activities. It shows:
major steps to reach an objective; organization units or members responsible for each step,
and order and timing of each step
2. Project: a project is a group of related activities with a definite objective and a definite time
limit.
3. Budgets: are statements of financial resources set for specific activities in a given period of
time. They indicate the amount of money required to accomplish a given project during a
fixed period of time.
4. Strategy: is the determination of the basic long-term objectives of an organization and the
adoption of course of action and allocation of resources necessary to achieve these goals.
The purpose of strategies is to determine and communicate a picture of the kind of
organization that is envisioned. Strategies provide a frame work for guiding thinking and
action in the future.
B. Standing plans (policies, procedures, methods, rules.)
Whenever organizational activities occur repeatedly, a plan decided once can guide those
activities. Hence, standing plan is made to meet a situation which is of recurring nature. It is used

42
to achieve uniformity and unity of efforts in meeting repetitive situations throughout the
organization. These plans include: policy, procedure, method and rules and regulations.
1. Policy: is a general guideline for determining decision making or thinking. It defines the area
within which a decision is to be made to contribute to an organization. Policy is a pattern of
direction for the management of an organization. While organizational objectives decide
“what to do,” policies deal with “how to do”.
Policies are interpreted as a kind of “ten commandments” that leave no room for discretion.
But it is a means of encouraging discretion and initiative, of course, within limits.
2. Procedure: is a detailed set of instructions for performing a sequence of actions that occur
often or regularly. It is guide to action rather than to thinking. It determines the exact manner
in which certain activity must be performed; i.e how each of its task takes place, when it will
take place, and by whom it is to be performed.
Once the procedure is established, it can be used over and over again. Procedures are
pervasive in that ever one, managers or workers, top or lower managers, across every
department need to follow them.
Procedures have the following benefits:
 They ensure uniformly in performance and action
 Maintain standardized form in working
 Encourage delegation of work to subordinates
3. Methods: a method specifies how a step of procedure is followed. It provides details about an
activity or operation. It is a manual or mechanical means for performing a particular
operation. Methods are specific, more detailed and rational means of simplifying and
standardizing the work.
4. Rules: spell out specific action to be taken or not to be taken with respect to a situation.
People confuse rules with policies and procedures. Eg. “No smoking” is a rule, and it is
unrelated to any procedure.
So, rules are not discretionally and allow no deviation from a stated course of action. The
employees have to accept and follow them. But policies and procedures are general
guidelines about how to do a task.
Why plan fail?

43
There are situations in which sometimes even well designed plans fail to bring the desired
results. There are some established reasons as to why plans fail. Some of these reasons are:
 There is a lack of understanding of the different steps of the planning process:
 Management at different levels in the organization has not properly contributed to planning
activities.
 Poor information and inadequate inputs
 In starting formal planning, too much is attempted at once.
 The management is not always willing to cancel or modify poor plans.
 Management fails to operate by the plans.
 Resistance to change
3.1.6. Principles of Educational Planning
Discussions among educational leaders and economists in the early years produced easy
agreement on five principles and components, which formed a general framework for later
consumption in educational planning.
1.Educational planning should take a longer-range view. It should in fact have a short-range, a
middle-range and a long-range perspective. Obviously its vision will grow less precise the
farther ahead it looks.
2. Educational planning should be comprehensive. It should embrace the whole educational
system in a single vision to ensure the harmonious evolution of its various parts.
3.educational planning should be integrated with the plans of broader economic and social
development. If education is to contribute most effectively to individual and national
development, and to make the best use of scarce resources, it cannot go its own way, ignoring
the realities of the world around it.
4. educational planning should be an integral part of educational management. To be effective,
the planning process must be closely tied to the process of decision-making and academic
exercise whose chief effect is to frustrate those involved.
5. educational planning must be concerned with the qualitative aspects of educational
development, not merely with qualitative expansion. Only thus can it help to make education
more relevant, efficient and effective.

44
3.2. ORGANIZING
The term organizing stems from the word organism, which means an entity with parts so
integrated. Their relation to the whole or their effort towards a common goal governs the
interrelationship of each part. Thus, organizing is bringing together and coordinating human and
physical resources to accomplish the objectives established in the planning process. It involves
developing a structure to coordinate the efforts of different people.

Organizing is establishing the internal structure of any organization. It focuses on division,

coordination, and control of tasks and the flow of information within the organization. Managers
distribute responsibility and authority to job holders with the help of this function of
management. Its main purpose is to coordinate effort through the design of a structure of task
and authority relationships. It is the process of breaking down the overall task into individual
assignments and then bringing those assignments together in units or departments and delegating
authority to a unit, or department, manager. Thus, we can describe the organizing function in
terms of dividing tasks into jobs, departmentalizing jobs, and delegating authority.

3.2.1. The Benefits of Organizing

The fundamental benefits of organizing include the following:

 It promotes collaboration and negotiation among individuals in a group. Thus, it
improves communication within the organization;
 It sets clear-cut lines of authority and responsibility for each individuals or departments.
It helps employees to know their responsibilities and concentrate on the key tasks at
hand. It specifies who is responsible for what;
 It improves the directing and controlling functions of managers;
 It develops maximum use of time, human, and material resources. It also enables for
proper work assignments for individuals in pursuit of common goal;
 It enables the organization to maintain its activities coordinated so that the efforts of
managers and employees can be well integrated and directed towards an end;
 It encourages employee‟s creativity, decision-making, and independent thinking based on
well-defined policies, rules, and procedures;

45
  It helps to adopt new technologies. Effective managers continuously react to changes,
rescheduling the activities of the organization, and reorganize the resources;
 It reduces internal and external problems through controlling and planning units of the
organization; and
 It helps to attain organizational goals and provides scope for diversification, innovation
and adoption.
3.2.2. The principles of organizing
There are common principles of organizing in all organizations. These principles are:

 The lines of authority should be clearly stated and should run from the top to the bottom of the
organization.
 Each person in the organization should report to only one boss (the principle of unity of
command).
 The responsibility and authority of each supervisor should be established clearly in writing.
 The higher authorities are responsible for the acts of their subordinates‟. Top manager or
immediate superior is accountable for the acts of their subordinates.
 The authority and responsibility should be delegated as far down the hierarchical line as
objectively possible.
 The number of levels of authority should be as few as possible to make communication easier.
 The principle of specialization should apply whenever possible. Every person should be
assigned a single function whenever possible.
 The line functions and the staff functions should be kept separate.
 The span of control (number of employees under one manager) should be reasonable and well
established.
 The organizing should be simple and flexible to easily manage and quickly adapt to changing
conditions.

3.2.3. Components of Organizing

Organizing involves arranging human and physical resources to help attain organizational
objectives. Organizing is the development of jobs and the arrangement of them into a structure
that will assure that duties are accomplished in a coordinated way. There are many important

46
concepts and fundamental principles associated with establishing the formal organization
structure.
1. Division of Labor/ Work Specialization: Division of labor is dividing large tasks into
smaller packages of work to be distributed among several people. It describes the degree to
which tasks in an organization are divided into separate jobs.
Division of labor or specialization is the most fundamental principle of organizing. It involves
breaking down a task into its most basic elements, training workers in performing specific duties,
and sequencing activities so that one person‟s efforts build on another‟s. Each employee
performs the same task over and over again.
2. Departmentation:- Departmentation is the process of dividing the overall operations of the
organization into sub-activities and then grouping these specialized activities and responsibility
areas into working groups. It is the efficient and effective grouping of jobs into meaningful work
units so as to accomplish organizational objectives. Thus, it is the grouping of jobs under the
authority of a single manager, according to some rational basis, for the purposes of planning,
coordination and control. The number of departments in an organization depends on the number
of different jobs, i.e., the size and complexity of the organization itself. Similar activities that are
closely related with a distinct function are grouped together to form departments. It aims at
achieving unit direction, effective communication, coordination, and control.
4. Line and Staff Designation:- When organizations grow in scope and complexity, it becomes
necessary to seek the assistance of specialized staff. Line and staff authority allows staff units to
provide specialized expertise, advice, support, or service to line managers in the effective
performance of their functions. They have no general command authority over line mangers but
within their own units staff specialists are related with one another in a scalar chain. The staff
units contribute indirectly to accomplishing an organization's goals. Each staff is a specialist in
his/her area and operates with considerable independence. In most enterprise staff is used to get
help in handling details, offering counseling on specific managerial problems, and locating data
for decisions.
5. Span of Management (Span of Control):- Span of control refers to the total number of
subordinates over whom a manager has some authority, responsibility or control. In other
words, it is the number of subordinates a manager can supervise and directly receives report
from them. Span of control is important in organization because of two major reasons: first, it

47
 determines total number of managers in an organization. Secondly, it determines the structure of
an organization itself. According to the classical school of management, the number of
subordinates to be controlled by any executive is from 6-8 persons. Others recommended that
the span of control to be 4-7 subordinates per manager.
Wide Span of Control: A flat organization structure is characterized by an overall broad span of
control, horizontal dispersion, and fewer hierarchical levels. It is resulted from supervising
relatively large number of subordinates.
Narrow Span of Management: This is when supervisors need to involve closely with
subordinates. It is a tall organization structure characterized by narrow span of management and
a relatively large number of hierarchical levels. The manager manages small number of
immediate subordinates. The following organization chart depicts this type of organization
structure.
5. Authority and Responsibility:- Authority is derived from the person‟s official position in the
organization. Managers acquire authority by virtue of the rank or title associated with their
organizational position, not because of their personal characteristics. Higher-level positions have
greater authority and this authority decreases all the way to the bottom of the chart. In practice,
the amount of authority a manager can exercise depends on his or her boss's willingness to let
him or her make decisions. Responsibility, on the other hand, is the obligation of an individual to
carry out assigned duties to the best of his or her ability. It is what one is expected to perform a
duty as required by the superiors or as prescribed by the job. Managers with authority are
responsible for other people, money, and resources.
6. Organization Structure/ Organizational Chart
It is a formal framework that shows a set of tasks assigned to individuals and departments,
reporting relationships (including lines of authority, decision-responsibility, number of
hierarchical levels, and span of managers control), and the design of systems to effectively
coordinate employees across departments. Organization structure is simply a diagram or chart of
all the positions in an organization and their formal relationship to one another. The immediate
value of organization chart is to illustrate an organization‟s overall shape or configuration in
comprehensive manner.

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3.3. STAFFING

Staffing is one of the major functions management, and it is concerned with the filling of a job
position with the most appropriate personnel. All managers must make sure that all jobs in their
responsibility areas are always filled with capable people who can best perform them. This is the
most essential task in management, but why? It is correct if you say, the manpower hired
determines the quality of task to be done in the organization. This unit deals with the various
steps/functions of staffing. The process of staffing includes the following sub-functions:
The five steps of staffing are:
1. Human resource planning /personnel/manpower planning
2. Job / position analysis
3. Personnel recruitment
4. Personnel Selection/screening
5. Assignment/Appointment / placement and orientation.

1. Human Resource Planning /HRP:- Human resource planning is the process of analyzing
the staffing needs or new man power requirement of an organizations and identifying the actions
to satisfy these needs. Or, it is the determination in advance of the number and quality of
persons to be employed to an organization.
HRP involves two major objectives:
a) Ensuring optimum use of human resources currently employed/working in the
organization.
b) Providing for future human resource requirements of organization in terms of skills,
numbers and ages.
HRP falls in to three phases/stages/steps:
 job analysis and skills inventory /personnel audit
 Personnel forecasting
 Personnel transition
2. Job/Position Analysis:- Job analysis is the beginning of HRP. It is the orderly study of just
what is done, when, where, how, why and by whom in jobs. Job analysis is a systematic
investigation of a job in order to identify its essential characteristics and to translate these
characteristics in to a written job-description and specification which can be used for different

49
purpose. It is the process of determining the pertinent information about a specific job, or it is the
total process of examining and appraising jobs that would help to determine human resource
requirement of an organization.
Job analysis can provide information that can be used to develop:
Job-description - written statements of job duties and responsibilities/ all work activities
associated with a position. It is the specific duties and responsibilities attached to the position, or
it constitutes a record of existing and pertinent job facts and states: the purpose of the job and its
relation with other jobs and people, and lists the physical, social and economic features of the
job.
Job-specification - Lists of the education, experience, and skill requirements for someone to be
given the job / list of minimum qualifications necessary for a person to a task perform adequately
in a specific position. It is a statement of the minimum acceptable human qualities required to be
possessed by an employee and necessary to perform a given job properly; or it is the lists of the
education, experience, and skill requirements for someone to be given the job. Job specification
statements focus on physical qualities, mental qualities, skills or talent/special skills,
qualifications/educational status and personality and temperament requirement.
Human Resource Need Assessment /Personnel Forecasting: It is a process that attempts to
determine the future human resource needs of an organization in light of its plans and objectives.
For instance, Schools can provide educational authorities at district, zone or regional levels with
reliable data on the required staff personnel based on:
 Increased or decreased enrollment which creates a need for more teaching staff or a
reduction.
 Changes in the educational program, which necessitates additional or differently trained
staff
 Staff resignation, transfer or death which may create a need for new staff personnel
Personnel transition: Where staff personnel are abundantly available exceeding the human
resource need of the school, the plan will focus on reduction of employees through lay off,
discharge or transfers. Where the condition is otherwise, i.e. personnel is scarcely available, the
plan will focus on supplying the school with the required human resources through a system of
transfer from other schools or recruitment of new personnel.

