VITAMINS

Vitamins are essential nutrients found in foods. They perform specific and vital functions in a variety of body systems, and are crucial
for maintaining optimal health.

Vitamins are organic chemicals, other than(k ilawa) essential amino acids and fatty acids, that must be supplied to an animal in small amounts to maintain
health. An exception to this is vitamin D, the only major vitamin the human body is known to be capable of manufacturing . Under certain circumstances,
however, vitamin D may not be synthesized in adequate amounts and then it too must be supplied by diet or as a dietary supplement if life and health are to
be sustained. Vitamins function in enzyme systems which facilitate the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, but there is growing evidence that
their roles in maintaining health extend yet further.

Vitamins are organic compounds required by the body in small amounts for metabolism, for protection, for maintenance of health and proper growth

 They cannot be synthesized by the body. Must be obtained by outside sources like diet, rumen of bacteria & sun.

 Vitamins also assist in the formation of hormones, blood vessels, nervous system chemicals and genetic materials

 They generally act as catalysts, combining with proteins to create metabolically active enzymes that are essential for life reactions

 Without enzymes, many of the reactions essential to life would slow down or cease
Types
The vitamins are conveniently divided into two major groups,

1. Fat soluble (Fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. Their absorption by the body depends on the normal absorption of fat from
the diet. dissolve in fat before they are absorbed in the bloodstream to carry out their functions. Excesses of these vitamins are stored in
the liver, and are not needed every day in the diet.)

Vitamin A (Retinol) retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, beta-carotene (plant version)

Types
Vitamin A is not a single compound. Rather, it is a group of fat-soluble compounds collectively known as retinoids.
The most common dietary form of vitamin A is retinol. Other forms — retinal and retinoic acid — are found in the body, but absent or rare in
foods.
Vitamin A2 (3,4-dehydroretinal) is an alternative, less active form found in freshwater fish
Vitamin A is best known for its vital role in maintaining vision. It’s also essential for body growth, immune function and reproductive health.
Role and Function
Vitamin A supports many critical aspects of body function, including:
 Vision maintenance: Vitamin A is essential for maintaining the light-sensing cells in the eyes and for the formation of tear fluid
 Immune function: Vitamin A deficiency impairs immune function, increasing susceptibility to infections
 Body growth: Vitamin A is necessary for cell growth. Deficiency may slow or prevent growth in children
 Hair growth: It is also vital for hair growth. Deficiency leads to alopecia, or hair loss
 Reproductive function: Vitamin A maintains fertility and is vital for fetal development
Occurrence
Vitamin A as such naturally occurs only in animal materials-meat, milk, eggs, and the like. Plants contain no vitamin A but contain its precursor,
β-carotene.β-Carotene is found in orange and yellow vegetables, as well as green leafy vegetables.
Deficiency
A deficiency of vitamin A leads to blindness, failure of normal bone and tooth development in the young, and diseases of epithelial cells and
membranes of the nose, throat, and eyes, which can decrease the body's resistance to infection. These diseases are rarely seen in the
developed world but are sadly too common in some parts of the world.
Vitamin A deficiency is rare in developed countries.
However, vegans may be at risk, since pre-formed vitamin A is only found in animal-sourced foods.
Although pro vitamin A is abundant in many fruits and vegetables, it is not always efficiently converted into retinol, the active form of vitamin A.
The efficiency of this conversion depends on people’s genetics
Deficiency is also widespread in some developing countries where food variety is limited. It is common in populations whose diet is dominated by
refined rice, white potatoes or cassava and lacking in meat, fat and vegetables.
A common symptom of early deficiency includes night blindness. As it progresses, it may lead to more serious conditions, such as:
 Dry eyes: Severe deficiency may cause xero phthalmia, a condition characterized by dry eyes caused by reduced tear fluid formation
 Blindness: Serious vitamin A deficiency may lead to total blindness. In fact, it is among the most common preventable causes of
blindness in the world
 Hair loss: If you are vitamin A deficient, you may start to lose your hair
 Skin problems: Deficiency leads to a skin condition known as hyperkeratosis or goose flesh
 Poor immune function: Poor vitamin A status or deficiency makes people prone to infections
Source
Vitamin A is only found in animal-sourced foods. The main natural food sources are liver, fish liver oil and butter.
Food sources rich in vitamin A are liver, fish oils, dairy products containing butterfat, and eggs.
The best dietary sources of vitamin A include liver and fish oil. Sufficient amounts can also be derived from pro vitamin A carotenoids, like beta-
carotene, which are found in vegetables
Sources of its main precursor,β-carotene, are carrots, squash, sweet potatoes, spinach, and kale. Vitamin A and β-carotene also are made
synthetically, as are other vitamins
The table below shows the amount of vitamin A in 3.5 ounces (100 grams) of some of its richest dietary sources

