CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The aqua silencer system is design for replace commonly used single unit silencers in
engine with it’s slender structure and less weight. It play an important role in control the
noise and emission of gases from engines. Air pollution causes dangerous physical effect on
the human body, animal and environment.

The main reason to use aqua silencer is because now a days air pollution is increasing
rapidly. This system reduces the dangerous exhaust gases from the auto. These emission
controlled by the activated charcoal layer around perforated tube and lime water. The
charcoal layer having high capacity to absorb emission gases from engine.

These type charcoal layer with lime water reacts chemically with emission gases and
change the chemical structure of emission gases. The smoke or emission gases and noise
level in aqua silencer is very less than the commonly used silencers.

Air pollution is a major problem. The main pollutants contributed by automobiles are
(CO), Un-burnt Hydro Carbon (UBHC), (NOx) and Lead etc. Other sources which cause
pollution are electric power generating stations and Industries. So it is imperative that serious
attempts should be made to conserve earth’s environment from degradation. An aqua silencer
is an attempt in this direction. It mainly deals with control of emission and noise. An aqua
silencer is fitted to the exhaust pipe of an engine. Air pollution is the introduction of
chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans
or other living organisms or damages the natural environment. These substances called
pollutants can occur naturally or they can be produced by human activities. Natural pollutants
include dust, pollen, salt particles, smoke from forest fires, and gases from organic waste.
Most pollution caused by human activities is directly or indirectly the result of burning of
fuels in furnaces or engines

1
 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Akhil Anil Kumar et.al (May 2016) had observed that the aqua silencer is
successfully effective in reducing emission of gases from the engine exhaust. By using water
as a medium, the sound levels have been reduced and by using activated charcoal in water, it
produces almost pollution-free and smokeless emission and is also cheap considering long
term use. The aqua silencer’s performance is almost equivalent to the conventional silencer.
It can be widely used in industrial engines and with a little improvisation, in heavy weight
vehicles. This project analyzed the smoke content of the exhaust gas before and after
treatment and it was found that there is a considerable reduction in the emission as pointed
out by the test results.
G.Balasubramanian et.al (2014) had analyzed the contents of the exhaust gas before
and after the treatment and it was found that there is a considerable difference in the
percentage of harmful products in the emission.
Sarath Raj et.al (March 2016) had found that it is more effective in the reduction of
emission gases from the engine exhaust using perforated tube and charcoal, by using
perforated tube the backpressure will remain constant and the sound level is reduced. It is
smokeless and pollution free emission and also it is very cheap. It can be also used both for
two wheelers and four wheelers and also can be used in industries.
Alen.M.A et.al (Aug.2015) had observed that by using perforated tube the back
pressure will remain constant and sound level get reduced. The water contamination is found
to be negligible in aqua silencer.

RawaleSudarshan S et.al (Sep.2013) had found that the Aqua Ammonia with proper
concentration can be very useful for reducing the rate of pollution from I.C engine

Akhil Anil Kumar.It basically consists of a perforated tube which is installed at the
exit of the exhaust from the engine, which may have holes of variable diameters.
Theoretically, four or more sets of holes are made on the perforated tube using drilling. The
other end of the perforated tube is sealed using a plug. A small coating of activated charcoal
is provided all

2
 CHAPTER III

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The high temperature high pollutant exhaust gas is allowed to pass through the belt
mouth assembly of the filter. This allows the exhaust gas to expand considerably. This
expansion allows the gas to cool, because the temperature is a function of pressure. This
considerable reduction of backpressure allows for the additional involved due to the
introduction of water and lime stone container. After expansion, the emission comes in
contact with oil where the products of combustion are filtered when bubbled through it. Also
allows for more contact area with water, so that effective cooling takes place within the short
span of time available for the gas to pass through the oil. The length of bubbling can be
increased by the oil level in the tank. The filter is used to filter the carbon particles in the
exhaust gas.

DIAGRAM

FIG :3.1 AQUA SILENCER

3
 CHAPTER IV

DESCRIPTION OF PARTS

4.1 PERFORATED TUBE

4.2 CHARCOAL
4.3 PERFORATED METAL
4.4 OUTER SHELL
4.6 FLANGE
4.7 LIME SODA

4
4.1 PERFORATED TUBE

FIG: 4.1 PERFORATED TUBE

Perforated metal, also known as perforated sheet, perforated plate, or perforated

screen, is sheet metal that has been manually or mechanically stamped or punched to create a
pattern of holes, slots, or decorative shapes.

Materials used to manufacture perforated metal sheets include stainless steel, cold
rolled steel, galvanized steel, brass, aluminium, tinplate, copper, plastic, and more.

The process of perforating metal sheets has been practiced for over 150 years. In the
late 19th century, metal screens were use as an efficient means of separating coal.

Unfortunately, the first perforators were labourers who would manually punch
individual holes into the metal sheet.

This proved to be an inefficient and inconsistent method which led to the

development of new techniques, such as perforating the metal with a series of needles
arranged in a way that would create the desired hole pattern.

Modern day perforation methods involve the use of technology and machines.
Common equipment used for the perforation of metal include rotary pinned perforation
rollers, die and punch presses, and laser perforations.

Architectural - infill panels, sunshade, cladding, column covers, metal signage, site
amenities, fencing screens, etc.

5
 Food & beverage beehive construction, grain dryers, wine vats, fish farming, silo
ventilation, sorting machines, fruit and vegetable juice presses, cheese baking trays, coffee
screens, etc.

Chemical & energy filters, centrifuges, drying machine baskets, battery separator
plates, water screens, gas purifiers, liquid gas burning tubes, mine cages, coal washing, etc.

Material development glass reinforcement, cement slurry screens, dyeing machines,

textile printers and felt mills, cinder screens, blast furnace screens, etc.

Automotive air filters, oil filters, silencer tubes, radiator grilles, running boards,
flooring, motorcycle silencers, ventilation grids, tractor engine ventilation, etc.

Construction - ceiling noise protection, acoustic panels, stair treads, pipe guards, ventilation
grilles, sun protection slats, facades, sign boards, etc.

The acoustic performance of perforated metal helps people or workers to limit health
effects from noise. Studies have shown that perforated metals help reduce sound levels.

4.2 CHARCOAL

FIG : 4.2 CHARCOAL

6
 Charcoal is the lightweight black carbon and ash residue hydrocarbon produced by
removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances.

Charcoal is usually produced by slow paralysis the heating of wood or other

substances in the absence of oxygen.

The advantage of using charcoal instead of just burning wood is the removal of the
water and other components, which allows charcoal to burn to a higher temperature, and the
fact that the product of its combustion is mainly carbon dioxide, resulting in very little smoke
regular wood gives off a good amount of steam and unborn carbon particles soot in its
smoke.

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article
by adding citations to reliable sources.

Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Historically, the production of

wood charcoal in locations where there is an abundance of wood dates back to a very ancient
period, and generally consists of piling billets of wood on their ends so as to form a conical
pile, openings being left at the bottom to admit air, with a central shaft to serve as a flue.

The whole pile is covered with turf or moistened clay. The firing is begun at the
bottom of the flue, and gradually spreads outwards and upwards.

The success of the operation depends upon the rate of the combustion. Under average
conditions, 100 parts of wood yield about 60 parts by volume, or 25 parts by weight, of
charcoal; small-scale production on the spot often yields only about 50%, while large-scale
became efficient to about 90% even by the seventeenth century.

The operation is so delicate that it was generally left to colliers professional charcoal
burners. They often lived alone in small huts in order to tend their wood piles.