50
3. Personnel recruitment: - Recruitment is the active pursuit for potential candidates for the
purpose of influencing them to apply for vacant positions in an organization. In other words, it is
a process of searching for qualified prospective employees, both beginning and experienced,
from inside and outside the organization and stimulating them to apply for vacancies in the
organization.
There are two main sources of personnel recruitment to fill vacant position in an organization:
internal & external sources.
Internal source of Recruitment: is a process of filling a vacancy by personnel who are already
employed in an organization. It is the main source of personnel recruitment to many
organizations. In this case, a vacant position of an organization is filled through
a) promoting a person currently working in a section of the organization and/or
b) Transferring a person working in another department of the organization by job posting
and personal recommendation methods.
External Sources of Recruitment: It is the source of job applicants from outside of an
organization or new personnel of required quality to fill the vacancy. If the needed human
resources are not available within an organization, outside sources may be tapped. Common
external recruitment sources are: advertisement, employment agencies, and educational
institutions etc.
4. Personnel Selection/ screening
Personnel selection comes next to recruitment process. It is a process of choosing individuals
who possess the necessary skills, abilities and personality from the applicants to successfully fill
specific jobs in an organization. It is a series of activities designed to give information about the
job applicant that can be compared to job description and job specification for selecting the best
applicant.
The ultimate objective of personnel selection is, therefore, to match requirements of the job and
the qualification of the individual to job applicant. Selection is a negative process as it rejects
more candidates than are hired, unlike the recruitment process which takes positive approach, as
it stimulates candidates to apply for jobs in large numbers.
5. Assignment/Appointment / placement and orientation
Employee orientation: is providing new employees with basic background information about
organization and any information that they need to perform their jobs satisfactorily. Orientation

51
is one component of socialization process- an ongoing process that involves instilling in all
employees the prevailing attitudes, standards, values, and patterns of behavior that are expected
by the organization and its departments. Reality shock: is the discrepancy between what the new
employee expected from his/her new job, and the realities of it.
3.4. DIRECTING/ LEADING
Directing is one of the vital functions of management, which is related to influencing people.
Directing can be defined as the process of integrating the people with the organizations so as to
obtain their willing cooperation for the achievement of its goals. It refers to the issuance of
directives and the guidance and overseeing subordinates that they are doing their job to the best
of their ability. It is a vital managerial function which influences people so that they contribute to
the attainment of organizational objectives.

In sum, directing is a managerial function that concerns itself with the total manner in which a
manger influences the action of his/her subordinates. Directing deals exclusively with people
(that is, the human element), thus it is a very delicate or sensitive function that mangers must
take extreme care. The directing function has three elements: leadership, motivation and
communication. We will see them in detail next chapters.
3.5. CONTROLLING

Controlling is one of the most important functions of management. It is the process by which
managers assure that resource are obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the
accomplishment of the organization's objectives. In other words, control maintains equilibrium
between means and ends or between efforts and output. It makes sure that the actual performance
is in conformity with the intended and planned performance leading towards achievement of
objectives.
3.5.1. The Control Process
Controlling is a continuous process. And as a process, controlling involves a systematic effort to
set performance standard; with planning objectives, to design information feedback systems, to
compare actual performance with the predetermined standards, to determine whether there are
an} deviations and measure their significance, and to take any action required to assure that all
organizational resources are being used in the most effective and efficient way possible in
achieving objectives. The control process involves four general steps: Setting Standards;
Measuring and evaluating Performance, comparing the results and Taking Corrective Actions.
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3.5.2. Characteristics of Controlling

 Controls must provide useful and understandable information. Misunderstood controls

will not be applied properly. The control system format must be simple, clear, and
unambiguous so that irrelevant information is excluded and only useful and necessary data is
utilized. This would make it easier for the people who are responsible for monitoring
operations.
 Controls should report deviations quickly so as to minimize the ill effects of these
deviations. A well-designed control system should be capable of identifying potential
problem areas before they arise so that corrective action can be taken before the problem
becomes serious and unmanageable.
 Controls must be designed so that the right people monitor the activities of their own
fields. The sales manager, for example, should be concerned with only sales activities
including output of sales representatives, product sales by territories, any price changes that
would affect sales and any new products introduced.
 The focus should be on strategic control points. The control system must reflect and
support the organization‟s established overall priorities so that the activities of strategic
significance where deviations would lead to gratis harm, receive the immediate corrective
action and minor activities get lower priority for control purposes.
 Control should focus on results. The ultimate aim of the control process is to attain
objectives. Gathering information, setting standards, identifying problem, measuring
deviations and reports are simply means to the end. The controls must not fail to work.
Whether it is the fault of measuring mechanisms or the authority structure it must be
modified and corrected.
 Controls should be economically realistic. A control system must be worth the expense.
The cost of implementing the control system must be less than the benefits derived from the
control system. A control is not desirable, if an increment in improvement involves a
disproportionate increase in cost effort. For example: Checking every unit in mass produced
items would be costly and ineffective. A small percentage of these units can be taken at
random, inspected and decisions made about the entire lot of that item. On the other hand,
each part that goes into a space capsule must be thoroughly examined and tested.

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 Controls should be flexible enough to absorb change. Since most organizations operate
under dynamic and changing environment, a rigid set of controls would not be appropriate.
Flexible controls can adjust for the uncertainties of the use of the situation. The value of
flexible control can be readily seen in the use of flexible budgets, which expand, or contract
on the basis of volume of business.
 Controls should not only indicate deviations, but should also lead to corrective action.
Simply uncovering and measuring deviations is not enough, so the control system must lead
to corrective action quickly. The system must also disclose where the problem areas are and
what factors are responsible for them so that the management can take immediate action.
 Controls should be simple, but difficult to manipulate. Simple controls absorb less effort
and are more economical. Excessive complexity leads to confusion. It must be designed in
accordance with the needs and the abilities of the people who implement it. But it should not
be subject to misrepresentation or distortions, which can be manipulated to suit somebody‟s
purpose, or to sabotage the operations.
 Controls should be acceptable to organization’s members. Too rigid controls might cause
resentment resulting in lower morale and inefficient performance.
Effective controls require:
a. Support of top management.
b. Participation of all managers in setting up the control system.
c. Acceptance and understanding of the control process by all workers.
d. Information and feedback on actual performance must be timely and accurate.
e. The control system must be well communicated.
 Control system must have outsides support. The system should facilitate the
organization‟s dealings with its customers and suppliers. It will be helpful to acquire
commitment and support from the people who deal with the organization
 Control system should be designed by a mix of individuals with specialization in various
and diversified fields of accounting, organizational analysis, strategic planning management
information system and other related areas. This would ensure balance and eliminate over
domination by any one area.
 The exception principle. A good system of control should work on the exception principle,
so that only important deviations are brought to the attention of management. In other words

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 the management does not have to bother with activities that are running smoothly. This will
ensure that the managerial attention is directed towards error and not towards conformity.
This would eliminate unnecessary and uneconomic supervision, reporting and a waste of
managerial time.
3.5.3. Types of Control
There are three types of Controls: Pre-Controls (monitor inputs to ensure that they meet the
standards necessary for successful transformation), Concurrent Controls called screening or
yes/no controls, concurrent controls involve the regulation of ongoing activities by monitoring
the transformation of inputs into outputs to ensure that they conform to organizational standards),
and Post Action Controls(is regulation exercised after a product or service has been completed
in order to ensure that the final output meets organizational standard and goals. Feedback
controls (as their name suggests) come into play after transformation has taken place).

3.5.4. Methods of Controlling

There are a variety of controlling methods. Their appropriateness for various points in the
“inputs, transformation, outputs” cycle will vary with the conditions and requirements of a
particular undertaking. Organizations use the various methods of control with varying degrees of
appropriateness, depending-on how frequently the controls are used. Accordingly, nine methods
of controls are identified on the basis of their frequency of use.
A. Constant controls: Are self-control, group control, and policies/procedures or rules.
B. Periodic Controls: Management information systems, external audits, and budgets.
C. Occasional controls: These are special reports, personal observation, and project control.
A. Constant Controls
These are control methods that are used more frequently or constantly. There are three methods
of control that put in this category.
 Self-Control - Under this method of control, employees exert the self-control required to
perform their assigned tasks in the organization. So self-controls should exist in
organizations since their absence would require an enormous investment in other control
methods. Accordingly, organizations shift control away from management to the self-control
within individual employees.

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 For employees, self-control means reporting to work on time, respecting property, and
observing the rights of others. Personal pride and initiative are the main sources of self-
control.
 Group Control - Work groups also are a source of control. By defining the kinds of behavior
that are acceptable or unacceptable, group-defined norms exert a strong influence on
individual actions (you may recall the Hawthorne Studies in Unit two of Module one). Some
organizations place great emphasis on work group control by striving to develop a way of
thinking that stresses adherence to group-established behavior patterns.
 Policies /procedures/Rules - The role of policies, procedures, and rules was discussed in
connection with elements of planning in Unit one of this Module. Typically reflecting past
managerial experiences, policies, procedures and rules may concern any number of things-
how to make certain decisions, deal with resource, handle difficult employees and so on.

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B. Periodic Controls
These methods of control are used periodically rather than frequently. The methods of periodic
control are as follows:
 Information Systems - An information system is a mechanism for collecting, analyzing, and
disseminating data in the form of usable information. Each function within the management
process is served by various information systems, Besides facilitating effective control of
organization resources, management information systems are important in planning,
organizing, staffing and human resource management, and leadership and interpersonal
influence.
 External Audits - This method of control requires the examination of an organization's
finance on a regular basis by an outside accounting (audit) firm. In such firms, there are
certified professionals who are trained to ensure that an organization's financial statements
are prepared in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles. External audits
verify the existence of the assets, claimed on financial statements, such as inventory,
equipment, furniture and so on. In doing so, external audits help control the use of
organization assets and resources.
 Budgets - In addition to being a type of plan (as discussed in Unit one of this Module),
budgets are also a method of control. They exercised control by allocating resources across
departments; specifying, in advance, how allocated resources are to be utilized; and
providing a standard against which planned performance can be compared to actual
performance.
C. Occasional Controls
Unlike the constant controls, occasional controls are conducted infrequently. Typical examples
of occasional controls include, among other things:
 Special Reports - Such reports are prepared when controls indicate a discrepancy or deviation
between standards and performance. Depending on their purpose, special reports vary in
content and style some may be statistical, others descriptive. For example, a special report
may be prepared for production downtime showing an analysis of idle machine time, its
causes, and its costs.
 Personal Observation - There are essentially two ways managers can determine what is
happening in an organization: rely on information provided by others or find out themselves.

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 Effective managers recognize the importance of reliable, firsthand information. This might
require speaking directly to those performing various functions, or holding meetings with
lower level employees.
 Project Controls - Various methods have been developed for controlling specific projects.
The three most popular are Gantt Chats, Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT),
and Break-even analysis. Gantt chart has already been discussed in Unit Two of Module One
(Refer to Henry L. Gantt). PERT does a control method that depicts the interrelationships
across time among those events and activities comprise a project. Break-even analysis is a
method of visualizing the relationship between costs and revenues.
UNIT FOUR
4.1. Organizational Environment
Organizational environment is defined as a set of characteristics which describe the organization
and distinguish it from other organizations within a given time period affecting behavior of the
employees therein. These characteristics affect the functional behavior of the employees, their
trends and motives. These characteristics basically interconnect the internal work environment in
the organization and make it a distinct feature of the organization. Organizational environment
also differentiate the organization with other organizations.
4.2. Types of the organizational environment
To manage the organization effectively, managers need to properly understand the environment.
Scholars have divided environmental factors into two parts: internal and external environments.
1. Internal environment:- The internal environment of the organization comprises
organizational-related factors which influence its capacity to achieve set objectives, develop
and implement a viable plan, which consequently contributes to its performance. Internal
environment is key internal aspects which need to be aligned within the organization for
improved performance or effective change implementation. Internal environment can also be
described as those internal controllable forces operating within the organization itself which
have a direct impact on an organizational performance.
2. External environment: Elements existing outside the organizational control define the
external environment. The organization does not know how the external environment
elements shape up. The external environment elements constitute both the general
environmental factors and the organizational specific factors.