Vitamin A can also be derived from certain carotenoid antioxidants found in plants. They are collectively known as provitamin A.
The most efficient of these is beta-carotene, which is abundant in many vegetables, such as carrots, kale and spinach

Recommended allowance
the recommended allowance for vitamin A activity is 1000 retinol equivalents (RE) for the healthy adult male (Table 4.2). Because of the smaller
size of women, their allowance is 80% of this, but it is increased during lactation
The RDA is the estimated amount of vitamin A that the vast majority (about 97.5%) of people need to meet their daily
requirements.
the tolerable upper intake limit (UL), which is the highest level of daily intake considered safe for 97.5% of healthy people
The RDA for vitamin A is 3,000 IU (900 mcg) for adult men and 2,333 (700 mcg) for women. For children, it ranges from 1,000 IU (300 mcg) to
2,000 IU (600 mcg).
Excessive dose
High doses of vitamin A may lead to hypervitaminosis A, which is associated with various symptoms. Pregnant women should avoid
eating high amounts of vitamin A because of the risk of birth defects .
Like many other nutrients, excessive doses of preformed vitamin A can be toxic. Large intakes of carotenes are not similarly harmful since the
body will limit the conversion to vitamin A; however, yellow coloration of the skin may result.
To combat vitamin A deficiency, several countries in South America have passed laws that all sugar for home consumption be fortified with this
vitamin.
Overdosing on vitamin A leads to an adverse condition known as hypervitaminosis A. It’s rare, but may have serious health effects.
Its main causes are excessive doses of vitamin A from supplements, liver or fish liver oil. In contrast, high intake of provitamin A does not cause
hypervitaminosis.
The main symptoms and consequences of toxicity include fatigue, headache, irritability, stomach pain, joint pain, lack of appetite, vomiting,
blurred vision, skin problems and inflammation in the mouth and eyes.
It may also lead to liver damage, bone loss and hair loss. At extremely high doses, vitamin A can be fatal
People are advised to avoid exceeding the upper limit for intake, which is 10,000 IU (900 mcg) per day for adults.
Higher amounts, or 300,000 IU (900 mg), may cause acute hypervitaminosis A in adults.
Children can experience harmful effects at much lower amounts
Individual tolerance varies considerably. Children and people with liver diseases like cirrhosis and hepatitis are at an increased risk and need to
take extra care.
Pregnant women should also be especially careful, since high doses of vitamin A may harm the fetus. Doses as low as 25,000 IU per day have
been linked with birth defects
Benefits of Vitamin A Supplements
Supplements mainly benefit those who are low or deficient in vitamin A. One exception is children with measles, as studies show that
supplements may help treat the disease.
While supplements are beneficial for those who suffer from deficiency, most people get enough vitamin A from their diet and do
not need to take supplements.
Yet, controlled studies suggest that vitamin A supplements may benefit certain people even if their diet meets the basic
requirements.
For instance, vitamin A supplements may help treat measles in children (20Trusted Source, 21Trusted Source).
They protect against measles-associated pneumonia and reduce the risk of death by 50–80%. Studies suggest that vitamin A
acts by suppressing the measles virus

Vitamin D calciferol, calatriol (1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D1 or vitamin D hormone),

cholecalciferol (D3; plant version), ergocalciferol (D2; animal version)

Nicknamed the sunshine vitamin,

Types
Vitamin D is a collective term used to describe a few related fat-soluble compounds.
Also known as calciferol, vitamin D comes in two main dietary forms:
 Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol): Found in mushrooms and some plants.
 Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol): Found in animal-sourced foods, such as eggs and fish oil, and produced by your skin when exposed to
sunlight.