The massive production of charcoal at its height employing hundreds of thousands,

mainly in Alpine and neighbouring forests was a major cause of deforestation, especially in
Central Europe.

The increasing scarcity of easily harvested wood was a major factor behind the switch
to fossil fuel equivalents, mainly coal and brown coal for industrial use.

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 The modern process of carbonizing wood, either in small pieces or as sawdust in cast
iron retorts, is extensively practiced where wood is scarce, and also for the recovery of
valuable by-products which the process permits. The question of the temperature of the
carbonization is important.

In Finland and Scandinavia, the charcoal was considered the by-product of wood tar
production. The best tar came from pine, thus pinewoods were cut down for tar pyrolysis.

The residual charcoal was widely used as substitute for metallurgical coke in blast
furnaces for smelting. Tar production led to rapid local deforestation.

The end of tar production at the end of the 19th century resulted in rapid re-forestation
of affected areas.

The process was further popularized by Henry Ford, who used wood and sawdust by-
products from automobile fabrication as a feedstock. Ford Charcoal went on to become the
Kingsford Company.

4.2.1 PRODUCTION METHODS

Charcoal has been made by various methods. The traditional method in Britain used aclamp.
This is essentially a pile of wooden logs (e.g. seasoned oak) leaning against a chimney logs
are placed in a circle.

The chimney consists of 4 wooden stakes held up by some rope. The logs are completely
covered with soil and straw allowing no air to enter. It must be lit by introducing some
burning fuel into the chimney.

The logs burn very slowly and transform into charcoal in a period of 5 days' burning. If the
soil covering gets torn cracked by the fire, additional soil is placed on the cracks.

Once the burn is complete, the chimney is plugged to prevent air from entering. The true art
of this production method is in managing the sufficient generation of heat by combusting part
of the wood material and its transfer to wood parts in the process of being carbonised.

A strong disadvantage of this production method is the huge amount of emissions that
are harmful to human health and the environment emissions of unbent methane.

8
 Modern methods employ retorting technology, in which process heat is recovered
from, and solely provided by, the combustion of gas released during carbonisation.

The properties of the charcoal produced depend on the material charred. The charring
temperature is also important. Charcoal contains varying amounts of hydrogen and oxygen as
well as ash and other impurities that, together with the structure, determine the properties.

The approximate composition of charcoal for gunpowder is sometimes empirically

described as C7H4O. To obtain a coal with high purity, source material should be free of
non-volatile compounds.

4.2.2 TYPES

Oaten, charcoal briquettes made from sawdust

File:BurningOgatan Japanese Briquette Charcoal.theory Burningoaten

Common charcoal is made from peat, coal, wood, coconut shell, or petroleum.

Sugar charcoal is obtained from the carbonization of sugar and is particularly pure.

Activated charcoal is similar to common charcoal but is made especially for medical
use. To produce activated charcoal, manufacturers heat common charcoal in the presence of a
gas that causes the charcoal to develop many internal spaces or "pores".

These pores help activated charcoal trap chemicals.

Lump charcoal is a traditional charcoal made directly from hardwood material. It usually
produces far less ash than briquettes.

Japanese charcoal has had pyroligneous acid removed during the charcoal making; it
therefore produces almost no smell or smoke when burned. The traditional charcoal of Japan
is classified into two types:

4.2.3 BLACK CHARCOAL

Pillow shaped briquettes are made by compressing charcoal, typically made from
sawdust and other wood by-products, with a binder and other additives.

9
 The binder is usually starch. Briquettes may also include brown coal heat source,
mineral carbon heat source, borax, sodium nitrate ignition aid, limestone ash-whitening
agent, raw sawdust ignition aid, and other additives.

Sawdust briquette charcoal is made by compressing sawdust without binders or

additives. It is the preferred charcoal in Taiwan, Korea, Greece, and the Middle East. It has a
round hole through the centre, with a hexagonal intersection.

It is used primarily for barbecue as it produces no odor, no smoke, little ash, high
heat, and long burning hours exceeding 4 hours.

Extruded charcoal is made by extruding either raw ground wood or carbonized wood
into logs without the use of a binder. The heat and pressure of Like many other sources of
carbon, charcoal can be used for the production of various syngas compositions

4.2.4 USES

Grill charcoal made from coconut shell Charcoal has been used since earliest times
for a large range of purposes including art and medicine, but by far its most important use has
been as a metallurgical fuel.

Charcoal is the traditional fuel of a blacksmith's forge and other applications where
an intense heat is required.

Charcoal was also used historically as a source of black pigment by grinding it up. In
this form charcoal was important to early chemists and was a constituent of formulas for
mixtures such as black powder.

Due to its high surface area charcoal can be used as a filter, and as a catalyst or as an
adsorbent.

4.2.5 METALLURGICAL FUEL

Charcoal burns at intense temperatures, up to 2,700 °C (4,890 °F). verification needed

By comparison the melting point of iron is approximately 1,200 to 1,550 °C (2,190 to 2,820
°F). Due to its porosity, it is sensitive to the flow of air and the heat generated can be
moderated by controlling the air flow to the fire.

10
 For this reason charcoal is still widely used by blacksmiths. Charcoal has been used
for the production of iron since Roman times and steel in modern times where it also
provided the necessary carbon.

Charcoal briquettes can burn up to approximately 2300 °F (1,260 °C) with a forced
air blower forge.

In the 16th century, England had to pass laws to prevent the country from becoming
completely denuded of trees due to production of iron.

4.2.6 INDUSTRIAL FUEL

Historically, charcoal was used in great quantities for smelting iron in bloomeries and
later blast furnaces and finery forges. This use was replaced by coke in the 19th Century as
part of the Industrial Revolution.

4.2.7 COOKING FUEL

Prior to the industrial revolution charcoal was occasionally used as a cooking fuel. Modern
"charcoal briquettes", widely used for outdoor cooking, are made with charcoal but may also
include coal as an energy source as well as accelerants, binders and filler.

4.2.8 SYNGAS PRODUCTION, AUTOMOTIVE FUEL

Like many other sources of carbon, charcoal can be used for the production of various
gas compositions; i.e., various CO + H2 + CO2 + N2 mixtures.

The gas is typically used as fuel, including automotive propulsion, or as a chemical

feedstock.

In times of scarce petroleum, automobiles and even buses have been converted to
burn wood gas released by burning charcoal or wood in a wood gas generator.

4.2.9 PYROTECHNICS

Charcoal is used in the production of black powder, which is used extensively in the
production of fireworks. It is usually ground into a fine powder, with air float grade being the
finest particle size available commercially.

11
 When used in black powder compositions, it is often ball-milled with other
ingredients so that they are intimately mixed together. Certain charcoals perform better when
used to make black powder, these include spruce, willow, paulownias and grapevine among
others.

4.2.10 CARBON SOURCE

Charcoal may be used as a source of carbon in chemical reactions. One example of

this is the production of carbon disulphide through the reaction of sulfurvapors with hot
charcoal. In that case the wood should be charred at high temperature to reduce the residual
amounts of hydrogen and oxygen that lead to side reactions.

4.2.11 ACTIVATED CARBON

Charcoal may be activated to increase its effectiveness as a filter. Activated charcoal

readily adsorbs a wide range of organic compounds dissolved or suspended in gases and
liquids.

In certain industrial processes, such as the purification of sucrose from cane sugar,
impurities cause an undesirable colour, which can be removed with activated charcoal.

It is also used to absorb and toxins in gases, such as air. Charcoal filters are also used
in some types of gas masks.

The medical use of activated charcoal is mainly the absorption of poisons. Activated
charcoal is available without a prescription, so it is used for a variety of health-related
applications.