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4.3. Factors affecting organizational environment

Factors which affect organizational environment are four namely:

(i) Organizational factors,
(ii) Material and moral factors,
(iii) Psychological factors, and
(iv) Environmental factors.
Organizational factors – Organizational factors represent all forms and types of information
coming to the employees, and which describe and clarify facts and characteristics of the
organizational positions, relationships and circumstances within the organization. These factors
also specify for employees their duties dictated by their belonging to the organization, types of
opportunities and interests they can get against fulfillment of the said duties and requirement.
Organizational factors can be sub-divided into several groups such as organizational structure,
employee intensity, supervision scope, mode of leadership, and style of decision making etc.
Material and moral factors – Material and moral factors for organizational environment are
defined as an external force attracting the employees there to get it through a certain behaviour
allowing access to the incentives to which the employees are entitled. Thus incentive stands as
the rewards which are obtained by the employees if their behaviours are satisfactory to the
organization.
Psychological factors – These factors originate from the inside of the employees because of the
perception of their attitude to the surrounding environment. Employees do not merely need
satisfaction of their physical needs only, but there are other needs which they feel and endeavors
to satisfy. These needs are known as psychological needs. Such the needs are commitment and
belongingness, possession, struggle, and needs for power and influence. These factors can be
further classified into the need for security and stability, allegiance and belonging, personal
factors and the need for self realization.
Environmental factors:-Environmental factors belong to the environment external to the
organization. They are represented by the factors which are present in the surrounding of the
organization and affecting the organization. These factors include political and regulatory,
economic, social, technical and technological, and ecological.

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PART TWO (Educational Organization and
Management 1)

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UNIT ONE

1. COMMUNICATION

Communication is the process of transmitting information among two or more people. It is the
glue that holds organizations together. Communication is the process by which a message or
information is exchanged from a sender to a receiver. Eg: a principal of the school (sender) may
send a message to a unite leader (receiver) asking for registered students so they can plan
accordingly. Organizational communication establishes a pattern of formal communication
channels to carry information vertically and horizontally. Communication assists organizational
member to accomplish both individual and organizational goals, implement and respond to
organizational change, coordinate organizational activities, and engage in virtually all
organizationally relevant behaviors. By its very nature a manager's job requires communication.

1.1. The functions and importance of Communication in Management

Communication is one of the manager‟s/ leaders most important tools. When used correctly, it
embodies the speaker‟s objectives and helps accomplish tasks that require coordination. Besides
important social uses, communication has four functions in business:

 Disseminating information,
 Motivating and persuading,
 Promoting understanding, and
 Aiding in decision-making.
In addition, some of the importances of communications within education systems are:-
• enable communities and civil society to engage with educational issues at the school level
• increase public awareness of educational rights
• provide evidence to support decision-making processes
• improve the quality of policy formulation
• build shared understandings which may lead to social change
• improve educational service delivery and policy implementation
• involve the voices of the marginalized groups, to make educational provision relevant to their
needs
• empower people to make decisions and develop ownership of educational processes

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 • improve the quality of learning and educational outcomes

1.2. The Communication Process

Technically speaking, communication is effective or successful only when mutual understanding
occurs, that is, when one not only transmits information, but also makes oneself understood by
others. In most organization, communication is a dynamic and vital process for ease of
discussion. The process of communication is depicted in the following simple model.
Each of the steps in the communication process is briefly discussed below.
Step 1: the first step in the communication process is ideation (generation or origination of
idea). A sender has information, which may consist of ideas, facts, opinions, etc.
Step 2: This step is encoding where the sender translates the message to be conveyed
into a set of symbols which he/she believes that receiver will understand as intended.
Step 3:The third step is the actual transmission of the message as encoded. As discussed earlier,
messages can be transmitted in several different forms.
Step 4: Receiving of the message by a person to whom it is intended. In other words, the
intended receiver will perceive the message.
Step 5: This step is decoding where in the receiver of a massage interprets it. The receiver
perceives the message and interprets them to have a particular meaning. A
communication is effective only when mutual understanding results.
Step 6: The final step in communication process is feedback. The receiver accepts the message
and transmits either verbal or nonverbal feedback. Verbal feedback refers to a written
or a spoken response whereas the nonverbal feedback is a body movement or actions.
Although feedback technically is not necessary for successful (effective)
communication, it does allow a sender to verify that an intended massage has been
accurately received. Because of noise, a message may be inaccurately received, thus,
feedback tells a sender to what extent a message has been understood.
1.3. Forms of Communication
1.3.1. Formal and Non formal Communication

Formal Communication - This is a communication, which is intentionally designed by the

organization. Information flows through the formally established channel and is concerned with
work related matters. For example; written communication should be used when the situation is

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formal, official, or long term; or when the situation affects several people in related ways.
Example: Letters are formal in tone and addressed to an individual. They are used for official
notices, formally recorded statements, and lengthy communications. Reports are more
impersonal and more formal than a letter. They are used to convey information, analyses, and
recommendations. And other means can use to transfer such as email, voice mail..
The design of organizational communication should have four distinct directions::
a) Downward communications
b) Upward communications
c) Horizontal communications, and
d) Diagonal communication.
a) Downward Communication - This type of communication flows downward from
individuals in higher levels of the hierarchy to those in lower levels. The most common
forms of downward communication are job instructions, job rationale statements, policy and
procedure statements, manuals, feedback, and company publications.
b) Upward Communication - In such a situation, the communicator is at a lower level in the
organization than the receiver, in other words, information flows from the subordinate to the
superior. Some of the most common upward communication flows are complaints,
performance reports, suggestion boxes, and group meetings. Both downward and upward
communication are considered as vertical communication that are primary considerations in
organizational design
c) Horizontal Communication – it is also called lateral communication. It is the flow of
communication between departments, sections, units, or individuals at the same level. For
instance, when the head department of EdPM communicates with the department head of
Psychology concerning the course offerings in a college of EBS, the flow of communication
is horizontal. Horizontal communication is necessary for the coordination and integration of
diverse organizational functions. And horizontal channels can be used for coordinating tasks;
solving problems; sharing information; resolving conflicts; and developing rapport among
workers.
d) Diagonal communication - While it is probably the least used channel of communication in
organizations, diagonal communication is important in situations where members cannot

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 communicate effectively through other channels. For example, the legal advisor of the
organization may wish to see how sales contract is administered.
Informal Communication - It is a communication, which is not deliberately designed by the
organization. It is rather created by informal groups in order to satisfy their need to interact and
share information among themselves. In the informal communication, information flows in
unstructured and unpredictable ways. In other words, it is a structure-less network. Informal
communication channel is commonly termed as grapevine because of its structure-less direction
of flow. Normally the information that flows in grapevine is considered to be secret or
confidential.
1.3.2. Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
Verbal communication includes planned conferences, mass meetings and teleconferencing.
Voice and delivery are important.
Nonverbal Communication: Nonverbal messages include images, actions and behaviors used
to communicate. Images include photographs, film, charts, tables, graphs, and video. Nonverbal
behaviors include actions, body language, and active listening. Actions and body language
include eye contact, gestures, facial expressions, posture, and appearance.
1.4. Barriers to Effective Communication
There are several barriers to effective communication that can exist both in organizational and
interpersonal communication.
 Perceptual Barrier: is the most common barriers b/s different people interpret our actions
and words in different ways.
 Frame of Reference - This barrier is the result of variations in the encoding and decoding
process. Due to this, different individuals (the sender and the receiver) interpret the same
communication differently depending on their previous experiences.
 Selective Listening - This is a form of selective perception in which we tend to block out
new information, especially if it conflicts with what we believe.
 Value Judgments - This basically involves assigning an overall worth to a message prior to
receiving the entire communication. For example, a manager may pay little attention to a
memorandum from his/her subordinate by saying "he/she is always complaining about
something."

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 Source Credibility - It is the trust, confidence, and faith that the receiver has in the words or
actions of the communicator, the level of credibility the receiver assigns to the communicator
in turn directly affects how the receiver views and reacts to words, ideas and actions of the
communicator.
 Communication over load - Information is one of the necessary conditions for making
effective decisions. And Language barrier, Status Difference. filtering, time pressure and
emotion also affects communication.

1.5.Improving Communication in Organizations

Managers striving to become better communicators have two separate tasks they must
accomplish. First, they must improve their messages-the information they wish to transmit.
Second, they must seek to improve their own understanding what other people are trying to
communicate to them. Techniques such as follow up, regulation of communication, feedback ,
simplifying language and empathy can contribute in improving communication.

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UNIT 2
2. DECISION MAKING IN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION
2.1. Definitions of Decision Making

Writers in the area have defined decision making in different angles. From these definitions, it is
clear that decision-making is concerned with selecting a course of action from among
alternatives to achieve a predetermined objective. It is the thought process of selecting a logical
choice from the available options.
2.2. The Process of Decision Making
Decision making involves the following steps:
Step 1: Identification of the purpose of the decision in this step, the problem is thoroughly
analyzed. There are some of questions one should ask when it comes to identifying the purpose
of the decision. What exactly is the problem? Why the problem should be solved? Who are the
affected parties of the problem? And Does the problem have a deadline or a specific time-line?
Step 2: Information gathering:- In the process of solving the problem, you will have to gather as
much as information related to the factors and stakeholders involved in the problem.
Step 3. Develop alternative solutions or courses of action
The purpose of finding alternative solutions is to make the best decision, after careful
consideration of the most desirable courses of action in the circumstances of the case. the
baseline criteria for judging the alternatives should be set up.
Step 4. Selecting the best alternatives:- For this step, brainstorming to list down all the ideas is
the best option.
Step 5. Analyzing possible consequences of the decision: - Use your judgment principles and
decision-making criteria to evaluate each alternative.
Step 6. Implementing the decision:- Convert your decision into a plan or a sequence of
activities. Execute your plan by yourself or with the help of subordinates.
Step 7. Evaluate the outcome of your decision:- See whether there is anything you should learn
and then correct in future decision making.
2.3. Factors Influencing Decision Making
 Organizational factors: a number of organizational variables influence the decision
making process. Objectives, strategies, and policies provide the framework for decision.

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  Environmental factors: mainly its social, legal, technological political and economic
aspects exercise a significant influence on organizational decisions.

 Personality factors: personality characteristics of the decision maker such as his /her
value and capacity to take risk have an important bearing on his/ her decision. Other
factors: time , budget, The effect of other department etc

UNIT 3
3. CONCEPT AND MEANING OF MOTIVATION
Why is it that some people work hard while others do whatever they can to get out of working at
all? Why do some people choose to come to work regularly and promptly while others often
choose to be absent or late for work? Why is it that some people constantly put a great deal of
effort into performing effectively while others only put enough effort into their jobs to avoid
being fired? The answers to this kind of queries have much to do with motivation.

Motivation comes from the Latin word movere, which means to move. Motivation is the inner
force that directs employee behavior. The definition of motivation usually includes such words
as aim, desire, end, impulse, intention, objectives, and purpose. Since motivation influences
efficiency, supervisors need to understand what motivates employees to reach peak performance.
Motivation is the set of processes that moves a person toward a goal. Thus, motivated behaviors
are voluntary choices controlled by the individual employee. Motivation represents an
unsatisfied need which creates a state of tension or disequilibrium, causing the individual to
move in goal directed pattern towards restoring a state of equilibrium by satisfying the need.

3.1. Theories of Motivation

Motivation theories are important to supervisors attempting to be effective leaders. The two
primary approaches to motivation are content and process.
3.1.1. Theories of Motivation that Focus on Needs (Content Approach)
The content approach to motivation focuses on the assumption that individuals are motivated by
the desire to fulfill inner needs. Content theories focus on the needs that motivate people. The
purpose of behavior is to satisfy needs. A need is anything that is required, desired, or useful. A
need arises when there is a difference in self-concept (the way I see myself) and perception (the

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way I see the world around me). The presence of an active need is expressed as an inner state of
tension from which the individual seeks relief.
I) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs identifies five levels of needs, which are best seen as a hierarchy
with the most basic need emerging first and the most sophisticated need last. People move up the
hierarchy one level at a time. Gratified needs lose their strength and the next level of needs is
activated. As basic or lower-level needs are satisfied, higher-level needs become operative. A
satisfied need is not a motivator. The most powerful employee need is the one that has not been
satisfied. Abraham Maslow first presented the five-tier hierarchy in 1942 to a psychoanalytic
society and published it in 1954 in Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper and Row).

Figure 11: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy.

- Self – fulfillment.
- The need of people to reach their
full potential in applying their
Self- Actualization Needs abilities, skill and interests to
functioning in their environment
Growth Needs Eg. Challenging assignments,
development opportunities, etc.