Formation
Vitamin D is formed in the skin of humans and animals by activation of sterols by ultraviolet light from the sun or by ultraviolet activation of sterols artificially.
Such sterols as cholesterol and ergosterol are involved. Cholesterol is found in and under the skin of animals.
Source
Irradiated ergosterol from yeast has served as a vitamin D source for addition to milk and other foods.
Most foods are low in vitamin D, although good sources are liver, fish oils, dairy products, and eggs.
Your body can produce all the vitamin D it needs as long as you regularly expose large parts of your skin to sunlight
However, many people spend little time in the sun or do so fully clothed. Justifiably, others cover their skin with sunscreen to prevent sunburns.
While sunscreen use is highly recommended, it reduces the amount of vitamin D produced by your skin.
As a result, people generally need to rely on their diets to get enough vitamin D.
Few foods naturally contain vitamin D. The best dietary sources are fatty fish and fish oil, but mushrooms that have been exposed to ultraviolet
light may also contain significant amounts.
The chart below shows the amounts of vitamin D in 3.5 ounces (100 grams) of some of its richest dietary sources

In addition, dairy products and margarine often come with added vitamin D.
To find out more ideas of foods you can eat to increase your vitamin D intake,
Function
Vitamin D increases absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the intestinal tract and is necessary for their efficient utilization.
Vitamin D has numerous roles and functions, but only a few are well researched. These include the following:
 Bone maintenance: Vitamin D regulates the circulating levels of calcium and phosphorus, which are the most important minerals for bone
growth and maintenance. It promotes the absorption of these minerals from the diet.
 Immune system regulation: It also regulates and strengthens immune system function
Once absorbed into the bloodstream, the liver and kidneys change calciferol into calcitriol, which is the biologically active form of vitamin D. It can
also be stored for later use in the form of calcidiol.
Vitamin D3 is more efficiently converted into calcitriol than vitamin D2
One of the most important functions of vitamin D is the maintenance of calcium and phosphorus levels in blood. It benefits bone health by
promoting the absorption of these minerals.
Deficiency
Shortage of vitamin D results in bone defects, the principal one being rickets. This shortage may occur when exposure to the sun is limited.
Severe vitamin D deficiency is rare, but mild forms of deficiency or insufficiency are common among hospitalized people as well as the elderly.
Risk factors of deficiency are dark skin color, old age, obesity, low sun exposure and diseases that impair fat absorption.
The most well-known consequences of vitamin D deficiency include soft bones, weak muscles and an increased risk of bone fractures. This
condition is called osteomalacia in adults and rickets in children
Vitamin D deficiency is also associated with poor immune function, an increased susceptibility to infections and autoimmune diseases Other
signs of deficiency or insufficiency may include fatigue, depression, hair loss and impaired wound healing.
Observational studies have also linked low vitamin D levels or deficiency with an increased risk of dying from cancer and an elevated risk of heart
attacks
The main symptoms of vitamin D deficiency include fatigue, weak muscles, soft bones, an increased risk of fractures and
susceptibility to infections.
Recommended allowance
In children, 400 IU of vitamin D per day is considered optimum, and this is the basis of fortifying milk with added vitamin D at the level of 400 IU per 0.946 liter
(1 qt). In the case of vitamin D, 400 IU is equivalent to 10 I-Lg of the naturally occurring form of the vitamin in animal tissues.
For children and adults, the RDA for vitamin D is 600 IU (15 mcg). The amount is slightly higher for elderly adults, at 800 IU (20
mcg).