For example, it is often used to reduce discomfort and embarrassment due to

excessive gas flatulence in the digestive tract.

Animal charcoal or bone black is the carbonaceous residue obtained by the dry
distillation of bones. It contains only about 10% carbon, the remainder being calcium and
magnesium phosphates (80%) and other inorganic material originally present in the bones.

It is generally manufactured from the residues obtained in the glue and gelatin
industries.

12
 Its decolorizing power was applied in 1812 by Derosne to the clarification of the
syrups obtained in sugar refining; but its use in this direction has now greatly diminished,
owing to the introduction of more active and easily managed reagents.

It is still used to some extent in laboratory practice. The decolorizing power is not
permanent, becoming lost after using for some time; it may be revived, however, by washing
and reheating.

Wood charcoal also to some extent removes coloring material from solutions, but
animal charcoal is generally more effective.

4.2.12CHARCOAL PILE

Charcoal was consumed in the past as dietary supplement for gastric problems in the
form of charcoal biscuits. Now it can be consumed in tablet, capsule or powder form, for
digestive effects. Research regarding its effectiveness is controversial.

To measure the mucociliary transport time the use was introduced by Passali in
combination with saccharin.

Red colours monkeys in Africa have been observed eating charcoal for the purposes
of self-medication. Their leafy diets contain high levels of cyanide, which may lead to
indigestion.

So they learned to consume charcoal, which absorbs the cyanide and relieves
indigestion. This knowledge about supplementing their diet is transmitted from mother to
infant.

4.2.13ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS

The use of charcoal as a smelting fuel has been experiencing a resurgence in South
America resulting in severe environmental, social and medical problems.

Charcoal production at a sub-industrial level is one of the causes of deforestation.

Charcoal production is now usually illegal and nearly always unregulated as in Brazil where
charcoal production is a large illegal industry for making pig iron.

13
 Massive forest destruction has been documented in areas such as Virunga National
Park in the Democratic Republic of Congo, where it is considered a primary threat to the
survival of the mountain gorillas. Similar threats are found in Zambia.

In Malawi, illegal charcoal trade employs 92,800 workers and is the main source of
heat and cooking fuel for 90 percent of the nation’s population. Some experts, such as
Duncan MacQueen, Principal Researcher Forest Team, International Institute for
Environment and Development (IIED), argue that while illegal charcoal production causes
deforestation, a regulated charcoal industry that required replanting and sustainable use of the
forests "would give their people clean efficient energy and their energy industries a strong
competitive advantage"

4.3 PERFORATED METAL

FIG : 4.3 PERFORATED METAL

Perforated metal, also known as perforated sheet, perforated plate, or perforated

screen, is sheet metal that has been manually or mechanically stamped or punched to create a
pattern of holes, slots, or decorative shapes.

14
 Materials used to manufacture perforated metal sheets include stainless steel, cold
rolled steel, galvanized steel, brass, aluminum, tinplate, copper, Monel, Inconel, titanium,
plastic, and more.

The process of perforating metal sheets has been practiced for over 150 years. In the
late 19th century, metal screens were use as an efficient means of separating coal.
Unfortunately, the first perforators were labourers who would manually punch individual
holes into the metal sheet.

This proved to be an inefficient and inconsistent method which led to the

development of new techniques, such as perforating the metal with a series of needles
arranged in a way that would create the desired hole pattern. Modern day perforation methods
involve the use of technology and machines.

4.3.1APPLICATIONS

Perforated metal has been utilized across a variety of industries including, but not
limited to

Ceiling of Culture Palace concert hall is covered with perforated metal panels.

Architectural infill panels, sunshade, cladding, column covers, metal signage, site
amenities, fencing screens, etc.

Food & beverage beehive construction, grain dryers, wine vats, fish farming, silo
ventilation, sorting machines, fruit and vegetable juice presses, cheese moulds, baking trays,
coffee screens, etc.

Chemical & energy filters, centrifuges, drying machine baskets, battery separator
plates, water screens, gas purifiers, liquid gas burning tubes, mine cages, coal washing, etc.

Material development glass reinforcement, cement slurry screens, dyeing machines,

textile printers and felt mills, cinder screens, blast furnace screens, etc.

Automotive air filters, oil filters, silencer tubes, radiator grilles, running boards,
flooring, motorcycle silencers, ventilation grids, tractor engine ventilation, etc.

Construction ceiling noise protection, acoustic panels, stair treads, pipe guards, ventilation
grilles, sun protection slats, facades, sign boards, etc.

15
4.3.2BENEFITS

The acoustic performance of perforated metal helps people or workers to limit health
effects from noise. Studies have shown that perforated metals help reduce sound levels.

Studies have shown that having buildings use perforated metal sheets in front of their
façade can bring in one study 29% energy savings (HVAC + Lighting estimated consumption
in 1 year) and in the second one 45% energy savings heating, ventilation, air conditioning.
Depending on the location of the building intensity of the external sun, solar irradiation can
be decrease by 77.9%.

Limestone Calcium carbonate: inorganic crystalline calcite or organic calcareous

material

Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine

organisms such as coral, forums and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and
aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).About 10% of
sedimentary rocks are limestone’s.

The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karts
landscapes, in which water erodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years. Most
cave systems are through limestone bedrock.

Limestone has numerous uses: as a building material, an essential component of

concrete Portland cement, as aggregate for the base of roads, as white pigment or filler in
products such as toothpaste or paints, as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime, as a
soil conditioner, or as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens.

Like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains.

The primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms.
Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, building upon past
generations.

Below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the
dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper
waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporate depositional environments.

16
 Calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors,
including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits an
unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water
as the temperature increases.

Impurities such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide, and other material swill
cause lime stones to exhibit different colours, especially with weathered surfaces.

Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method

of formation.

Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock.
When conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the
existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures.

Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams;

particularly where there are waterfalls and around hot or cold springs. Calcium carbonate is
deposited where evaporation of the water leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical
constituents of calcite.

Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls. Coquina is a

poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells.

During regional metamorphism that occurs during the mountain building process,
limestone refry stallizes into marble.

4.3.3CLASSIFICATION

Two major classification schemes, the Folk and the Dunham, are used for identifying
limestone and carbonate rocks.

Folk classification Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places

primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and interstitial material in carbonate
rocks. Based on composition, there are three main components: allochems grains, matrix
mostly micrite, and cement sparite.

The Folk system uses two-part names; the first refers to the grains and the second is
the root. It is helpful to have a petrographic microscope when using the Folk scheme, because
it is easier to determine the components present in each sample.
17
4.3.4 DUNHAM CLASSIFICATION

The Dunham scheme focuses on depositional textures. Each name is based upon the
texture of the grains that make up the limestone. Robert J. Dunham published his system for
limestone in 1962; it focuses on the depositional fabric of carbonate rocks. Dunham divides
the rocks into four main groups based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles.
Dunham names are essentially for rock families. His efforts deal with the question of whether
or not the grains were originally in mutual contact, and therefore self-supporting, or whether
the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats. Unlike the Folk
scheme, Dunham deals with the original porosity of the rock. The Dunham scheme is more
useful for hand samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the sample.

4.3.5 LIMESTONE LANSDSCAPE

The Cudgel of Hercules, a tall limestone rock Castle in the background.

Limestone is partially soluble, especially in acid, and therefore forms many erosional
landforms. These include limestone pavements, pot holes, cenotes, caves and gorges. Such
erosion landscapes are known as karsts.

Limestone is less resistant than most igneous rocks, but more resistant than most
other sedimentary rocks. It is therefore usually associated with hills and down land, and
occurs in regions with other sedimentary rocks, typically clays.