A desire for self- respect and respect

from others
Esteem needs An urge (Strong wish) for achievement,
prestige, status and power.
Eg. Job title, office furnishing and
location, access to information’s
Relation – oriented Needs
- The needs for love, affection, belonging
- Concerned with establishing one‟s
Social Needs position relative to others.
Eg. Employee-centered supervision,
personal and professional friends
- Protection against danger, threat, or
deprivation (Prevention)
- Affected by: Favoritism,
Safety and security Needs discrimination, and arbitrary
administration of organizational
policies.
Deficiency Needs Eg. Pension plans, medical plans,
insurance
- Basic needs for food, water, shelter,
Physiological Needs sleep, sex, exercise, sand so on.
- They are survival needs
Eg. Salary, company cafeteria, etc

His theory is based upon the following assumption:

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  First, those human beings have many needs that are different in nature ranging from
biological needs at the lower level to psychological needs at the upper extreme.
 Second, that these needs occur in an order of hierarchy so that lower level needs must
be satisfied before higher level needs arise or become motivations.
 A need that is satisfied is no longer a need.
Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs can be summarized in a pyramid form of five levels.
Level I - Physiological needs are the most basic human needs. They include food, water, and
comfort. The organization helps to satisfy employees' physiological needs by a paycheck.
Level II - Safety needs are the desires for security and stability, to feel safe from harm. The
organization helps to satisfy employees' safety needs by benefits.
Level III - Social needs are the desires for affiliation. They include friendship and belonging.
The organization helps to satisfy employees' social needs through sports teams, parties,
and celebrations. The supervisor can help fulfill social needs by showing direct care and
concern for employees.
Level IV - Esteem needs are the desires for self-respect and respect or recognition from
others. The organization helps to satisfy employees' esteem needs by matching the skills
and abilities of the employee to the job. The supervisor can help fulfill esteem needs by
showing workers that their work is appreciated.
Level V - Self-actualization needs are the desires for self-fulfillment and the realization of
the individual's full potential. The supervisor can help fulfill self-actualization needs by
assigning tasks that challenge employees' minds while drawing on their aptitude and
training.
II) Hertzberg’s Two- factor Theory
This is an environmental motivation theory which emphasized factors in the environment that
contribute to the behaviors. In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a two-
factor theory or the motivator-hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors
that result in satisfaction while there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction. According
to Herzberg, the opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No satisfaction” and the opposite of
“Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction”.

1. Those factors that have positive effect on job satisfaction are known as motivators.
Satisfaction comes from motivators that are intrinsic or job content, such as achievement,

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recognition, advancement, responsibility, the work itself, and growth possibilities. Herzberg uses
the term motivators for job satisfiers since they involve job content and the satisfaction that
results from them. They are necessary for substantial improvements in work performance and
move the employee beyond satisfaction to superior performance. Motivators correspond to
Maslow's higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization.
1.The factors that prevent dissatisfaction are known as hygiene factors (maintenance factors).
Dissatisfaction occurs when the following hygiene factors, extrinsic or job context, are not
present on the job: pay, status, job security, working conditions, company policy, peer
relations, and supervision. Herzberg uses the term hygiene for these factors because they are
preventive in nature. They will not produce motivation, but they can prevent motivation from
occurring. Hygiene factors can be considered job stay-on because they encourage an employee
to stay on a job. Once these factors are provided, they do not necessarily promote motivation;
but their absence can create employee dissatisfaction. Hygiene factors correspond to Maslow's
physiological, safety, and social needs in that they are extrinsic, or peripheral, to the job. They
are present in the work environment of job context.
In summary see the table below
Motivational Factors. Hygiene (maintenance ) Factors
 Are related to the nature of work itself  Do not motivate people.
(job content), and are intrinsic to the job  They simply prevent dissatisfaction and maintain
itself. status-que
 These factors have a positive influence on  They produce no growth but prevent loss.
morale; satisfaction, efficiency, and  The absence of these factors leads to job
higher productivity. dissatistactions.
 Some of thse factors are:  The elimination of dissatisfaction does not mean
 The job itself satisfaction and these factors simily maintain a “Zero
 Recognition level of motivation”.
 Achievement  These factors are primarily extrinsic in nature and
 Responsiblity enviroment- oriented and relate to job context rather
 Growth and advancement than job content.
 Some of the hygiene factors are:
 Wage, salary and other types of employee
benefits
 Company policies and administration rules
 Interpersonal relations with peers and
supervisors and subordinates.
 Working conditions and job security.
 Supervisor‟s technical competence as well as
the quality of his supervision
o

III) McClelland’s Need Achievement Theory

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McClelland’s theory of needs is one such theory that explains this process of motivation by
breaking down what and how needs are and how they have to be approached. David McClelland
was an American Psychologist who developed his theory of needs or Achievement Theory of
Motivation which revolves around three important aspects, namely, Achievement, Power, And
Affiliation. This theory was developed in the 1960s and McClelland points out that regardless of
our age, sex, race, or culture, all of us possess one of these needs and are driven by it. This
theory is based on the premise that everyone has a different need for achievement.
- Achievement – oriented people tend to compare themselves with a standard of excellence,
People with high achievement need are willing to take moderate risks, were as those with
low achievement need tend to take either very high or very low risks.
- People with a high need for power want to exercise authority or influence over others. They
prefer individual compactions, which lets them assert their dominance.
- People with high affiliation needs enjoy social interaction and need close friendships. They
are likely to have close friends both on and off the job, and they typically belong to several
social organization. The need for achievement is not necessarily innate, but rather is
developed by a person‟s experiences.
All people have achievement, power, and affiliation needs, but different people have different
levels of these needs. For example: the most effective managers, on the other hand, have a high
need for power, a moderate need for achievement, and a low need for affiliation.

3.1.2. Theories of Motivation / Process Approach

The process approach emphasizes how and why people choose certain behaviors in order to
meet their personal goals. Process theories focus on external influences or behaviors that people
choose to meet their needs. Some of the theories are:-
(A) Expectancy Theory.
The expectancy theory of motivation was developed by Victor. H. Vroom in 1964. It is based on
the idea that employee beliefs about the relationship among effort, performance, and outcomes
as a result of performance and the value employees place on the outcomes determine their level
of motivation.The expectancy theory postulates that an employee‟s level of motivation depends
on three basic beliefs:

71
a) Expectancy:- refers to the employee‟s belief that his/her effort will lead to the desired level
of performance.
b) Instrumentality:- refers to the employee‟s belief that attaining the desired level of
performance will lead to certain outcomes.
c) Valence: - refers to the employee‟s belief about the value of the outcomes.
According to this theory of motivation, Motivational Force (M) is a product of Expectancy (E),
Instrumentality (I) and Valence (V). (M= E x I x V). As the relationship suggests, the
motivational force will be highest when expectancy, instrumentality and valence are all high.

(B) Reinforcement Theory.

Reinforcement means the act of supporting or strengthening something. The development of the
reinforcement theory of motivation is generally credited to B.F.Skinner (1904 –1990).
Reinforcement theory is based on the belief that all human behavior is shaped by its
consequences. According to this theory, person behaves a certain way because of a
reinforcement or stimulus he or she received in the past for the same behavior. The general idea
behind reinforcement theory is that the consequences of a person‟s present behavior influence
future behavior. For example (according to this theory), behavior that leads to a positive
consequence is likely to be repeated, while behavior that leads to a negative consequence is
unlikely to be repeated. The consequences of an individual‟s behavior are called reinforcement.
(C) Equity Theory
Equity theory is proposed by J. Stacey Adams in 1963 and based on the idea that people want to
be treated fairly in relationship to others. Equity is the perception of fairness involved in rewards
given. A fair or equitable situation is one in which people with similar inputs experience similar
outcomes. Employees will compare their rewards with the rewards received by others for their
efforts. If employees perceive that an inequity exists, they are likely to withhold some of their
contributions, either consciously or unconsciously, to bring a situation into better balance. On the
other hand, when a worker thinks he or she is being paid too much for the work he or she is
doing, he or she tends to increase the amount of work. Not only do workers compare their own
inputs and outputs; they compare their input/output ratio with the input/output ratio of other
workers. If one work team believes they are doing more work than a similar team for the same
pay, their sense of fairness will be violated and they will tend to reduce the amount of work they
are doing. It is a normal human inclination to want things to be fair.

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Inequity exists when a person perceives his/her job inputs and outcomes to be less than the job
inputs and outcomes of another person. The important point to note in this theory is that it is the
person‟s perception of inputs and outcomes, not necessarily the actual inputs and outcomes.

Inputs:- are what an employee perceives are his or her contributions to the organization (i.e.,
education, intelligence, experience, training, skills, and the effort exerted on the job).

Outcomes:- are the rewards received by the employee (i.e., pay, rewards intrinsic to the job,
seniority benefits, and status).

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UNIT 4
4. CONCEPT AND DEFINITIONS OF LEADERSHIP
Any organizations (both formal and informal) need leaders to accomplish their objectives.
Indeed, organizations would be less efficient without leaders, and in extreme cases, they would
be unable to accomplish goals. Leadership can define in different way as: Leadership is the art of
influencing others to act in order to accomplish specific objectives. It is the process of inspiring
and empowering others to voluntarily commit themselves to achieving the leader‟s vision. In
general, leadership is an influence process; leadership involves the exercise of influence on the
part of the leadership over the behavior of one or more other people.
4.1. Leadership Theories
Leadership theories can be classified into three principal phases: the trait theories, the behavioral
theories, and the situational theories.
4.1.1. Trait Theories
Before 1945, the most common approach to the study of leadership concentrated on leadership
was traits of a person. Trait theory suggests that leaders have certain personality, social, and
physical characteristics, known as traits that influence whether a person acts as a leader. Much
of the early work on leadership focused on identifying the traits of effective leaders. This
approach is based on the assumption that a finite number of individual traits of effective leaders
could be found. Most researchers were determined to identify intellectual, personality, and
physical traits of successful leaders.
 Intellectual Traits - include dimensions of intelligence such as decisiveness, judgmental
ability, knowledge, and verbal abilities. Leaders were believed to be more intelligent than
their followers.
 Personality Traits - suggest such traits as alertness, originality, personal integrity, and self-
confidence that are associated with effective leadership.
 Physical Traits - include physical characteristics such as age, height, weight, and appearance.
These traits are believed to differentiate the leaders from their followers. For instance, being
taller and heavier than the average groups are considered as leadership traits although they
certainly are not requirements for achieving a leader's position
In summary; empirical research suggests that leadership is a dynamic process, varying from
situation to situation with changes in the leader, the followers, and the situation. Therefore,

74
although certain traits may help or hinder in a given situation, there is no universal set of traits
that will ensure leadership success. The lacks of validation of trait approaches led to other
investigations of leadership among the most prominent areas were the attitudinal approaches.
4.1.2. Behavioral Theories
Critics of the trait theory suggested that leader‟s behaviors determined their effectiveness. That
is, in lieu of searching for traits, behaviors are examined with their impact on the performance
and satisfaction of followers to determine the effectiveness of the person‟s leadership.Behavioral
theories contend that leaders are best classified by behavioral styles. These theories focus on
what the leader does when performing managerial tasks.

4.1.3. Situational Leadership Theory

The focus in situational approaches to leadership is on the observed behavior of leaders and their
group members (followers) in various situations, not on any hypothetical inborn or acquired
ability or potential for leadership. This emphasis on behavior and environment allows for the
possibility that individuals can be trained to adapt their style of leader behavior to varying
situations. Current organizational behavior theory views leadership as well as other
organizational behavior concepts and theories as situational or contingent in nature.
The three main components of the leadership process are the leader, the follower, and the
situation. So, Situational approaches examine the interplay among these variables in order to
find causal relationships that will lead to predictability of behavior. All situational approaches
require the leader to behave in a flexible manner, to be able to diagnose the leadership style
appropriate to the situation, and to be able to apply the appropriate style.