Excessive dose
Excessive intake of vitamin D provides no benefits and is potentially harmful.
Vitamin D toxicity is very rare.
While spending a lot of time in the sun doesn’t cause vitamin D toxicity, taking high amounts of supplements may harm you.
The main consequence of toxicity is hypercalcemia, a condition characterized by excessive amounts of calcium in the blood.
Symptoms include headache, nausea, lack of appetite, weight loss, fatigue, kidney and heart damage, high blood pressure and fetal
abnormalities, to name a few.
People are generally advised to avoid exceeding the upper limit of vitamin D intake, which is 4,000 IU per day for adults.
Higher amounts, ranging from 40,000–100,000 IU (1,000–2,500 mcg) per day, may cause symptoms of toxicity in adults when taken daily for one
or two months. Keep in mind that much lower doses may harm young children.
Vitamin D is toxic in high doses. The most serious symptoms are caused by dangerously high levels of calcium in blood, which may
harm the heart and kidneys.
Benefits of Vitamin D Supplements
For people who spend little time in the sun and seldom eat fatty fish or liver, supplements can be very beneficial.
Regularly taking supplements seems to prolong people’s lives, especially hospitalized or institutionalized elderly people.
Supplements may also reduce the risk of respiratory tract infections
They may also have many other benefits in people with vitamin D deficiency, but more studies need to examine their effects in
people with sufficient vitamin D levels.
Health professionals advise most people to take vitamin D supplements to prevent deficiency. Supplements may improve general
health and reduce the risk of infections.

Vitamin E alpha-tocopherol, tocopherol, tocotrienol

Also known as a-tocopherol, vitamin E is an antisterility factor in rats and is essential for normal muscle tone in dogs and other animals, but its
significance for humans is still uncertain.
As a powerful antioxidant, vitamin E protects your cells against premature aging and damage by free radicals.
Types
Vitamin E is a family of eight structurally similar antioxidants that are divided into two groups:
 Tocopherols: Alpha-tocopherol, beta-tocopherol, gamma-tocopherol and delta-tocopherol.
 Tocotrienols: Alpha-tocotrienol, beta-tocotrienol, gamma-tocotrienol and delta-tocotrienol.
Alpha-tocopherol is the most common form of vitamin E. It makes up around 90% of the vitamin E in the blood.
Vitamin E is a group of related compounds divided into tocopherols and tocotrienols. Alpha-tocopherol is the most common type.
Deficiency
Vitamin E deficiency is uncommon and is never detected in people who are otherwise healthy.
It happens most often in diseases that impair the absorption of fat or vitamin E from food, such as cystic fibrosis and liver disease.
Symptoms of vitamin E deficiency include muscle weakness, walking difficulties, tremors, vision problems, poor immune function and numbness.
Severe, long-term deficiency may lead to anemia, heart disease, serious neurological problems, blindness, dementia, poor reflexes and the
inability to fully control body movements
Vitamin E deficiency is rare, but can cause muscle weakness, susceptibility to infections, neurological problems and poor vision.
Excessive dose
Overdosing on vitamin E is difficult when it is obtained from natural dietary sources. Cases of toxicity have only been reported after people have
taken very high doses of supplements.
Yet, compared to vitamin A and D, overdosing on vitamin E appears to be relatively harmless.
It may have blood-thinning effects, counteracting the effects of vitamin K and causing excessive bleeding. Thus, people who take blood-thinning
medications should avoid taking large doses of vitamin E
Additionally, at high doses of more than 1,000 mg per day, vitamin E may have pro-oxidant effects. That is, it can become the opposite of an
antioxidant, potentially leading to oxidative stress
Vitamin E appears to be less toxic at high doses than vitamin A and D. However, high doses may cause excessive bleeding and
oxidative stress.
Function
Vitamin E is a strong antioxidant and probably functions as such in human metabolism.
Diets excessive in polyunsaturated fats can lead to the formation of per oxidized fatty acids that may reach harmful levels. There is evidence that
vitamin E can prevent this.
Further, vitamin E favors the absorption of iron and may play a role in maintaining stability of biological membranes.
Because of its antioxidant properties, vitamin E also is able to spare carotene and vitamin A from oxidative destruction.
Vitamin E in large doses has been promoted as a remedy for numerous diseases and as an agent to prolong youth and increase sexual potency.
There is little scientific evidence for such claims.
Vitamin E’s main role is to act as an antioxidant, preventing oxidative stress and protecting fatty acids in your cell membranes from free radicals
These antioxidant properties are enhanced by other nutrients, such as vitamin C, vitamin B3 and selenium.
In high amounts, vitamin E also acts as a blood thinner, reducing the blood’s ability to clot
Vitamin E’s key role is to serve as an antioxidant, protecting cells against free radicals and oxidative damage .
. Recommended allowance
Among adults, the RDA for vitamin E is 23 IU (15 mg). For children and adolescents, the RDA ranges from 9 IU (6 mg) to 23 IU
(15 mg), depending on the age group.
Source
Vegetable oils are good sources of vitamin E,
The richest dietary sources of vitamin E include certain vegetable oils, seeds and nuts. The chart below shows some of the best sources of
vitamin E and the amount found in 3.5 ounces (100 grams) of these foods
Other rich sources include avocados, peanut butter, margarine, fatty fish and fish liver oil.
The best sources of vitamin E are certain vegetable oils, nuts and seeds
Benefits and Risks of High Vitamin E Intake or Supplements