Karts topography and caves develop in limestone rocks due to their solubility in dilute
acidic groundwater. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to
karts landscapes.

Regions overlying limestone bedrock tend to have fewer visible above-ground sources
ponds and streams, as surface water easily drains downward through joints in the limestone.

Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. Cooling groundwater or mixing of
different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation.

18
 Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various
means. This process is known as bio erosion. It is most common in the tropics, and it is
known throughout the fossil record see Taylor and Wilson, 2003.

Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky
outcrops and islands. Examples include the Barren in Co. Clare, Ireland; the Verdun Gorge in
France.

Melham Cove in North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight, England; the Great Orem in
Wales on near the Swedish island of Gotland, the Niagara Escarpment in Canada/United
States, Notch Peak in Utah, the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam and the hills around
the Lining River and Guilin city in China.

The Florida Keys, islands off the south coast of Florida, are composed mainly of
politic limestone and the carbonate skeletons of coral reefs the Upper Keys, which thrived in
the area during interglacial periods when sea level was higher than at present.

Unique habitats are found on altars, extremely level expanses of limestone with thin
soil mantles. The largest such expanse in Europe is the Store Alva ret on the island of,
Sweden. Another area with large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden.
Huge quarries in north western Europe, such as those of Mount Saint Peter extend for more
than a hundred kilometres.

The world's largest limestone quarry is at Michigan Limestone and Chemical

Company in Rogers City, Michigan.

The Megalithic Temples of Malta such as Hagar are built entirely of limestone. They
are among the oldest freestanding structures in existence.

Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in Europe and North America.

Many landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its associated complex in
Giza, Egypt, were made of limestone.

Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to. However, it is a very heavy
material, making it impractical for tall buildings, and relatively expensive as a building
material.

19
 The Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World had an
outside cover made entirely from limestone.Riley County Courthouse built of limestone in
Manhattan, Kansas, USA

A limestone plate with a negative map of Moosburg in Bavaria is prepared for a

lithography print.

Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Train stations,
banks and other structures from that era are normally made of limestone. It is used as a facade
on some skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering, rather than solid blocks.

In the United States, Indiana, most notably the Bloomington area, has long been a
source of high quality quarried limestone, called Indiana limestone. Many famous buildings
in London are built from Portland limestone.

Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages in the areas
where it occurred, since it is hard, durable, and commonly occurs in easily accessible surface
exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone. Beer stone
was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern England.

Many limestone statues and building surfaces have suffered severe damage due to
acid rain. Likewise limestone gravel has been used to protect lakes vulnerable to acid rain,
acting as a pH buffering agent. Acid-based cleaning chemicals can also etch limestone, which
should only be cleaned with a neutral or mild alkaline-based cleaner.

4.3.6 OTHER USES INCLUDE

It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime, slaked lime, cement and
mortar.

Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils. Is crushed

for use as aggregatethe solid base for many roads as well as in asphalt concrete.

Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs.

20
4.4 OUTER SHELL:

FIG: 4.4 OUTER SHELL

In outer shell the whole set up is kept inside it.It is mainly made up of steel or iron.
water outlet inlet also the exhaust tube was provide in there shell itself.

21
4.5. NON RETURN VALVE

FIG: 4.5 NON RETURN VALVES

A check valve, clack valve, non-return valve, reflux valve, retention valve or one-way
valve is a valve that normally allows fluid liquid or gas to flow through it in only one
direction.

Check valves are two-port valves, meaning they have two openings in the body, one
for fluid to enter and the other for fluid to leave. There are various types of check valves used
in a wide variety of applications.

Check valves are often part of common household items. Although they are available
in a wide range of sizes and costs, check valves generally are very small, simple, or
inexpensive. Check valves work automatically and most are not controlled by a person or any
external control; accordingly, most do not have any valve handle or stem. The bodies external
shells of most check valves are made of plastic or metal.

An important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure which is the minimum
upstream pressure at which the valve will operate. Typically the check valve is designed for
and can therefore be specified for a specific cracking pressure.

Heart valves are essentially inlet and outlet check valves for the heart ventricles, since
the ventricles act as pumps.

22
4.5.1 TYPES OF CHECK VALVES

Forward through a hole pushes away a ball that was blocking the far side of the hole,
allowing flow to occur. The motion of the ball compresses a spring.

Backward flow pushes a ball against a hole, preventing outward flow through the
hole. A spring expands to help hold the ball in place.A ball check valve in the open position
to allow forward flow and closed position to block reverse flow

A ball check valve is a check valve in which the closing member, the movable part to
block the flow, is a ball. In some ball check valves, the ball is spring-loaded to help keep it
shut.For those designs without a spring, reverse flow is required to move the ball toward the
seat and create a seal.

The interior surface of the main seats of ball check valves are more or less conically-
tapered to guide the ball into the seat and form a positive seal when stopping reverse flow.

Ball check valves are often very small, simple, and cheap. They are commonly used
in liquid or gel minipump dispenser spigots, spray devices, some rubber bulbs for pumping
air, etc., manual air pumps and some other pumps, and refillable dispensing syringes.
Although the balls are most often made of metal, they can be made of other materials; in
some specialized cases out of highly durable or inert materials, such as sapphire.

High pressure HPLC pumps and similar applications commonly use small inlet and
outlet ball check valves with balls of artificial ruby and seats made of sapphire or both ball
and seat of ruby, for both hardness and chemical resistance.

After prolonged use, such check valves can eventually wear out or the seat can
develop a crack, requiring replacement.

Therefore, such valves are made to be replaceable, sometimes placed in a small

plastic body tightlyfitted inside a metal fitting which can withstand high pressure and which
is screwed into the pump head.

There are similar check valves where the disc is not a ball, but some other shape, such
as a poppet energized by a spring.

Ball check valves should not be confused with ball valves, which is a different type
of valve in which a ball acts as a controllable rotor to stop or .

23
 A diaphragm check valve uses a flexing rubber diaphragm positioned to create a
normally-closed valve.

Pressure on the upstream side must be greater than the pressure on the downstream
side by a certain amount, known as the pressure differential, for the check valve to open
allowing flow. Once positive pressure stops, the diaphragm automatically flexes back to its
original closed position.

A swing check valve or tilting disc check valve is a check valve in which the disc, the
movable part to block the flow, swings on a hinge or trunnion, either onto the seat to block
reverse flow or off the seat to allow forward flow.

The seat opening cross-section may be perpendicular to the centerline between the
two ports or at an angle. Although swing check valves can come in various sizes, large check
valves are often swing check valves.

A common issue caused by swing check valves is known as water hammer. This can
occur when the swing check closes and the flow abruptly stops, causing a surge of pressure
resulting in high velocity shock waves that act against the piping and valves, placing large
stress on the metals and vibrations in the system.

Undetected, water hammer can rupture pumps, valves, and pipes within the
system.The flapper valve in a flush-toilet mechanism is an example of this type of valve.
Tank pressure holding it closed is overcome by manual lift of the flapper. It then remains
open until the tank drains and the flapper falls due to gravity.

Another variation of this mechanism is the clapper valve, used in applications such
fire fighting and fire life safety systems.

A hinged gate only remains open in the inflowing direction. The clapper valve often
also has a spring that keeps the gate shut when there is no forward pressure.

Another example is the backwater valve for sanitary drainage system that protects
against flooding caused by return flow of sewage waters.

Such risk occurs most often in sanitary drainage systems connected to combined
sewerage systems and in rainwater drainage systems. It may be caused by intense rainfall,
thaw or flood.