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UNIT 5
5. WORK AND TEACHER ASSIGNMENT
5.1. Meaning of Work assignment
It is the process by which work is divided among individual employees. In order to attain goal,
people in the organization must be given detailed task assignments with the specifics that will
enable them to know what to do and how to do it. Goals are focus on the planned output;
whereas tasks focus on the special activities that are carried out to accomplish goals.
5.1.1. The aspects of the Assignment of Work
The assignment of work has two aspects:
1. Determining what is to be done (goal) and
2. Determining how it is to be done (technique or direction).
1. Determining what is to be done (goal)
Is as goal statement in that it specifies the nature of the desired output and the time it is to be
completed. The statement has four features.
A. End States (Output): it consists of either a material output or a service and show the number
or quantity wanted.
B. Quality Standards: is included level of quality
C. Time Requirements: when the goal is accomplished.
D. Provision of Resources: in work assignment is the allocation of resources is another to be
considered.
2. Determining how it is to be done (techniques or directions).
In this aspect, we should focus on the three areas such as
1. Activities
2. Interactions and
3. The decision of work.
5.1.2. Variations in Work Assignments: depends on:

1. Specificity and Vagueness:

 The more specific the work assignment, the better the quality of the work.
2. Degree of Difficulty
3. Quantitative- Qualitative Dimension

76
5.2. Teacher Assignment
The strength of an educational system is, for the most part, determined by the quality of its
teachers. Thus, any educational institution should try its best to attract qualified persons to carry
out its various functions. Teacher Assignment can define as the determination of subjects and
levels for which teachers are to accept responsibility during a specified school term.
5.3. Teacher and Task Variables in Teacher Assignment
There is a high need for effective employment of teachers in modern schools. For this purpose,
both teacher variables and task variables must be taken into consideration before the
assignment of teachers.
1. Teacher variables: These are the beginning teacher, the teacher new to the school, the old
fashioned teacher, and the weak or failing teacher
2. Task variables: specialization, factors affecting teaching load and activities other than
teaching

77
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Adesina, Segum (1990). Educational Management. Enugu: Fourth dimension publishing Co.
LTD
Agarwal, R.D. (1993). Organization and Management. New Delhi: Tata Mc Graw
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Ayalew Shibeshi (1991). Approaches to Educational Organization and Management. Addis
Ababa University (Unpublished Teaching Material).
Barney, J. B. Griffin R.W. (1992). The Management of Organizations: Strategy, Structure,
and Behavior. Geneva: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Chandan, J.T. (2001). Management Theory and Practice. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.
Chaterjee, S.S.(1996).An Introduction to Management: Its Principles and techniques.
Calcutta: The World press priv.Ltd.
Cyrus F. Gibson (1980). Managing Organizational Behavior: Achieving Results Through
Understanding and Action. Homewood: Richard D. Irwin, inc.
Desseler,Gary(1994) 6th ed. Human Resource Management. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall ,Englewood Cliffs.
Forojalla, S.B. (1993). Educational Planning for Development. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Fremont E. Kast, James E. Rosenzweig, (1985). Organization and Management: A Systems
and Contingency Approach (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, inc.
Gaynor, Alan Kibbe (1998). Analyzing Problems in Schools and School Systems: A
Theoretical Approach. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Griffin, R.W. (1993). Management, 4th Ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Hanson, E.Mark (1996). Educational Administration and Organizational Behavior. Boston:
Alliyn and Bacon.
Heneri. Tosi, and et al (1999). Managing Organizational Behavior (4th ed.). UK: Blackwell
Publishers Ltd.
Herbert ,G. Heneman et. Al.(1987) Personnel Human resource Management. New
Delhi: Universal Book Stall.
Hersey, P.and K.H. Blachard (1993). Management of Organizational Behavior. Boston: Allen
and Bacon

78
Holt, D.H. (1993). Management: Principles and Practices, 3rd Ed. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Hoover, Nancy R., and others. "Transformational and Transactional Leadership: An
Empirical Test of a Theory." Paper presented at annual meeting of the American
Educational Research Association (Chicago, Illinois, April 1991). 36 pages. ED 331 117.
Hoy, Wayne K. and Cecil G. Miskel (1996). Educational Administration: Theory, Research,
and Practice. New York: McGraw - Hill, Inc.
Kinard, J. (1988). Management. Toronto: D.C. Health and Company.
Krishana ,G.R.(2004). Personnel /Human Resource Management : Principles and Practice.
Laxmi Nagar, Delhi
Kumar & R.Mittal (2001) Organizational Behavior. New Delhi: Anmol Pub. Pvt Ltd.
Kumar, P.(2002). Management Concept and Practices. New Delhi: Cyber-tech
Publication.
Leithwood, Kenneth A. "The Move Toward Transformational Leadership."
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 49, 5 (February 1992): 8-12. EJ 439 275.
Leithwood, Kenneth, and Doris Jantzi. "Transformational Leadership: How Principals Can
Help School Cultures." Paper presented at annual meeting of the Canadian Association
for Curriculum Studies (Victoria, British Columbia, June 1990). 49 pages. ED 323 622.
Leithwood, Kenneth, and Doris Jantzi. "Transformational Leadership: How Principals Can
Help School Cultures." EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 47, 8 (May 1990): 23-27. EJ
410 204.
Lunenburg, F. C. and Allan C. (2000). Educational Administration: Concepts
and Practices. Wad worth: Thomson Learning.
Mitchell, Douglas E., and Sharon Tucker. "Leadership as a Way of Thinking."
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 49, 5 (February 1992): 30-35. EJ 439 281.
Mondy, R.W. and Noe, R.M. (1999). Human Resource Management, (4th Ed).
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Morphet, Edgar L. (1982). Educational Organization and Administration: Concepts,
Practices and Issue (Fourth edition). Boston: Prentices hall Inc.
Murugan, M. Sakthivel (2004). Management Principles and Practices. New age International
Pvt .Ltd Publishers

79
Owns, G. Robert (1998) Organizational Behavior in Education (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Poplin, Mary S. "The Leader's New Role: Looking to the Growth f Teachers."
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 49, 5 (February 1992): 10-11. EJ 439 276.
Rashid, S.A. and Archer, M (1983). Organizational Behavior. Toronto: Methuen
Publications.
Roa, Vsp and P.S. Narayana (1996). Principles and Practice of Management. New Delhi:
Konark Polishers Pvt. Ltd.
Sagor, Richard D. "Three Principals Who Make a Difference." EDUCATIONAL
LEADERSHIP 49, 5 (February 1992): 13-18. EJ 439 277.
Schermerhorn, John R. (1997). Organizational Behavior (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley and
Sons, Inc
Stephen P. Robbins, (1996). Organizational Behavior: Concepts, Controversies, and
Applications (7th ed.). USA: Prentice Hall, inc.
Stoner, Freeman, and Gilbert (1995). Management (6thed). New York: Prentice hall. Inc.
Terry, George (2006) Principles of Management . Delhi: AITBS Publishers and Distributors.
Transitional Government of Ethiopia (1994). Education and Training Policy of Ethiopia
Addis Ababa: EMPDA.
Webb, M. and Scott Norton (1999). Human Resource Administration: Personnel Issue and
Need in Education. New Jersey: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Desseler,Gary(1994) 6th ed. Human Resource Management. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall ,Englewood Cliffs.
Forojalla, S.B. (1993). Educational Planning for Development. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Fremont E. Kast, James E. Rosenzweig, (1985). Organization and Management: A Systems
and Contingency Approach (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill, inc.
Gaynor, Alan Kibbe (1998). Analyzing Problems in Schools and School Systems: A
Theoretical Approach. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Griffin, R.W. (1993). Management, 4th Ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Hanson, E.Mark (1996). Educational Administration and Organizational Behavior. Boston:
Alliyn and Bacon.

80
Heneri. Tosi, and et al (1999). Managing Organizational Behavior (4th ed.). UK: Blackwell
Publishers Ltd.
Herbert ,G. Heneman et. Al.(1987) Personnel Human resource Management. New
Delhi: Universal Book Stall.
Hersey, P.and K.H. Blachard (1993). Management of Organizational Behavior. Boston: Allen
and Bacon
Holt, D.H. (1993). Management: Principles and Practices, 3rd Ed. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Hoover, Nancy R., and others. "Transformational and Transactional Leadership: An
Empirical Test of a Theory." Paper presented at annual meeting of the American
Educational Research Association (Chicago, Illinois, April 1991). 36 pages. ED 331 117.
Hoy, Wayne K. and Cecil G. Miskel (1996). Educational Administration: Theory, Research,
and Practice. New York: McGraw - Hill, Inc.
Kinard, J. (1988). Management. Toronto: D.C. Health and Company.
Krishana ,G.R.(2004). Personnel /Human Resource Management : Principles and Practice.
Laxmi Nagar, Delhi
Kumar & R.Mittal (2001) Organizational Behavior. New Delhi: Anmol Pub. Pvt Ltd.
Kumar, P.(2002). Management Concept and Practices. New Delhi: Cyber-tech
Publication.
Leithwood, Kenneth A. "The Move Toward Transformational Leadership."
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 49, 5 (February 1992): 8-12. EJ 439 275.
Leithwood, Kenneth, and Doris Jantzi. "Transformational Leadership: How Principals Can
Help School Cultures." Paper presented at annual meeting of the Canadian Association
for Curriculum Studies (Victoria, British Columbia, June 1990). 49 pages. ED 323 622.
Leithwood, Kenneth, and Doris Jantzi. "Transformational Leadership: How Principals Can
Help School Cultures." EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 47, 8 (May 1990): 23-27. EJ
410 204.
Lunenburg, F. C. and Allan C. (2000). Educational Administration: Concepts
and Practices. Wad worth: Thomson Learning.
Mitchell, Douglas E., and Sharon Tucker. "Leadership as a Way of Thinking."
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 49, 5 (February 1992): 30-35. EJ 439 281.

81
Mondy, R.W. and Noe, R.M. (1999). Human Resource Management, (4th Ed).
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Morphet, Edgar L. (1982). Educational Organization and Administration: Concepts,
Practices and Issue (Fourth edition). Boston: Prentices hall Inc.
Murugan, M. Sakthivel (2004). Management Principles and Practices. New age International
Pvt .Ltd Publishers
Owns, G. Robert (1998) Organizational Behavior in Education (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Poplin, Mary S. "The Leader's New Role: Looking to the Growth f Teachers."
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 49, 5 (February 1992): 10-11. EJ 439 276.
Rashid, S.A. and Archer, M (1983). Organizational Behavior. Toronto: Methuen
Publications.
Roa, Vsp and P.S. Narayana (1996). Principles and Practice of Management. New Delhi:
Konark Polishers Pvt. Ltd.
Sagor, Richard D. "Three Principals Who Make a Difference." EDUCATIONAL
LEADERSHIP 49, 5 (February 1992): 13-18. EJ 439 277.
Schermerhorn, John R. (1997). Organizational Behavior (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley and
Sons, Inc
Stephen P. Robbins, (1996). Organizational Behavior: Concepts, Controversies, and
Applications (7th ed.). USA: Prentice Hall, inc.
Stoner, Freeman, and Gilbert (1995). Management (6thed). New York: Prentice hall. Inc.
Terry, George (2006) Principles of Management . Delhi: AITBS Publishers and Distributors.
Transitional Government of Ethiopia (1994). Education and Training Policy of Ethiopia
Addis Ababa: EMPDA.
Webb, M. and Scott Norton (1999). Human Resource Administration: Personnel Issue and
Need in Education. New Jersey: Macmillan Publishing Company.

82
 PART THREE:
HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN
EDUCATION

83
1. HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION
1.1.Understanding Personnel Management in Education

Human Resource Management also called Personnel Management. The term 'human resource‟
refers to the sum total of all the inherent abilities, acquired knowledge and skills represented by
the aptitudes, attitudes, and talents of an organizational work force, Just as money and raw
materials are resources, so people are the human resources of an organization. Human resources
are critical in that they significantly influence organizational productivity. People operate the
machines, design new products and services, and make the decision to spend financial resources,
market products and deliver the services. Therefore, Human Resource Management is defined
as: the performance of all managerial functions involved in planning, recruiting, selecting,
developing, utilizing, rewarding, and maximizing the potential of the human resources to the best
achievement of the objective of an organization.
The purpose of human resource management is to provide organizations with an effective work
force. Thus, the functions of resource management are directed to the realization of the following
four objectives:
Societal objectives:
Organizational objectives:
Functional objectives:
Personal objectives:
Societal objectives: - as the name indicates societal objectives helps to be responsive to the
challenges and needs of society while minimizing the negative impact of such demands upon
the organization. Organizational objectives: helps torecognize that HRM exists to contribute
to organizational effectiveness. Functional objectives: helps to keep the contributions of the
human resource management on a level to the needs of the organization. Personal objectives:
helps to assist employees in achieving personal goals, at least insofar as these goals enhance the
individual's contribution to the organization.
The human resources of an organization consist of all individuals engaged in any organization‟s
activities regardless of level. An organization weather its business or industrial, government,
university or college, club, a military organization or any organization, which is attempting to
achieve one or more objectives, and it may be small or large, simple or complex. Since people

84
are the necessary ingredients in any organization, human resource management is inherent in all
organizations.
The functions of human resource management can be grouped in an unlimited number of ways.
This course presents the major human resource functions, which are believed to be useful to you.
The major human resource management functions are the following:-
Human resources planning
Employment planning
Job Design and job analysis:
Recruitment
Selection
Performance appraisal
Development,
Compensation
Integration
Maintenance and separation

The job of management, in general, involves two broad categories of functions: technical and
human. The technical aspect of management's function is concerned with the work to be
performed in a particular unit (e.g. Finance Department, Production Department or Sales
Department) of the organization. Human aspect is, on the other hand, concerned with the
people who perform the work of that particular unit. Human resource management is primarily
concerned with the improvement of the effectiveness of human resources existing in each
department in particular and in the organization in general.
When the organization finds that human resource work seriously disrupts other responsibilities,
the task of managing people may be reassigned. The assignment could be to a specialized
department that handles human resource matters. This process of getting others to share the work
is known as delegation. Delegation requires the chief executive to assign duties grant authority,
and create a sense of responsibility. It should, however, be noted that delegation does not reduce
a manager's responsibility; it only shares that responsibility with others.
The organizational unit that an executive manager may share his human resource
responsibilities is often known as "Human Resource Department” or “personnel department”.
The existence of the human resource department must not be seen as complete