High vitamin E intake from food or supplements has been linked with a number of benefits.
One form of vitamin E, gamma-tocopherol, was found to increase blood flow by promoting the dilation of blood vessels, potentially reducing blood
pressure and the risk of heart disease
Gamma-tocopherol supplements may also have a blood-thinning effect as well as reducing levels of “bad” LDL cholesterol
In contrast, other studies suggest that high-dose vitamin E supplements may be harmful, even when they don’t cause any obvious symptoms of
toxicity.
For instance, observational studies show that taking vitamin E supplements is linked with an increased risk of prostate cancer and death by all
causes
Given the potentially adverse effects of vitamin E supplements, they cannot be recommended at this point. High-quality studies are needed
before solid conclusions can be reached about the long-term safety of these supplements.

Vitamin K phylloquinone, menaquinone, menadione, naphthoquinone

Vitamin K plays a key role in blood clotting. Without it, you would run the risk of bleeding to death.
Types
Vitamin K is actually a group of fat-soluble compounds divided into two main groups:
 Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone): Found in plant-sourced foods, phylloquinone is the main form of vitamin K in the diet
 Vitamin K2 (menaquinone): This variety of vitamin K is found in animal-sourced foods and fermented soy products, like natto. Vitamin
K2 is also produced by gut bacteria in the colon Additionally, there are at least three synthetic forms of vitamin K. These are known as
vitamin K3 (menadione), vitamin K4 (menadiol diacetate) and vitamin K5.
Function
Vitamin K is essential for normal blood clotting.
Vitamin K plays an essential role in blood clotting. In fact, the “K” stands for “koagulation,” the Danish word for coagulation, which
means clotting.
But vitamin K has other functions as well, including supporting bone health and helping prevent the calcification of blood vessels,
potentially reducing the risk of heart disease
Deficiency
Its deficiency generally parallels liver disease where fat absorption is abnormal. It also can be deficient in infants. This is prevented by giving infants vitamin K
with their formulas.
Unlike vitamins A and D, vitamin K isn’t stored in the body in significant amounts. For this reason, consuming a diet lacking in
vitamin K may lead you to become deficient in as little as a week
People who do not efficiently digest and absorb fat are at the greatest risk of developing vitamin K deficiency. This includes
those who suffer from celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease and cystic fibrosis.
Use of broad-spectrum antibiotics may also raise the risk of deficiency, as well as very high doses of vitamin A, which seem to
reduce vitamin K absorption.
Mega-doses of vitamin E may also counteract the effects of vitamin K on blood clotting .
Without vitamin K, your blood wouldn’t clot and even a small wound could cause unstoppable bleeding. Fortunately, vitamin K
deficiency is rare, since the body only needs small amounts to maintain blood clotting.
Low levels of vitamin K have also been linked with reduced bone density and increased risk of fractures in women
Deficiency in vitamin K may lead to excessive bleeding. Diseases that interfere with fat absorption increase the risk of deficiency.
Source
Good sources of vitamin K are green vegetables such as spinach and cabbage. Vitamin K also is synthesized by bacteria in the human intestinal tract. Thus,
antibiotic therapy that destroys intestinal organisms can produce deficiencies of vitamin K and certain other vitamins synthesized by bacteria.
The best dietary sources of vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) are leafy green vegetables, whereas vitamin K2 (menaquinone) is mainly found in animal-
sourced foods and fermented soy products.
In contrast to phylloquinone, menaquinone is only found in small amounts in certain high-fat, animal-sourced foods, such as egg yolks, butter and
liver.
It is also found in certain soy foods, such as natto.