24
 A stop-check valve is a check valve with override control to stop flow regardless of
flow direction or pressure.

In addition to closing in response to backflow or insufficient forward pressure normal

check-valve behaviour, it can also be deliberately shut by an external mechanism, thereby
preventing any flow regardless of forward pressure.

A lift-check valve is a check valve in which the disc, sometimes called a lift, can be
lifted up off its seat by higher pressure of inlet or upstream fluid to allow flow to the outlet or
downstream side.

A guide keeps motion of the disc on a vertical line, so the valve can later reseat
properly. An in-line check valve is a check valve similar to the lift check valve. However,
this valve generally has a spring that will 'lift' when there is pressure on the upstream side of
the valve.

The pressure needed on the upstream side of the valve to overcome the spring tension
is called the 'cracking pressure'.

When the pressure going through the valve goes below the cracking pressure, the
spring will close the valve to prevent back-flow in the process.

A duckbill valve is a check valve in which flow proceeds through a soft tube that
protrudes into the downstream side. Back-pressure collapses this tube, cutting off flow.

4.5. 2 A PNEUMATIC NON-RETURN VALVE

Multiple check valves can be connected in series. For example, a double check valve
is often used as a backflow prevention device to keep potentially contaminated water from
siphoning back into municipal water supply lines.

There are also double ball check valves in which there are two ball/seat combinations
sequentially in the same body to ensure positive leak-tight shutoff when blocking reverse
flow; and piston check valves, wafer check valves, and ball-and-cone check valves.

APPLICATIONS

The check valves on this steam locomotive are located under the small cover between
the chimney and the main dome

25
 Check valves are often used with some types of pumps. Piston-driven and diaphragm
pumps such as metering pumps and pumps for chromatography commonly use inlet and
outlet ball check valves.

These valves often look like small cylinders attached to the pump head on the inlet
and outlet lines.

Many similar pump-like mechanisms for moving volumes of fluids around use check
valves such as ball check valves.

4.5.3 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES

Check valves are used in many fluid systems such as those in chemical and power
plants, and in many other industrial processes.

Typical applications in the nuclear industry are feed water control systems, dump
lines, make-up water, miscellaneous process systems, N2 systems, and monitoring and
sampling systems.

In aircraft and aerospace, check valves are used where high vibration, large
temperature extremes and corrosive fluids are present.

For example, spacecraft and launch vehicle propulsion propellant control for reaction
control systems and Attitude Control Systems and aircraft hydraulic systems.

Check valves are also often used when multiple gases are mixed into one gas stream.
A check valve is installed on each of the individual gas streams to prevent mixing of the
gases in the original source.

For example, if a fuel and an oxidizer are to be mixed, then check valves will
normally be used on both the fuel and oxidizer sources to ensure that the original gas
cylinders remain pure and therefore non-flammable.

In 2010, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory slightly modified a simple check valve
design with the intention to store liquid samples indicative to life on Mars in separate
reservoirs of the device without fear of cross contamination.

26
4.5.4 DOMESTIC USE

Some types of irrigation sprinklers and drip irrigation emitters have small check
valves built into them to keep the lines from draining when the system is shut off.

4.6 FLANGE

Fig : 4.6 FLANGE

A flange is an external or internal ridge, or rim (lip), for strength, as the flange of an iron
beam such as an I-beam or a T-beam. For attachment to another object, as the flange on the
end of a pipe, steam cylinder, etc., or on the lens mount of a camera; or for a flange of a rail
car or tram wheel.

A flange is used attachment in end pipe. Thus flanged wheels are wheels with a flange on one
side to keep the wheels from running off the rails. The term "flange" is also used for a kind of
tool used to form flanges. Pipes with flanges can be assembled and disassembled easily.

4.6.1 SURREY FLANGE

A flange can also be a plate or ring to form a rim at the end of a pipe when fastened to
the pipe for example, a closet flange. A blind flange is a plate for covering or closing the end

27
of a pipe. A flange joint is a connection of pipes, where the connecting pieces have flanges by
which the parts are bolted together.

Although the word flange generally refers to the actual raised rim or lip of a fitting,
many flanged plumbing fittings are themselves known as 'flanges':

Common flanges used in plumbing are the Surrey flange or Danzey flange, York
flange, Sussex flange and Essex flange. Surrey and York flanges fit to the top of the hot water
tank allowing all the water to be taken without disturbance to the tank.

They are often used to ensure an even flow of water to showers. An Essex flange
requires a hole to be drilled in the side of the tank.There is also a Wares flange which is the
same as a York flange but the shower output is on the top of the flange and the vent on the
side.

The York and Wares flange have female adapters so that they fit onto a male tank,
whereas the Surrey flange connects to a female tank.

4.6.2 PIPE FLANGES

There are many different flange standards to be found worldwide.

To allow easy functionality and inter changeability, these are designed to have
standardised dimensions.

In most cases these are interchangeable as most local standards have been aligned to
ISO standards, however some local standards still differ (e.g. an ANSI/ASME flange will not
mate against an ISO flange). Further, many of the flanges in each standard are divided into
"pressure classes", allowing flanges to be capable of taking different pressure ratings.

These pressure classes also have differing pressure and temperature ratings for
different materials.

Unique pressure classes for piping can also be developed for a process plant or power
generating station; these may be specific to the corporation, engineering procurement and
construction contractor, or the process plant owner.

28
4.6.3 ASME TYPE FLANGE ON A GAS PIPELINE

Pipe flanges that are made to standards called out by ASME B16.5 or ASME B16.47
are typically made from forged materials and have machined surfaces.

B16.5 refers to nominal pipe sizes (NPS) from ½" to 24". B16.47 covers NPSs from
26" to 60". Each specification further delineates flanges into pressure classes: 150, 300, 400,
600, 900, 1500 and 2500 for B16.5, and B16.47 delineates its flanges into pressure classes
75, 150, 300, 400, 600, 900. However these classes do not correspond to maximum pressures
in psi.

Instead, the maximum pressure depends on the material of the flange and the
temperature.

For example, the maximum pressure for a Class 150 flange is 285 psi, and for a Class
300 Flange it is 740 psi (both are for ASTM A105 Carbon Steel and temperatures below
100F).

The gasket type and bolt type are generally specified by the standard(s); however,
sometimes the standards refer to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (B&PVC) for
details. These flanges are recognized by ASME Pipe Codes such as ASME B31.1Power
Piping, and ASME B31.3 Process Piping.

Materials for flanges are usually under ASME designation: SA-105 (Specification for
Carbon Steel Forgings for Piping Applications, SA-266 (Specification for Carbon Steel
Forgings for Pressure Vessel Components, or SA-182 Specification for Forged or Rolled
Alloy-Steel Pipe Flanges, Forged Fittings, and Valves and Parts for High-Temperature
Service.

In addition, there are many "industry standard" flanges that in some circumstance
may be used on ASME work.

The bolting material used for flange connection is stud bolts mated with two nut
washer when required.

29
4.7 LIME SODA

Soda lime is a mixture of chemicals, used in granular form in closed breathing environments,
such as general anaesthesia, submarines, retreaters and recompression chambers, to remove
carbon dioxide from breathing gases to prevent CO2 retention and carbon dioxide poisoning.

During the administration of general anaesthesia, the gases expired by a patient,

which contain carbon dioxide, are passed through an anaesthetic machine breathing circuit
filled with soda lime granules. Medical-grade soda lime includes an indicating dye that
changes colour when the soda lime reaches its carbon dioxide absorbing capacity.

To ensure that a soda lime canister (CO2 absorber) is functioning properly, it should
not be used if the indicating dye is activated. Standard anaesthesia machines typically contain
up to 2 kg of soda lime granules.

Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is the alkali hydroxide with the lowest molecular weight
and is therefore used as CO2 absorbent in space flights since the Apollo programme to spare
weight at launch. During Apollo 13 flight, the crew sheltered in the lunar module started
suffering from high CO2 levels and had to adapt spare absorbent cartridges from the Apollo
capsule to the LEM system.

Recent generation of CO2 absorbents have been developed to reduce the risk of
formation of toxic by-products as a result of the interaction between the absorbent and
inhaled anaesthetics. Some absorbents made from lithium hydroxide are also available for
this purpose.

Exhaled gas must be passed through a "carbon dioxide scrubber" where the carbon dioxide is
absorbed before the gas is made available to be breathed again. In retreaters the scrubber is a
part of the breathing loop.Color indicating dye was removed from US Navy fleet use in 1996
when it was suspected of releasing chemicals into the circuit.[4] In larger environments, such
as recompression chambers or submarines, a fan is used to maintain the flow of gas through
the scrubbing canister.

30
4.7.1 CHEMICAL REACTION

The overall reaction is:

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + heat (in the presence of water)

Each mole of CO2 (44 g) reacting with calcium hydroxide produces one mole of water (18 g).

The reaction can be considered as a strong-base-catalysed, water-facilitated reaction.

The reaction mechanism of carbon dioxide with soda lime can be decomposed in three
elementary steps:

1) CO2 (g) → CO2 (as) (CO2 dissolves in water - slow and rate-determining)
2) CO2 (as) + NaOH → NaHCO3 (bicarbonate formation at high pH)
3) NaHCO3 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + NaOH ((NaOH recycled to step 2) - hence
a catalyst)

This sequence of reactions explains the catalytic role played by sodium hydroxide in
the system and why soda lime is faster in chemical reactivity than calcium hydroxide alone. It
reacts much more quickly and so contributes to a faster elimination of the CO2 from the
rebreathing circuit. The formation of water and the moisture from the respiration also act as a
solvent for the reaction. Reactions in aqueous phase are generally faster than between a dry
gas and a dry solid.

It is made by treating slaked lime with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.

Analogy with the alkali-silica reaction

A quite didactic parallelism can be drawn between the catalytic role of sodium
hydroxide in the process of carbonation of soda lime and the role of sodium hydroxide played
in the alkali-silica reaction, a slow duration process causing the swelling and the cracking of
concrete containing aggregates rich in reactive amorphous silica. In a very similar way,
NaOH greatly facilitates the dissolution of the amorphous silica. The produced sodium
silicate then reacts with the calcium hydroxide (portlandite) present in the hardened cement
paste to form calcium silicate hydrate (abbreviated as C-S-H in the cement chemist notation).
This solidification reaction of Ca(OH)2 on its turn continuously releases again sodium
hydroxide in solution, maintaining a high pH, and the cycle continues up to the total
disappearance of portlandite or reactive silica in the exposed concrete. Without the catalysis
of this reaction by sodium or potassium soluble hydroxides the alkali-silica reaction would

31
not proceed or would be limited to a very slow pozzolanic reaction. The alkali silica reaction
can be written like the soda lime reaction, by simply substituting CO2 by SiO2 in the
reactions mentioned here above as follows:

reaction 1: SiO2 + NaOH→NaHSiO3 (silica dissolution by NaOH: high pH)

reaction 2: NaHSiO3 + Ca(OH)2→CaSiO3 + H2O + NaOH(C-S-H precipitation and

regeneration of NaOH)

sum (1+2): SiO2 + Ca(OH)2→CaSiO3 + H2O (global reaction = Pozzolanic reaction

catalysed by NaOH)

4.7.2 CARBON DIOXIDE SCRUBBER

A carbon dioxide scrubber is a device which absorbs carbon dioxide (CO2). It is used
to treat exhaust gases from industrial plants or from exhaled air in life support systems such
as retreaters or in spacecraft, submersible craft or airtight chambers. Carbon dioxide
scrubbers are also used in controlled atmosphere (CA) storage. They have also been
researched for carbon capture.

The dominant application for CO2 scrubbing is for removal of CO2 from the exhaust
of coal- and gas-fired power plants. Virtually the only technology being seriously evaluated
involves the use of various amines. Cold solutions of these organic compounds bind CO2, but
the binding is reversed at higher temperatures.

4.7.3 MINERALS AND ZEOLITES

Several minerals and mineral-like materials reversibly bind CO2. Most often, these
minerals are oxides, and often the CO2 is bound as carbonate. Carbon dioxide reacts with
quicklime (calcium oxide) to form limestone (calcium carbonate)in a process called
carbonate looping. Other minerals include serpentines, a magnesium silicate hydroxide, and
olivine. Molecular sieves also function in this capacity.

Various scrubbing processes have been proposed to remove CO2 from the air, or from
flue gases. These usually involve using a variant of the Kraft process. Scrubbing processes
may be based on sodium hydroxide. The CO2 is absorbed into solution, transferred to lime
via a process called austicizationc and released in a kiln. With some modifications to the
existing processes, mainly an oxygen-fired kiln, the end result is a concentrated stream of

32
CO2 ready for storage or use in fuels. An alternative to this thermo-chemical process is an
electrical one in which a nominal voltage is applied across the carbonate solution to release
the CO2.[citation needed] While simpler, this electrical process consumes more energy as it
splits water at the same time. Since it depends on electricity, the electricity needs to be
renewable, like PV. Otherwise the CO2 produced during electricity production has to be
taken into account. Early incarnations of air capture used electricity as the energy source;
hence, were dependent on a carbon-free source. Thermal air capture systems use heat
generated on-site, which reduces the inefficiencies associated with off-site electricity
production, but of course it still needs a source of (carbon-free) heat. Concentrated solar
power is an example of such a source.

4.7.4 SODIUM HYDROXIDE

First, CO2 is absorbed by an alkaline NaOH solution to produce dissolved sodium

carbonate. The absorption reaction is a gas liquid reaction, strongly exothermic, here:

2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) → Na2CO3(as) + H2O(l)

Na2CO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) → 2NaOH(as) + CaCO3(s)

ΔH° = -5.3 kJ/mol

Causticization is performed ubiquitously in the pulp and paper industry and readily
transfers 94% of the carbonate ions from the sodium to the calcium action.Subsequently, the
calcium carbonate precipitate is filtered from solution and thermally decomposed to produce
gaseous CO2. The calcinations reaction is the only endothermic reaction in the process and is
shown here:

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

ΔH° = + 179.2 kJ/mol

The thermal decomposition of calcite is performed in a lime kiln fired with oxygen in
order to avoid an additional gas separation step. Hydration of the lime (CaO) completes the
cycle. Lime hydration is an exothermic reaction that can be performed with water or steam.
Using water, it is a liquid/solid reaction as shown here:

CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(s) ΔH° = -64.5 kJ/mol

33
4.7.5 LITHIUM HYDROXIDE

Other strong bases such as soda lime, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and
lithium hydroxide are able to remove carbon dioxide by chemically reacting with it. In
particular, lithium hydroxide was used aboard spacecraft, such as in the Apollo program, to
remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. It reacts with carbon dioxide to make lithium
carbonate. Recently lithium hydroxide absorbent technology has been adapted for use in
anaesthesia machines.

Anaesthesia machines which provide life support and inhaled agents during surgery
typically employ a closed circuit necessitating the removal of carbon dioxide exhaled by the
patient. Lithium hydroxide may offer some safety and convenience benefits over the older
calcium based products.