85
departmentalization of the human resource functions. It is emphasized above that the functions
of human resource management is inherent in all management positions and, therefore, no one
individual or department must be seen as having exclusive jurisdiction over the functions.
The relationship between Human Resource Management Activities and Human Resource
Management Objectives
i) Societal objective a) Legal compliance
b) Required services
c) Union- management relations

ii) Organizational objective a) Human resource planning

b) Recruitment
c) Selection
d) Training and development
e) Appraisal
f) Placement
g) Control activities

iii) Functional objective a) Appraisal

b) Placement
c) Compensation

iv) Personal objective a) Training and development

b) Appraisal
c) Placement
d) Compensation
e) Control activities

Since new workers seldom fit the organization's needs exactly, they must be trained to perform
effectively. Subsequent human resource plans reveals new demands upon the organization.
These demands are met by recruitment of additional workers and by development of present
employees. Development teaches employees new skills to ensure their continued usefulness to
organization and to meet their personal desires for advancement. Then, as demands change,
placement activities such as transfer, promotion, demotion, lay off, or even employment
termination of workers would take place.
When employees perform acceptably, they must receive compensation. This form of reward
includes wages, salaries, and a wide variety of fringe benefits such as insurance and vacation.
Some rewards are required services detected by legal compliance, such as pension plans, safe

86
working conditions, and the like. Communication and counseling efforts are other techniques
used to maintain employee performance and satisfaction
1.2. The Role of the Human Resource Manager

From what we have discussed above, it is clear that the human resource manager is expected
To play role in the effort to make an organization effective and efficient in achieving its
objectives.
It should, be noted that the human resource managers' role must be seen in relation to other
managers and not as an 'outsider' whose advice need not be taken.
Like his colleagues in the production and engineering, finance and marketing departments,
human resources manager is a business executive.
In order to deal effectively with other specialists, the human resource manager himself must
have a high degree of educational attainment. The respect, which attaches to him, depends on
his clear perception of problems and the ability to offer workable solutions. This is the
background, which will enable the human resource manager to carry out his complex role
effectively in planning systems and procedures for recruitment and selection, promotion and
transfers, job description and job evaluation.
Human resources manager will also initiate human resource policies aimed at improving the
effectiveness of the organizations‟ human resources, establishing training programs for all
new and old employees.
It is also expected to introduce and facilitate collective bargaining procedures and submit
collective agreement proposals to the organization for approval and negotiate such details on
behalf of the organization.
It also co-ordinates and controls the implementation of the organization's human resource
policies and practices to ensure uniformity of action, justice and fairness.
Another area where the human resource manager can play an important role is human
resource audit or personnel audit.
1.3. Staff Personnel Management

Human Resources Planning

The first operative function in the process of HRM is called Staff Procurement. Staff
procurement is concerned with the obtaining of the proper kind and number of people necessary

87
to accomplish organizational goals. It deals specifically with determination of human resource
requirements of an organization, and the recruitment, selection and assignment of personnel. The
joint at which the process of staff procurement starts is referred as human resource planning
(HRP).
Human Resource Planning (HRP), as a starting point in the process of staff procurement, refers
to the determination advance of the number and quality of persons to be employed to an
organization. It involves two major objectives
To ensure the optimum use of the human resources employed, and
To provide for the future human resource requirements of the organization in terms of
skills, numbers and ages.

Therefore, at every point in time in the life of on organization, there must be the right number of
employees with the right level of skills doing the right jobs at the right time and performing the
right activities in order to achieve the objectives of the organization and to fulfill its purpose.
In pondering these questions, the employer organization must take in to account its current
human resource position, its future human resource requirements and how these requirements
will be fulfilled. This, in turn, brings the process of human resource planning to fall into three
distinct phases:
Job analysis and skills inventory,
Personnel forecasting, and
Personnel transition

Phase I. Job Analysis and Skills Inventory

Job analysis is the beginning of HRP. Job analysis is the process of determining, through
observation and study, the pertinent information related to the nature of specific job. It is the total
process and appraising jobs that would help in determining the human resource requirements of
an organization. During the analysis, the following facts concerning each job should be
systematically recorded:
Identifying specific tasks of the job:what different tasks are involved in the job as a
whole;
Procedures: How the tasks should be performed; that is, the methods involved in the
best possible performance of each task or group of related tasks;

88
 Qualification and personal attributes:What qualifications (education, training, special
skill, intelligence, etc.) and personal attributes (good eyesight, good hearing, speaking
voice, manual dexterity, etc.) should ideally be possessed by required personnel: and

Job Description is basically descriptive in nature & it constitutes a record of existing and
pertinent job facts. It usually states the purpose of the job and its relations with other jobs and
people, and lists the physical, social and economic features of the job. Typical job description
contains the following elements:
Job Identification: includes such information as the title of the job, the unit (department,
division, and section) where the job is located, and the code of the job.
Purposes: defines the purposes or objectives of the job. It reveals the job summary in
which a short definition is provided as additional information when the job title is not
sufficient.
Duties: the duties section is the heart of the job description and the most difficult to write
properly and exhaustively. It is a list of all the tasks involved in the whole job. It provides
adequate information about the tasks to be done, how it should be done, and the purpose
behind Responsibility: For what and/or for whom the holder of the position will be
responsible each task. on the basis of the duties section the following elements of the
description can be developed:
Supervision given & received: this section clearly identifies the titles of the
job that are immediately over & under the job.
Relations to Other Jobs: This section identifies vertical r/ships of promotion
& horizontal relationships of workflow and procedures.
Work Conditions: this section identifies the factors of the environment in
which the employee will work; such as the nature of the physical setting of the
work, hours on duty, work on holidays, full details salary and wage rates,
fringe benefits, pension scheme, etc.

Job Specification, sometimes known as Employee Specification, is a statement of the minimum

acceptable human qualities necessary to perform a given job properly. It is the lists of the
education, experience, and skill requirements for someone to be given the job.
Job specification statements focus on the following qualities.

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 Physical Qualities: Upper and lower age limit, minimum height, speech, eyesight,
hearing, dexterity, etc.
Mental Qualities: Intelligence /IQ, ability to analyze and think critically, ability to make
sound decision, mental alertness, etc.
Skills or talent/special skills: some jobs may require mechanical aptitudes; others may
require specified skill such as short hand and use of computer.
Qualifications/educational status: Specific knowledge or skill acquired from relevant
education or training programs or from practical experience.

Personality and temperament requirement: These requirements vary depending on the nature
of the job. Different jobs require different personality and temperament; for instance, some jobs
like receptionists and sales posts require bright, pleasing and enthusiastic personalities.
Phase II. Human Resource Need Assessment/ Personnel Forecasting
Once the current human resource status of an organization is established through skills inventory,
the next thing to do is to plan for the future. Human resources need assessment or personnel
forecasting is a process that attempts to determine the future human resource needs of an
organization in light of its plans and objectives.
There are at least three major categories of human resource on the basis of which the
requirements of educational institutions for teaching staff can be determined. These are:
Increased or decreased enrollment which creates a need /or more teaching staff or a
reduction of staff, respectively
Changes in the educational program, which necessitates additional or differently trained
staff.
Staff resignation or transfers, which may create a need for new staff personnel.

Phase III. Human Resource Transition/ Personnel Transition

In the first phase of human resource planning, that is, through the processes of job analysis and
skills inventory, the current quality and quantity of human resources available in the organization
are defined. In the second phase, human resource forecasting, the human resource requirements
of the organization are specifically identified. In this third phase is related with human resource
transition/ personnel transition, which concerns to determine how the organization can obtain

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the quality and quantity of human resources required to meet its objectives as reflected by the
personnel forecast.

Recruitment and selection of Human Resources

Staff Recruitment may be defined as the active pursuit of potential candidates for the purpose of
influencing them to apply for positions in the education system. It is a process of searching for
qualified prospective employees, both beginners and experienced, and stimulating them to
apply/or vacancies available in an organization.
Sources of Staff Recruitment can be:

1.Internal sources

Internal source of staff recruitment is a process of filling a vacancy by a person already

employed by the education system. It is the main source of recruitment to many organizations.
Under this source, a vacant position of an organization is filled through:
Promoting a person currently working in a section or branch of the organization and/ or
Transferring a person working in another section of that organization.

Filling in a vacant position by people from within the organization has both merits and
limitations. The following are its major advantages:
Recruitment from within can serve as a factor of employee motivation that leads to greater job
satisfaction.
It has the advantage of securing adequate and reliable information about the job candidates
through analysis of their work histories.
Since employees promoted or transferred will have knowledge about the organization and
possibly about the work to be performed, the induction (orientation) and training process may
be shorter, easier and cheaper.
Most organizations have made a sizeable investment in the recruitment, selection and training
of their employees. Using employees‟ abilities to their fullest extent would, therefore, help the
organization improve its ability of securing return for its investment.
However, certain potential dangers must be realized before to fill in a vacant post through
internal recruitment. Two major possible limitations of internal staff recruitment are:

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 Recruitment of staff from within involves "inbreeding” of ideas. People from within the
organization may have their vested interests in the organization and they may prevent new
innovations or fresh ideas and may hamper the growth and development of the organization.
Another limitation is that the internal source is never sufficient. During periods of
organizational growth or expansion, dependence on internal sources may be inadvisable
because of non-availability of needed personnel, both in terms of quantity and quality.
2. External Sources
External sources of staff recruitment refer to sources of job applicants from outside of an
organization. If the required number and kind of human resources are not available within the
organization, outside sources may have to be tapped. Among the commonly used external
sources are the following:
Advertisement-, Employee agencies, Educational institutions, and other external recruitment
sources: Personal contacts, walk-ins, employee referrals, People from competing organizations

Staff Selection
Staff selection process takes over from the recruitment process once receiving applications
begins. It is a process of choosing individuals who possess the necessary abilities and personality
required to successfully fill in vacant positions in an organization. Staff selection process is
essentially a series of activities designed to give information about the job applicant that can be
compared to the job description and job specification. The ultimate objective of staff selection
process is:-
To match the requirement of the job (as indicated the job description and job specification)
To know the qualification of the individual job applicant
To rejects or avoid the negative process insofar more candidates than hired.
The selection procedure
There is no universal series of steps in staff selection that would satisfy all types of organization.
Even there were no standard procedure for staff selection is adopted; the various steps which are
commonly practiced are presented in figure 2.

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A brief description of the various steps of the selection procedure is noted in the following
paragraphs.
Step 1. Completing application form: Application form filled by a job applicant is the starting
point of the selection process. It is an easy and systematic method of obtaining a variety of
preliminary information about a job applicant. This information helps:
To provide a tool for preliminary screening
To indicate initial interest of an applicant
Serves as a basis for subsequent interviewing, testing and background investigation

Step 2. Screening of application and preliminary interview: This is to screen out applicants
who are unqualified or overqualified to the job. The person receiving the application can observe
the physical condition of applicant & ask him/her job related questions.
Some applicants may not communicate clearly and effectively.
Some may not satisfy the required size / height, legal age, etc.
Others may have too much qualification/intelligence for routine jobs.

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Step 3. Selection tests: A selection (or employment) test is an instrument designed to discover
and measure selected qualities and abilities of an applicant in terms of job specification.
Generally, tests provide a sample of behavior that is used to draw inferences about the future
behavior or performance of an applicant. Therefore, it is commendable to adopt both
intelligence/aptitude and performance selection tests to applicant.
Intelligence tests are designed to measure mental capacity and to test memory, speed of
thought, reasoning, and ability to see relationship in complex problems.
Aptitude tests are constructed to discover interests, existing skills, and potential for acquiring
skills. Since intelligence and aptitude tests may no guarantee to the future performance of
candidates, it may be necessary to conduct performance tests in addition. For instance,
candidates for secretarial and clerical positions may be required to take a typing test to
determine speed and accuracy.
Performance test gives candidates an opportunity to demonstrate their skills.
Personality tests are also designed to reveal candidates' personal characteristics such as
confidence, emotional maturity, reactions and temperament.

Step 4. Reference Check and Background information: The purposes of reference checks
and background information are to obtain additional information about the candidate and to
ascertain the correctness of the information provided by candidate in the application form.
Step 5. Employment Interview: Interview is one of the most widely used staff selection tools. It
is a selection technique that enables the employer organization to view and assess the total
"Personality" of its prospective employee. Its purpose is to gain additional information; which is
not included in the application form.
Step 6. Physical/ Medical Examination: Physical examination is normally, one of the final
steps in the selection processes. Pre employment physical examination has three objectives.
First, it serves to assure that the candidate‟s condition (such as eyesight, dexterity, and
strength) aligns with the physical requirements of the job as specified in the job specification.
Second, it helps to protect the employer organization against unwarranted claims of work-
caused disabilities under worker‟s compensation laws.
Step 7. Job Offer: The final selection of individuals to fill in job openings is made from a list of
eligible candidates who have passed all the foregoing steps in the selection process.