The table below shows some of the main sources of vitamin K1 and the amounts found in 3.5 ounces (100 grams) of these foods

Recommended allowance
The adequate intake (AI) of vitamin K is 90 mcg for women and 120 mcg for men. For children and adolescents, the AI ranges
from 30–75 mcg, depending on the age group.
Excessive dose
Unlike the other fat-soluble vitamins, natural forms of vitamin K have no known symptoms of toxicity.
As a result, scientists have not been able to establish a tolerable upper intake level for vitamin K. Further studies are needed.
In contrast, a synthetic form of vitamin K, known as menadione or vitamin K3, may have some adverse effects when consumed in high amounts
The maximum safe dosage of vitamin K is unknown and no symptoms of toxicity have been identified.
Benefits of Vitamin K Supplements
Several controlled studies have examined the effects of vitamin K supplements in humans. These studies show that vitamin K
supplements — vitamin K1 and vitamin K2 — may decrease bone loss and reduce the risk of bone fractures .
Additionally, taking vitamin K2 supplements at 45–90 mg per day slightly increased the survival of patients with liver cancer
Observational studies also suggest that a high intake of vitamin K2 may lower the risk of heart disease. However, the evidence
from controlled studies is limited and inconclusive.
Finally, vitamin K1 supplements taken at 0.5 mg every day for three years slowed the development of insulin resistance in older
men, compared to a placebo. No significant differences were detected in women

2. Water soluble(water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are not stored by the body. Since they are eliminated in urine, we
require a continuous daily supply in our diet Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the several members of the vitamin B complex.)

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Vitamin C is the anti scurvy vitamin. Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is easily destroyed by oxidation, especially at high temperatures, and is the
vitamin most easily lost during food processing, storage, and cooking. Vitamin C-containing foods must be protected against exposure to oxygen to prevent
losses.
The body needs vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid or ascorbate, to remain in proper working condition. Vitamin C benefits the body by holding cells together through
collagen synthesis; collagen is a connective tissue that holds muscles, bones, and other tissues together. Vitamin C also aids in wound healing, bone and tooth formation,
strengthening blood vessel walls, improving immune system function, increasing absorption and utilization of iron, and acting as an antioxidant.
Vitamin C works with vitamin E as an antioxidant, and plays a crucial role in neutralizing free radicals throughout the body. Through its antioxidant activity, studies suggest
vitamin C may help prevent or delay the development of certain cancers, heart disease, and other diseases in which oxidative stress plays a causal role. Research continues
to document the degree of these effects.
Two of the more recent claims for vitamin C are that it removes high levels of cholesterol from the blood of rats and prevents colds in humans. The
significance of the rat studies in relation to humans has not yet been established. A very high level of one or more grams of vitamin C taken daily in the form
oftablets has been advocated by some as a way to prevent colds. However, the effectiveness of this treatment has not been supported by the medical
profession or the FDA.
Deficiency
Its deficiency causes fragile capillary walls, easy bleeding of gums, loosening of teeth, and bone joint diseases.
Although rare in the United States, severe vitamin C deficiency may result in the disease known as scurvy, causing fatigue and a loss of collagen strength throughout the
body. Loss of collagen results in loose teeth, bleeding and swollen gums, and improper wound healing.
The following conditions have been shown to increase vitamin C requirements
Environmental stress, such as air and noise pollution Tissue healing of wounds Growth (children from 0- 12 months, and pregnant women) Fever and infection Smoking
Function
It is necessary for the normal formation of the protein collagen, which is an important constituent of skin and connective tissue. Like vitamin E, vitamin C
favors the absorption of iron
Recommended allowance
The recommended daily allowance for vitamin C in the United States for the male and female adults is 60 mg. In the United Kingdom and Canada, the
recommended daily allowance has been 30 mg. This is true with other vitamin and nutrient recommendations-there is not complete international agreement.
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for Vitamin C is 90 mg/day for adult males and 75 mg/day for adult females (Table 1). For those who smoke cigarettes, the RDA
for vitamin C increases by 35 mg/day, in order to counteract the oxidative effects of nicotine. Vitamin C recommendations also increase during pregnancy and lactation,
Source
Excellent sources of vitamin C are citrus fruit, tomatoes, cabbage, and green peppers. Potatoes also are a fair source (although the content of vitamin C is
relatively low) because we consume large quantities of potatoes. Milk, cereals, and meats are poor sources.
Excessive dose
Despite being a watersoluble vitamin that the body excretes when in excess, vitamin C overdoses an increase the risk of adverse health effects, like kidney stones, diarrhea,
rebound scurvy, and increased oxidative damage. For this reason, the FNB has established an upper limit of 2000 mg/ day
Can Vitamin C Prevent/Treat the Common Cold?
The controversy over using mega doses of vitamin C to prevent or treat the common cold and other infections remains a popular topic. Vitamin C
appears to have the ability to enhance various immune cell functions, however, the precise dose and ideal timing of vitamin C intake has not
been fully elucidated. Overall, the evidence suggests that adequate dietary vitamin C intake and possibly higher intake at plasma saturating
levels (100-200 mg/day) may help prevent the common cold by optimizing cell and tissue levels. Regular intake at doses of 200- 1000 mg/day
may be especially helpful in reducing cold incidence in people exposed to extreme physical exercise or cold environment and those with marginal
vitamin C status, such as the elderly and chronic smokers. Among the general population, vitamin C intake at doses of 200 mg/day or more is
moderately effective in improving the severity and duration of the common cold. In terms of treatment of established infections, some evidence
indicates significantly higher doses (grams) may be beneficial in the recovery process by ameliorating the decline in leukocyte vitamin C levels;
however, further research still needs to address safety concerns. Furthermore, this effect appears to have the most benefit on those with very
low vitamin C levels.
Vitamins of the B Complex Group
All members of the vitamin B complex generally are found in the same principal food sources, such as liver, yeast, and the bran of cereal grains. All are
required for essential metabolic activities and several function as parts of active enzymes. Absence of a particular B vitamin results in a specific deficiency
disease. The B vitamins are widely distributed in foods, and their influence is felt in many parts of the body. They function as coenzymes that help the body obtain energy
from food. The B vitamins are also important for normal appetite, good vision, healthy skin, functioning nervous system, and red blood cell formation.