2 LiOH(s) + 2 H2O(g) → 2 LiOH·H2O(s)

2 LiOH·H2O(s) + CO2(g) → Li2CO3(s) + 3 H2O(g)

The net reaction being:

2LiOH(s) + CO2(g) → Li2CO3(s) + H2O(g)

4.7.6 REGENERATIVE CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL SYSTEM

The regenerative carbon dioxide removal system (RCRS) on the space shuttle orbited
used a two-bed system that provided continuous removal of carbon dioxide without
expendable products. regenerable systems allowed a shuttle mission a longer stay in space
without having to replenish its sorbent canisters. Older lithium hydroxide (LiOH) based
systems, which are non-regenerable, were replaced by regenerable metal-oxide-based
systems. A system based on metal oxide primarily consisted of a metal oxide sorbent canister
and a regenerator assembly. It worked by removing carbon dioxide using a sorbent material
and then regenerating the sorbent material. The metal-oxide sorbent canister was regenerated
by pumping air at approximately 400 °F (204 °C) through it at a standard flow rate of 7.5 cu
ft/min (0.0035 m3/s) for 10 hours.

34
4.7.7 ACTIVATED CARBON

Activated carbon can be used as a carbon dioxide scrubber. Air with high carbon
dioxide content, such as air from fruit storage locations, can be blown through beds of
activated carbon and the carbon dioxide will adsorb onto the activated carbon. Once the bed
is saturated it must then be "regenerated" by blowing low carbon dioxide air, such as ambient
air, through the bed. This will release the carbon dioxide from the bed, and it can then be
used to scrub again, leaving the net amount of carbon dioxide in the air the same as when the
process was started.

Metal-organic frameworks are one of the most promising new technologies for carbon
dioxide capture and sequestration via adsorption.

Although no large-scale commercial technology exists nowadays, several research

studies have indicated the great potential that MOFs have as a CO2 adsorbent. Its
characteristics, such as pore structure and surface functions can be easily tuned to improve
CO2 selectivity over other gases.

A MOF could be specifically designed to act like a CO2 removal agent in post-
combustion power plants. In this scenario, the flue gas would pass through a bed packed with
a MOF material, where CO2 would be stripped. After saturation is reached, CO2 could be
desorbed by doing a pressure or temperature swing. Carbon dioxide could then be
compressed to supercritical conditions in order to be stored underground or utilized in
enhanced oil recovery processes. However, this is not possible in large scale yet due to
several difficulties, one of those being the production of MOFs in great quantities.

Another problem is the availability of metals necessary to synthesize MOFs. In a

hypothetical scenario where these materials are used to capture all CO2 needed to avoid
global warming issues, such as maintaining a global temperature rise less than 2oC above the
pre-industrial average temperature, we would need more metals than are available on Earth.
For example, to synthesize all MOFs that utilize vanadium, we would need 1620% of 2010
global reserves. Even if using magnesium-based MOFs, which have demonstrated a great
capacity to adsorb CO2, we would need 14% of 2010 global reserves, which is a considerable
amount. Also, extensive mining would be necessary, leading to more potential environmental
problems.

35
 In a project sponsored by the DOE and operated by UOP LLC in collaboration with
faculty from four different universities, MOFs were tested as possible carbon dioxide
removal agents in post-combustion flue gas. They were able to separate 90% of the CO2 from
the flue gas stream using a vacuum pressure swing process. Through extensive investigation,
researchers found out that the best MOF to be used was Mg/DOBDC, which has a 21.7 wt%
CO2 loading capacity. Estimations showed that, if a similar system were to be applied to a
large scale power plant, the cost of energy would increase by 65%, while a NETL baseline
amine based system would cause an increase of 81% . Also, each ton of CO2 avoided would
cost $57, while for the amine system this cost is estimated to be $72. The project ended in
2010,estimating that the total capital required to implement such a project in a 580 MW
power plant was 354 million dollars.

Soda lime is a mixture of chemicals, used in granular form in closed breathing

environments, such as general anaesthesia, submarines, retreaters and recompression
chambers, to remove carbon dioxide from breathing gases to prevent CO2 retention and
carbon dioxide poisoning.

During the administration of general anaesthesia, the gases expired by a patient, which
contain carbon dioxide, are passed through an anaesthetic machine breathing circuit filled
with soda lime granules. Medical-grade soda lime includes an indicating dye that changes
color when the soda lime reaches its carbon dioxide absorbing capacity.

To ensure that a soda lime canister (CO2 absorber) is functioning properly, it should
not be used if the indicating dye is activated. Standard anaesthesia machines typically contain
up to 2 kg of soda lime granules.

Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is the alkali hydroxide with the lowest molecular weight
(24 g/mol; Li: 7 g/mol) and is therefore used as CO2 absorbent in space flights since the
Apollo programme to spare weight at launch. During Apollo 13 flight, the crew sheltered in
the lunar module started suffering from high CO2 levels and had to adapt spare absorbent
cartridges from the Apollo capsule to the LEM system.

Recent generation of CO2 absorbents have been developed to reduce the risk of formation of
toxic by-products as a result of the interaction between the absorbent and inhaled
anaesthetics. Some absorbents made from lithium hydroxide (LiOH) are also available for
this purpose.

36
 Exhaled gas must be passed through a "carbon dioxide scrubber" where the carbon
dioxide is absorbed before the gas is made available to be breathed again. In retreaters the
scrubber is a part of the breathing loop.Colour indicating dye was removed from US Navy
fleet use in 1996 when it was suspected of releasing chemicals into the circuit. In larger
environments, such as recompression chambers or submarines, a fan is used to maintain the
flow of gas through the scrubbing canister.

4.7.8CHEMICAL REACTION

The overall reaction is:

CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + heat (in the presence of water)

Each mole of CO2 (44 g) reacting with calcium hydroxide produces one mole of water
(18 g).

The reaction can be considered as a strong-base-catalysed, water-facilitated reaction.

The reaction mechanism of carbon dioxide with soda lime can be decomposed in three
elementary steps:

1) CO2 (g) → CO2 (aq) (CO2 dissolves in water - slow and rate-determining)
2) CO2 (aq) + NaOH → NaHCO3 (bicarbonate formation at high pH)
3) NaHCO3 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + NaOH ((NaOH recycled to step 2) - hence
a catalyst)

This sequence of reactions explains the catalytic role played by sodium hydroxide in
the system and why soda lime is faster in chemical reactivity than calcium hydroxide alone.

A quite didactic parallelism can be drawn between the catalytic role of sodium
hydroxide in the process of carbonation of soda lime and the role of sodium hydroxide played
in the alkali-silica reaction, a slow degration process causing the swelling and the cracking of
concrete containing aggregates rich in reactive amorphous silica. In a very similar way,
NaOH greatly facilitates the dissolution of the amorphous silica. The produced sodium
silicate then reacts with the calcium hydroxide portlandite present in the hardened cement
paste to form calcium silicate hydrate abbreviated as C-S-H in the cement chemist notation.
This silicification reaction of Ca(OH)2 on its turn continuously releases again sodium
hydroxide in solution, maintaining a high pH, and the cycle continues up to the total
disappearance of portlandite or reactive silica in the exposed concrete. Without the catalysis

37
of this reaction by sodium or potassium soluble hydroxides the alkali-silica reaction would
not proceed or would be limited to a very slow pozzolanic reaction. The alkali silica reaction
can be written like the soda lime reaction, by simply substituting CO2 by SiO2 in the
reactions mentioned here above as follows:

reaction 1: SiO2 + NaOH →NaHSiO3 (silica dissolution by NaOH: high pH)

reaction 2: NaHSiO3 + Ca(OH)2 →CaSiO3 + H2O + NaOH (C-S-H precipitation and

regeneration of NaOH)

sum (1+2): SiO2 + Ca(OH)2→CaSiO3 + H2O (global reaction = Pozzolanic reaction

catalysed by NaOH)

The alkali–silica reaction (ASR), more commonly known as "concrete cancer", is a

swelling reaction that occurs over time in concrete between the highly alkaline cement paste
and the reactive non-crystalline amorphous silica found in many common aggregates, given
sufficient moisture. The expansion of concrete through reaction between cement and
aggregates was first studied by Thomas E. Stanton in California during the 1930s with his
founding publication in 1940.