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Staff Induction

After the selection of new staff members of an educational institution is completed and
assignment of them on the respective jobs is finalized, the process of induction or orientation
should begin immediately. Staff induction is a process by which individuals who recently
assigned to an organization are helped to become oriented to a new environment, which includes
tire community, the organization, the work to be done, and the people with whom they will be
working

Purposes of Staff Induction

Effectively done, staff induction serves a number of purposes. Induction is similar to what
sociologists call socialization. The principal purposes of induction are briefly discussed as
follows.
 To reduce the start-up cost for the new staff member
 To reduce the amount of Anxiety
 To reduce employee turnover
 To save time to supervisors
 To develop realistic job expectations, positive attitudes toward the education system,

1.3 .Human Resource Development

A resource is a source or supply from which benefit is produced. Typically resources are
materials, energy, services, staff, knowledge, or other assets that are transformed to produce
something. It is a stock or supply of money, materials, staff, and other assets that can be drawn
on by a person or organization in order to function effectively. The active resource of an
organization is human resource. Other resources remain inactive unless there are competent
people to utilize the available resources for the production of goods and services.
Human Resource Development (HRD) is a process of developing skills, competencies,
knowledge and attitudes of people in an organization. The people become human resource only
when they are competent to perform organizational activities. Therefore, HRD ensures that the
organization has such competent human resource to achieve its desired goals and objectives.
HRD imparts the required knowledge and skill in them through effective arrangement of training
and development programs. HRD is an integral part of Human Resource Management (HRM)

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which is more concerned with training and development, career planning and development and
the organization development. Hence, HRD is a conscious and proactive approach applied by
employers which seeks to capacitate employees through training and development to give their
maximum to the organization and to fully use their potential to develop themselves.
Objectives and Benefits of HRD
The following objectives and benefits:
 Increased Productivity: An increase in skill usually results both quantity and quality of
output. For instance, "raw" human resources such as untrained teachers can make only
limited contributions towards the achievement of educational objectives with the desired
level of quality.
 Heightened Morale: High morale is evidenced by staff satisfaction, voluntary conformance
with policies, rules and regulations of the education system, and willingness to co-operate
with other staff members to accomplish common objectives.
 Reduced supervision: an adequately trained staff member is one who can supervise himself.
With reduced supervision, a supervisor can go in for increasing their span of management,
and the education system can save much cost on supervision.
 Increased organizational stability: staff members, who acquired the required skill and
knowledge through training and development programs, often accomplish assigned tasks
successfully; and this will give them the opportunity to develop a sense of job satisfaction.
Assessing Staff training needs
Training needs of an organization fall into two interdependent categories:-
 organizational training needs and
 Individual training needs.
Training should not be undertaken for its own sake. It must be geared to the objectives of the
particular organization. Any organization cannot plan a realistic training program unless a
diagnosis of the present human resource position has been made and its future plans and type
of human resource requirements have been decided upon.

2. Methods of Training and Development of Human Resources

Training and development programs offer something for everyone-from pre-employment
preparation for the first job to pre-retirement training for those who are ready to retire. Such

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programs offer development opportunities to all educational administrators at all levels and
teachers and non-teaching staff personnel.
On-the-job Training Methods: On-the-job training methods are concerned with developing
staff members in the present job. A staff member involved in such a training program learns and
at the same time contributes to the aim of the organization by accomplishing assigned tasks. The
following on-the-job training methods are suitable to all staff members at all levels of the
education system.
Training on Specific Jobs- Many opportunities for HRD are found on specific job. This is
possible through experience, coaching, and understudy.
Experience-This is the oldest method of on-the-job training. Learning by experience cannot and
should not be eliminated as a method of HRD, though as a sole approach, it is wasteful, time-
consuming and inefficient. It may not yield the desired results unless followed by other training
methods to make it more meaningful.
Coaching:- Under this system, a coach (a senior staff member) is assigned the
responsibility of seeing a trainee learns the skills needed in becoming an effective worker. The
technique involves direct personal instruction and guidance usually with extensive demonstration
and continuous critical evaluation and correction.
Under study-under this method of training, an individual works as an understudy (say as an
assistant to a senior officer) so that eventually he can assume full responsibilities and duties of
the job. The trainee learns by experience and observation.
Job rotation- this method of training involves the transferring of members from job to job on a
systematic regular basis. The major objective of the job rotation is the broadening of the
background of the trainee in the organization.
Advantages of on-job training: - The main advantages of these training methods are:
It provides general background to the trainee, and the training tasks place actual situation,
Competition can be stimulated among the rotating trainee,

It stimulates more co-operative attitude by exposing a member to problems and viewpoints of

other members.

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Off-the-Job Training Methods
Besides to on-the-job training, there are many off-the-job-training approaches to develop staff
members. Off-the-job training programs require trainees to devote their entire time to the staff
development objective. The following training techniques are used off-the-job:
Special Courses and Lectures- Special courses and lectures can be established by the education
system in many ways as a part of its staff development programs. First, there are courses which
the system itself can establish to be offered by its own members.
Conferences- In this method, the participants pool their ideas and experiences in attempting to
arrive at improved methods of dealing with the problems which are common subjects of
discussion.
Case Studies- A case is written account of a reporter, an analyst seeking to describe an actual
situation. This method increases the trainees of observation, helping him to ask better questions
and to look for a broader range of problems.
Simulation- simulation is the presenting of a real situation in a training session. In this method,
instead of taking trainees into field, the field can be stimulated in the training session itself. It
creates a whole filed organization, relates participants through key roles in it, and has been deal
with specific situations of a kind they encounter in real life.
Performance appraisal- This is another method which can profitably employed for staff
development programs. One purpose of performance appraisal is to evaluate an individual‟s
actual performance compared to planned performance. Analyzing the results of performance
appraisals helps in improving the future performance by identifying both the strengths and
weaknesses of individuals.
In-service Training of Teachers
Educational systems are always expected to maintain and improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of their staff members. Improving staff effectiveness involves developing staff both
individually and as a group through various training and re-training programs and through
continuous appraisal of their performance. In-service training may be defined as any planned
program of learning opportunities offered to staff members of an education system for the
purpose of improving the performance of the member in already assigned positions. Staff
development includes all educational personnel which emphasis on the professional staff is quiet
proper.

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4. STAFF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Performance appraisal may be defined as the process of evaluating a staff member's worth in
terms of the requirements of job title job; that is, knowing how well a member performs assigned
organizational activities. It is a process whereby the strengths and limitations of a staff member
are identified or defined. Performance appraisal of staff should be systematic. The essential
feature of system is to accurate measurement of performance because it attempts to reduce or
eliminate human bias and prejudices by means of a system, particularly a system that is subject
to impartial review and check.
Importance of Staff Performance Appraisal
The appraisal of staff performance is expected to provide answers to many questions in
managing human resources in all organizations, including school systems. The performance of
staff members is evaluated for many reasons. Performance appraisal of staff members may serve
the following objectives.
 Knowing and improving the quality of teachers/Staff performance appraisal serves to
guide human resource development.
 It helps to know an employee’s strengths and weaknesses,
 Making administrative decisions-A systematic performance appraisal of staff members
provides information of great assistance in making and enforcing about such subjects as
promotion, salary increase, discharge, lay-off, and transfers.
 Helping employees to know their current status and providing them motivation-
Performance appraisal puts a psychological pressure on people to improve performance on
the job. If staff members are conscious that their performance is being appraised properly and
their future depends on such appraisal results, they tend to be motivated to improve their
performance.
Bringing satisfaction to staff members and improving their morale- the existence of
regular and appropriate performance appraisal program is an important incentive to employees.
Such a appraisal program can serve to provide information to staff members that their
performance and contribution to the education system is well appreciated and there is every
opportunity to develop themselves both for their personal satisfaction and for the benefit of the
employer.

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Principles of Staff Performance Appraisal
There are some guiding principles which have emerged from research and experience and proved
relevant to any system of staff performance appraisal.
Principle of effective communication- two-way communication between evaluates and the
evaluator (for instance, school principal or assistant principals, unit leaders, or department heads)
is essential for the successful operation of a system of staff performance appraisal.
Principle of Evaluator's Training- The appraisal of staff performance is a complex and
sensitive task which requires evaluator's adequate competence in human, technical and
conceptual skills. Because of inadequate training in skills of performance appraisal, many
Evaluators tend to approach the task with some reluctance, and with a sense of insecurity for
knowing nothing or little about it, than their evaluates.
Principle of Staff Participation- A system of staff performance appraisal will likely succeed
when evaluates, who are directly affected by the appraisal program, are made to involve in the
design and operation of the system; and when they feel that the appraisal purpose is positive, and
its evaluation criteria are defined and realistic, and its process is appropriate.
Principle of Contextual Factors- Organizational factors which is beyond the control of staff
members can influence their performance effectiveness: - like availability and adequacy of
instructional materials, relevance of the curriculum, appropriateness of working hours and
scheduling, the physical condition or the working place, the volume of work to be done and type
of team-mates.
Problems of Staff Performance Appraisal
Performance appraisal is perceived by many staff members and their administrators as a"mixed
blessing." Most of them accept performance appraisal as inevitable and potentially valuable, but
many question is usefulness and value in practice because of the presence of certain basic
problems. These problems are: -
problems related to the design and operation of the appraisal system,
Problems related to skill and competence of evaluators,

Problems related to perception of employees about performance appraisal

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Problems related with design and operation of appraisal program

The design and operation of a system of performance appraisal can be blamed if its purpose and
criteria are not clearly defined, specified and communicated; and if its process fails to operate
effectively.
Purpose- Most performance appraisal schemes operating in many of our educational
institutions are trait-oriented, and focus more on summative or administrative purpose
than on developmental purposes.
Criteria- Another important area of problem in staff performance appraisal is the criteria
against which employees‟ performance is measured. Most criteria adopted to evaluate the
performance of staff members lacks validity and reliability.
Process- Any performance appraisal system will fail if those involved in the appraisal
program (evaluates und evaluators) are not given the opportunity to participate in the
process of determining the design and operation of the system.

Problems related with the Appraisers/evaluators

Performance appraisal process and results often prove ineffective mainly because of appraisers
lack the required knowledge, skill and commitment to appraisal. As a result, appraisers commit a
variety of errors, some of which discussed below.
The Halo Effect- Such an appraisal error appears fails to discriminate the various dimensions of
an employee‟s job. In such a case, the appraiser tends to take a single aspect of the employee‟s
performance to influence the entire appraisal.
Central Tendency Error- This is a tendency of appraisers‟ tendency to erroneously rating all
staff within a narrow range of appraisal results regardless of the actual performance differences
existed among them.
Constant Error- Appraisers vary in their perception of rating staff members' performance.
Some are lenient or easy raters, those who are rating employees' performance extremely high;
and some are severe or tough rater, those who‟s rating employees‟ performance extremely low.
Most appraisers lenient in rating performance, because, they not want to spoil their rapport with
evaluates who are also colleagues.
Recent-behavior bias- Many appraisal results suffer subjectivity, because, evaluators often
forget or are not concerned about the cumulative past performance of workers.

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Similar-to-me Error- This is an erroneous tendency of an evaluator who judges more favorably
the performance of those staff members who appear to be similar in the behavior to himself.
Contrast Error- This error often occurs in the sequencing of ratings; or when the performance
of a staff member is taken as a reference to rate the performance of others.
Problems related with the Evaluates
For a system of staff performance appraisal to function well, it is paramount importance that staff
members‟ regard it‟s potentially valuable to improve work performance.

Who Should Evaluate?

Superior Appraisal- A multitude of survey studies have confirmed that, almost in all
educational institutions, the key person accountable for evaluating staff performance is the
immediate superior or his/her delegates.
Peer/Colleague Appraisal- a staff member‟s peer is another staff member or colleague working
in the same institution or department or unit. Colleagues can serve as good sources of staff
performance data not only because of their frequent contacts to each other but also because of
their interdependence to accomplish common objectives.
Student Appraisal- Student appraisal is an essential and indispensable source of performance
data about staff members who are teaching in educational institutions such as school systems.
Appraisal performance of academic staff members or teacher by their students is another form of
classroom observation.
Self-appraisal- Comprehensive self-appraisal can serve as a vehicle of staff members'
professional improvement. If used genuinely and appropriately, by both evaluates and evaluators,
self-appraisal enhances early involvement of evaluates in the appraisal process, reducing their
sense of defensiveness and complaints about appraisal.
The Appraisal Process
Step1. Pre-appraisal Meetings
Pre-appraisal meeting is the preparatory stage in the process of staff performance appraisal. This
initial meeting is crucial aimed at establishing common understanding and agreement between
evaluates and their evaluators.
Step2. Task Observation and Data Collection

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The process of collecting staff performance data can take place anywhere and anytime during the
academic year/fiscal year. In this case, performance evaluation of academic staff or teachers can
be carried out not only in classroom but also at committee or staff meetings, in a school club, in a
group activity, at a conference held in the evaluators' officE.
Step3. Post-Appraisal Conference and Target-setting
Post-appraisal conference occupies a particular sensitive position in the appraisal process. In this
stage the staff members‟ contribution of institution were discussed, appraised, and valued. The
staff member will also have the opportunity to criticize and comment on performance evidences
presented by the evaluator.
Step4. Follow-up Discussions
Following the post-appraisal conference, the next step in the appraisal process is the follow-up.
in this stage performance target sated during the post appraisal conference are worked on,
supported and monitored. To make this stage successful, three approaches suggested to be
adopted.
To make this stage successful, three approaches suggested to be adopted.
1st remedial approach, in this approach an evaluator is expected to give the evaluate clear,
specific, and objective feedback , indicating what , how, and why the evaluate is
experiencing difficulty in carrying out performance targets. In such an approach, the evaluator
and evaluate jointly find out ways and means by which the difficulty realized could be tackled.
2nd, maintenance approach, in this approach both the evaluator and evaluate can ensure that the
performance strengths and skills currently realized in evaluate are sustained, so that satisfactory
levels of performance and job satisfaction can be continued.
3rd Developmental approach, in this approach professional development and personal growth
of the staff member are further enhanced. In this approach, after ascertaining, the evaluate has
successfully accomplished performance targets set in the post-appraisal conference, the evaluator
and the evaluate discuss and set new challenging target areas which are necessary for the latter to
achieve self- as well as institutional development.
In generally, three approaches are work well; if and only, the evaluator should play a role of a
coach and counselor. The appraiser's relationship with evaluate must be based on mutual trust
and respect. The evaluator must have credibility with the staff member as someone whose
observation, judgment, and comments will be valued.

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 PART FOUR:
Educational Property Management

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Chapter one: Educational Property Management

The school property management includes materials procurement, warehousing, distribution,

inventory control, maintenance, and disposals. School resources are resources that are used in
schools to carry out activities. These resources include: the teaching and non-teaching staff such
as: Human resources; Material resources and financial resources.

1.1. School Physical Management

The school‟s physical resources are all the structures found in a school system apart from human
beings. They are school facilities that include all instructional and non-instructional facilities.
Some of the important physical resources (school facilities), such as buildings, ventilated and
spacious classrooms, furniture, instructional materials, electricity, toilet facilities, playing
facilities, laboratories, libraries, aesthetics, etc., as stated by Osuji (2016), are as follows:

 It creates a conducive environment for teaching and learning.

 It helps the learners to develop skills through extra-curricular activities.
 It motivates the school teachers in the execution of their duties.
 It helps in the retention of teachers through a friendly teaching environment and good
allowances.
 It helps to reduce vices, truancy, and drop-outs among learners
 It gives room for researchers to carry out research.
 It enhances the activities of teaching and learning.
 It makes room for continuity in education.
 It helps to reduce the fear of insecurity in the school environment.
 It gives job satisfaction to teachers
The management of physical resources refers to: an effective and efficient allocation

and utilization of physical resources in an attempt to achieve educational goals.

Proper allocation and utilization of physical resources lead educational institutions toward
success. The management of physical resources includes durable and non-durable items/movable
and unmovable.

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According to the rules and regulations of financial and property management in Ethiopia, any
item which is bought above 200.00 birrs birr and could serve more than one year is a durable
item. This includes vehicles, furniture, computers, and the like. Items that could serve less than a
year time and that cost less than 200.00 birrs are called non-durables. Examples, stationary
materials

1.2. Principles, Techniques, and Model of Managing Physical Resources

 In principle, public property shall be managed to ensure efficiency and effectiveness in its
acquisition, use, maintenance, protection, and disposal within budgetary constraints.
 In terms of acquisitions, the public property shall be for the sole purpose of facilitating
the delivery and maintenance of approved programs as efficiently and effectively as
possible.
 Heads of public bodies are expected to ensure that public property is used as productively
as possible in carrying out the responsibilities of their public bodies.
 Establishing a proper maintenance system for public property helps to ensure that it will
operate as economically and effectively as possible by the directives of finance and
property management.
 Additionally, an inspection of the material being delivered is necessary, to ensure that no
visible damage has occurred.
 Further, those who are taking part in the unloading and handling should be on the alert
for potential concealed damage (e.g., boxes that rattle when they should not be expected
to).
 Moreover, heads of public bodies shall adopt a lifetime approach to the management of
public property and thereby ensure the value of all inventories of supplies.
 Both financial and physical resources should be controlled and managed by the rules and
regulations of the government issued by the ministry of finance
 Physical resources account for the largest part of the educational budget next to the costs
for educational personnel
 Schools are expected to own and manage material resources in more effective and
efficient ways.
 Because similar to those financial resources, material resources are scarce by their nature.

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  In line with this, the role of school administrators in managing materials resources is vital
for success.
 They are expected to be involved in purchasing school materials, supplies, equipment,
and the like.

1.3. Purchasing (Procurement) Educational Property

 Purchasing is the organized acquisition of goods and services on behalf of the buying
entity. Purchasing activities are needed to ensure that wanted items are obtained promptly
and at a reasonable cost.
 Procedures for procurement will vary by company policy, as well as by the product being
purchased.
 Some organizations have a purchasing agent or another person in the organizations‟ office
that may purchase some of the materials and products to be used in the organizations
 Some organizations utilize a warehousing system, and furnish materials to job sites from
the warehouse, usually on a requisition basis.
 Other materials and products may be purchased by the project manager, while still others
may be purchased by the supervisor.
 It is vitally important for the one who purchases to understand organizations‟ policies, as
well as the procedures to be employed about the procurement of all of the materials to be
utilized on the project.
 Additionally, the supervisor must remain in constant communication with others who
may be involved with this process, so that everyone understands who is responsible for
acquiring each material and who is responsible for each aspect of materials purchasing.
 In the same way, the concerned body must assure that two (or perhaps more) people are
not independently purchasing the same material, each believing it is his or her
responsibility to do so.
 Careful planning, constant update, and follow-through, as well as effective
communication, are required to avoid such an occurrence.
 According to Fischer and Espejo (2017), the purchasing process is the stage called pre-
purchase activities, purchase decisions, and post-purchase feelings.
 Purchasing has the following processes and steps.
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1st Identify the need, 2nd specify the requirement, 3rd Find and choose the supplier, 4th Negotiate
cost, 5th Get order approval; 8th Place the order; 9th Receive and approve the order and 1oth
Review supplier performance.

1.4. Specialized Purchasing Techniques

 Educational facilities purchasing is the process by which educational materials are bought
and supplied for educational purposes.
 The popular methods of purchasing techniques are:
Purchasing under the petty cash system where indirect cash purchases for small items
Purchase through telephone order wherein no formal purchasing orders are sent to the
supplier
Purchasing under the cash-on-delivery system wherein the purchases of certain items
are made on a cash basis.

The material requirements are broadly classified into two:

direct materials and
Maintenance, repair, and operating materials.
 The characteristics of these two groups of materials differ substantially and hence their
procurement efforts need district treatment.
 The purchasing procedure mostly deals with the purchase of direct materials while the
specialized purchasing procedure describes the procurement of indirect materials such as
stores and supplies.

 It is highly desirable to have a distinct treatment for the procurement of supplies because:

The cost of paper processing for placing the order is very high.
The inventory carrying costs is another consideration.
Like direct materials their needs are not directly affected by research and development.
Under the „principle of exception‟ the efforts of the buying staff can be saved for the
purchase of such items which can be utilized effectively for the purchase of some
important items.

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1.5. Supply Management in Schools

 Supply management is the act of identifying, acquiring, and managing resources and
facilities that are essential for the operations of a school functions: It includes:

The purchase of physical goods

Information

Services and

Any other necessary resources that ensure a school continues operating and is
effective.

 There are 4 components (elements) of the supply of school facilities.

Purchasing

Distribution

Integration

Operations

 There are also 5 areas of supply management in school facilities.

Supply planning

Production planning

Implementation planning

Capacity planning and

Distribution planning.

 Supply management is also expected to allocate and utilize school resources (materials) by
creating strong units for property management, by establishing the dependable inventory and
controlling systems in addition to strong records.
 In practice, huge purchases are conducted at the regional and district levels while small
purchases are expected to be handled at the school level.
 In principle any material property (purchases, donated, or contributed by the community and
the like) should be received by using a legal receipt.
 This is true for the outgoing materials.
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 The major models that help to receive and pass materials to an employee are the following
1.6. Warehousing
 It is the process of storing physical inventory for distribution. It is viewed as a logistical
service provider of the right quantity, at the right place, and at the right time.
 Types of warehouses include:
Private warehouse
Public warehouse
Bonded warehouse
Cooperative warehouse
Distribution centers
 The roles of warehousing
Inventory roles
For economic reasons
Centralizing the products
An emergency buffers
Adding value
Keeping goods safe.
 Generally, warehousing includes providing a system for identifying and recording storage
location, providing physical safeguards and security, and rotating materials to prevent
deterioration and obsolescence, and preserving.
 This requires various documents.
 Good storage should keep materials in a locatable way.
 This demands the identification and classification of each material and the coding.
 The proper storage location for each material is a function of many factors: the length of
time an item is expected to stay in storage, the amount of space available, and the
expected frequency and size of the material.
 On top of this, schools are expected to establish a system that keeps educational materials
in protected way from any damage (fire, theft, deterioration, and the like).
1.7. Inventory Control

Inventory is a detailed list of all the goods and property owned by an organization/ a
person.

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 Inventory is a process that helps to maintain the level of materials at a given point in
time
It also helps to make decisions concerning future purchases, maintenance, disposition,
and the like.
It is a process of checking the physical presence of materials.
Inventory control means managing your inventory levels to ensure that you are keeping
the optimum amount of each product.
Proper inventory control can keep track of your purchase orders and keep a functional
supply chain system can be put in place to help with forecasts and allow you to set
reorder points.
Inventory control involves various techniques for monitoring how stocks move in a
warehouse.
 Four popular inventory control methods:
Lat in, First out (LIFO)
First in, First out (FIFO)
Batch tracking
Safety stock
The popular inventory method is First in First Out (FIFO): There are 4 major inventories.
Raw materials and components
Work in progress
Finished goods and maintenance
Repair and operating supplies
1.8. Distribution of Facilities
 A distribution center is a specialized warehouse that serves as a hub to strategically store
finished goods, streamline the picking and packing process, and ship goods out to another
location or final destination.
 Every material or property that is to be installed or used must be procured and purchased
 It is the expectation of the workers that when they are assigned a task by the concerned
body, the correct materials will be on hand for the completion of that activity.

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  If not, time is wasted, and, in addition, the workers become frustrated and demotivated.
Their morale declines, productivity suffers, and the principal or supervisor‟s stature
diminishes.
 In addition to all of these unpleasant and costly results, if the proper materials are not
available for the performance of an assigned task, it follows by definition that workers
will need to be reassigned to other work.
 This occurrence is itself costly, and additional time and energy are wasted and
productivity suffers further.
 Warehouses are mainly used for storing products until they are needed.
 Distribution centers store products as well as perform product mixing, cross-docking,
order fulfillment, and packaging.
 Warehouses store products for longer periods

 Issues of fair distribution can also be discovered through inventory.

 It is usually done by a committee established by top-level management.
 It can be done at the end of a year or through continuous inventory throughout the year.
 The major models that help to receive and pass materials to an employee are the
following
Table 1 different model to receive and withdraw materials
1 Model 19 Used when the material is submitted to store
2 Model 20 Request to withdraw materials from the store
3 Model 21 Used to approve a requested material
4 Model 22 Helps to withdraw materials from the store

1.9. Disposal of materials

 Disposal includes the removal of obsolete and surplus materials.

 The other important element of material management refers to disposal.
One of the reasons for this is the obsolescence of school materials.
This may be caused by different factors which include technological changes,
changes in curriculum, and deteriorating efficiency of the item.

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 Surplus may result from supplies and equipment previously procured but no longer
being needed, or no longer being used.
Disposition can be realized through selling, transfer, and disposal.
In no waythe government-owned property could be taken for private use.
Schools should have a committee for realizing material disposition as per the
government rule and regulations.

4.10. Operation and Maintenance of the School Plant

 Due attention should also be paid to the management of relatively permanent physical
resources such as buildings and grounds that form the physical setting for education.
 Basically, the quality of education depends on sufficient availability and management of
physical resources.
 Indeed, school plants should be handled properly as the investments in school plants accounts
for substantial capital investment of public money and as they are relatively permanent in
nature.
 Hence, timely maintenance of school plants is highly vital-particularly for schools-where
children to get an education.
 Considerations for operations of school plants encompass a wide range of issues that, if
properly addressed, will enhance a facility's operability. Some of the more common issues
include:
 Safety
 Plant security
 Electrical power and control systems
 Level of automation
 Ergonomic design
 Top issues in process plant maintenance
 Know the real value of maintenance
 Make use of condition-based monitoring for smart maintenance. ...
 Ensure all maintenance engineers are properly trained and keep good records.
 Secure skilled project leadership. ...

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4 types of maintenance strategy:

 Corrective maintenance.
 Preventive maintenance.
 Risk-based maintenance.
 Condition-based maintenance.
 Include maintenance engineers in equipment purchase conditions.
 Plant operation considerations include:
 Purpose of custodial services
 custodial duties

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