This reaction causes the expansion of the altered aggregate by the formation of a
soluble and viscous gel of sodium silicate (Na2SiO3 H2O, also noted Na2H2SiO4 · n H2O,
or N-S-H sodium silicate hydrate, depending the adopted convention. This hygroscopic gel
swells and increases in volume when absorbing water: it exerts an expansive pressure inside
the siliceous aggregate, causing spalling and loss of strength of the concrete, finally leading
to its failure.

ASR can cause serious cracking in concrete, resulting in critical structural problems
that can even force the demolition of a particular structure.

Typical crack pattern of the alkali-silica reaction (ASR). The gel exudations through
the concrete cracks have a characteristic yellow colour and a high pH.

The reaction can be compared to the pozzolanic reaction which would be catalysed by the
undesirable presence of too high concentrations of alkali hydroxides (NaOH and KOH) in the
concrete. It is a mineral acid-base reaction between NaOH or KOH, calcium hydroxide, also
known as Portlandite, or (Ca(OH)2), and silica acid (H4SiO4, or Si(OH)4). When complete
and to simplify, this reaction can be schematically represented as following:

38
Ca(OH)2 + H4SiO4 → Ca2+ + H2SiO42− + 2 H2O → CaH2SiO4 · 2 H2O

Catalysis of ASR by NaOH or KOH

However, the ASR reaction significantly differs from the pozzolanic reaction by the
fact that it is catalysed by soluble alkali hydroxides (NaOH / KOH) at very high pH. It can be
represented as follows using the classical geochemical notation for fully hydrated dissolved
silica (Si(OH)4 or silica acid: H4SiO4), but an older industrial notation also exists (H2SiO3,
hemihydrates.

2 Na(OH) + H4SiO4 → Na2H2SiO4 · 2 H2O

Na2H2SiO4 · 2 H2O + Ca(OH)2 → CaH2SiO4 · 2 H2O + 2 NaOH

The sum, or the combination, of the two above mentioned reactions gives a general
reaction resembling the pozzolanic reaction, but it is important to keep in mind that this
reaction is catalysed by the undesirable presence in cement, or other concrete components, of
soluble alkaline hydroxides (NaOH / KOH) responsible for the dissolution of the silicic acid
at high pH

Ca(OH)2 + H4SiO4 → CaH2SiO4 · 2 H2O

Without the presence of NaOH or KOH responsible for a high pH (~13.5), the
amorphous silica would not be dissolved and the reaction would not evolve. Moreover, the
soluble sodium or potassium silicate is very hygroscopic and swells when it absorbs water.
When the sodium silicate gel forms and swells inside a porous siliceous aggregate, it first
expands and occupies the free porosity.

It is the hydro-mechanical expansion of the damaged siliceous aggregate surrounded

by calcium-rich hardened cement paste which is responsible for the development of a
network of cracks in concrete. When the sodium silicate expelled from the aggregate
encounters grains of portlandite present in the hardened cement paste, an exchange between
sodium and calcium captions occurs and hydrated calcium silicate (C-S-H) precipitates with a
concomitant release of NaOH. In its turn, the regenerated NaOH can react with the
amorphous silica aggregate leading to an increased production of soluble sodium silicate.
When a continuous rim of C-S-H completely envelops the external surface of the attacked
siliceous aggregate, it behaves as a semi-permeable barrier and hinders the expulsion of the
viscous sodium silicate while allowing the NaOH / KOH to diffuse from the hardened cement

39
paste inside the aggregate. This selective barrier of C-S-H contributes to increase the
hydraulic pressure inside the aggregate and aggravates the cracking process. It is the
expansion of the aggregates which damages concrete in the alkali-silica reaction.

Portlandite (Ca(OH)2) represents the reserve of OH– anions in the solid phase. As
long as portlandite, or the siliceous aggregates, has not become completely exhausted, the
ASR reaction will continue. The alkali hydroxides are continuously regenerated by the
reaction of the sodium silicate with portlandite and thus represent the transmission belt of the
ASR reaction driving it to completeness. It is thus impossible to interrupt the ASR reaction.
The only way to avoid ASR in the presence of siliceous aggregates and water is to maintain
the concentration of soluble alkali (NaOH and KOH) at the lowest possible level in concrete,
so that the catalysis mechanism becomes negligible.

4.7.9 ANALOGY WITH THE SODA LIME CARBONATION

The alkali-silica reaction mechanism catalysed by a soluble strong base as NaOH or

KOH in the presence of Ca(OH)2 (alkalinity buffer present in the solid phase) can be
compared with the carbonation process of soda lime. The silica acid (H2SiO3 or SiO2) is
simply replaced in the reaction by the carbonic acid (H2CO3 or CO2).

40
 CHAPTER V

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATION

ADVANTAGES

➢ Vibration less running of engine

➢ Easily engine gets start
➢ Emission and Noise is controlled at greater level
➢ Chlorine demand is reduces by use of these method.
➢ The excessive dose of activated carbon is not harmful.
➢ The treatment process is very simple.
➢ The efficiency of removing colour, impurities and tate is quite high.
➢ It can be easily regenerated.
➢ It has excellent properties of attracting gases.

APPLICATION

➢ Two wheeler, four wheeler application.

➢ Gasoline engines.
➢ Gasoline powered generators.
➢ Train engines.

41
 CHAPTER VI

COST ESTIMATION

S.NO DESCRIPTION COST (Rs)

1. PERFORATED TUBE 1000.00

2. CHARCOAL 150.00

3. OUTER SHELL 500.00

4. FLANGE 100.00

5. VEHICLE 200.00

6. LIME SODA 200.00

7. MACHINING 600.00

8. PAINTING 700.00

9. OTHER OVER HEADS 200.00

10. MISCELLANEOUS 1200.00

TOTAL AMOUNT Rs.6,650.00

42
 CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION

An Aqua Silencer having more efficiency to reduce emission gases from engine using
lime water,charcoal layer and perforated tube with the use of perforated tube back pressure
always remains constant and sound level of exhaust reduces. Contamination of water remain
very very less in aqua silencer. In this system fuel consumption remain same as conventional
silencers because the use of perforated tube. Due to use of water as a medium sound reduces
these system having pollution free emission and smokeless.These system is very cheap.These
system is used for both four wheelers and two wheelers. It plays important role in industries.

43
 CHAPTER VIII

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. M. A. Allen, M. Akshay, R. PremSankar and M. Mohammed Shafeeque,

Fabricationand Testing of Aqua Silencer, Int. Res. J. Engg. Technol. (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-
0056,August (2015).

2. Kevel I. Patel, Mr. Swastika and R. Ajar, Student Assistant Professor Svmit
Bharuch

Department of Thermal System Design, Design and Development of Aqua Silencerfor Two
Stroke Petrol Engine.

3. B. Mankhiar Ajay, L. S. Hindu and G. Sasikala, An Advancement to

ReducePollution Effectively by Using TI Nano Tubes in Aqua Silencer, Int. J. Engg. Sci.
Res.Technol.

44
CHAPTER IX

PHOTOGRAPHY

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