Thiamin (Vitamin B1).

Thiamin was the first ofthe B vitamins to be recognized.

Role
Thiamin, or vitamin B1, helps to release energy from foods, promotes normal appetite, and plays a role in muscle contraction and conduction of nerve signals
Deficiency
The disease beriberi, caused by a deficiency of thiamin, is common where polished rice is a major dietary item. Fortification of rice or white bread with thiamin
corrects this disease.
Under-consumption of thiamin is rare in the United States due to wide availability of enriched grain products. However, certain groups may be at risk for thiamin deficiency
including people with alcohol dependence, people with HIV/AIDS, people who have undergone bariatric surgery, and those with low dietary intake, like older adults.
Alcoholics are especially prone to thiamin deficiency because alcohol reduces thiamin absorption and storage, and excess alcohol consumption often replaces food or
meals. Symptoms of thiamin deficiency include:
mental confusion, muscle weakness, wasting, water retention (edema), enlarged heart, and the disease known as beriberi. Thiamin deficiency is currently not a problem in
the United States.
Role
A most important role of thiamin is in the utilization of carbohydrate to supply energy, where it functions as the coenzyme thiamin pyrophosphate, or
cocarboxylase, in the oxidation of glucose.
Recommended allowance
The recommended adult daily allowance for thiamin is about 1.0-1.5 mg, depending on age and sex
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for thiamin is 1.2 mg/day for adult males and 1.1 mg/day for adult females
Source
Best sources are wheat germ, whole cereals containing bran, liver, pork, yeast, and egg yolk. Thiamin is stable to heat in acid foods but less so in neutral and
alkaline foods, and this is taken into account in food processing.
Sources include pork, legumes, fish, peas, and liver. Most commonly, thiamin is found in whole grains and fortified grain products such as cereal, and enriched products like
bread, pasta, rice, and tortillas. The process of enrichment adds back nutrients that are lost when grains are processed. Among the nutrients added during the enrichment
process are thiamin (B1), niacin (B3), riboflavin (B2), folate and iron.
Excessive dose
No problems with overconsumption are known for thiamin.

Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)

Riboflavin is the yellow-green pigment of skim milk and whey. Riboflavin is quite resistant to heat but very sensitive to light and this is why brown milk bottles
have seen limited use in the past. Paper cartons, which protect milk from light, are more practical.

Role
It functions in the oxidative processes ofliving cells and is essential for cellular growth and tissue maintenance
Riboflavin, or vitamin B2, helps to release energy from foods, and is also important for the growth, development and function of the cells in the body. It also helps to
convert the amino acid tryptophan (which makes up protein) into niacin
Deficiency
Deficiency in humans generally results in skin conditions, such as cracking at the corners of the mouth.
Under consumption of riboflavin is extremely rare in the United States. Groups at risk of riboflavin inadequacy include vegan athletes and pregnant and breastfeeding
women and their babies. Symptoms of deficiency include skin disorders, cracks at the corners of the mouth, hair loss, itchy and red eyes, reproductive problems, and
cataracts.
Recommended allowance
Recommended daily allowance for adults is 1.2-1.7 mg, depending on sex and age.
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for riboflavin is 1.3 mg/day for adult males and 1.1 mg/day for adult females
Source
Liver, milk, and eggs are good sources. Meats and green leafy vegetables are moderate sources of riboflavin
Sources include eggs, organ meats (liver and kidney), dark green vegetables, milk, and whole and enriched grain products. Ultraviolet light is known to destroy riboflavin,
which is why most milk is packaged in opaque containers instead of clear.
Excessive dose
No problems with overconsumption are known for riboflavin.
Vitamin B3 Niacin (Nicotinic Acid), nicotinamide

Niacin, also referred to as nicotinamide in the United Kingdom, is not to be confused with nicotine from tobacco. Niacin is very stable to heat, light, and
oxidation, but like other water-soluble nutrients it can be leached from foods during processing and cooking
Role
Niacin, or vitamin B3, is involved in energy production and critical cellular functions.
Deficiency
A deficiency of niacin adversely affects tissue respiration and oxidation of glucose and results in the disease known as pellagra in humans. This is
characterized by skin and mucous membrane disorders as well as depression and confusion. Pellagra can be cured by feeding niacin or by feeding the
essential amino acid tryptophan from which niacin can be made in the body.
Niacin deficiency is not a problem in the United States and is mostly limited to people who eat very limited diets and diets low in protein. Pellagra is the disease state that
occurs as a result of severe niacin deficiency. Symptoms include skin problems, digestive issues, and mental confusion.
Recommended allowance
The adult recommended daily allowance is 13-20 mg niacin, depending on sex and age.
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for niacin is 16 mg/day for adult males and 14 mg/day for adult females

Source
Good sources of this vitamin are yeast, meat, fish, poultry, peanuts, legumes, and whole grain cereals.
Niacin is present in a wide variety of foods including animal and plant sources
Excessive dose
Consuming large doses of niacin supplements beyond 35mg/day may cause flushed skin, rashes, hypotension symptoms, or liver damage Overconsumption of niacin is not a
problem if it is obtained through food.

VitaminB6 Pyridoxine, Pyridoxal, Pyridoxamine

Vitamin B6 is the name given to the closely related substances pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine.
Vitamin B6, otherwise known as pyridoxine, pyridoxal or pyridoxamine,
Role
Although essential in the human diet for specific enzyme systems and normal metabolism,
aids in protein metabolism, red blood cell formation, and behaves as an antioxidant molecule. It is also involved in the body’s production of chemicals such as
neurotransmitters and hemoglobin.
Excessive dose
Over consumption from food sources have not been reported to cause adverse health effects, but chronic excess doses of vitamin B6 from supplements have been known
to result in nerve damage (Table 2). The Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) has established an upper limit of 100 mg/day for adults.
Deficiency
a deficiency of this vitamin does not cause a well-recognized disease. Vitamin B6 deficiency is uncommon and usually associated with low concentrations of other B-
complex vitamins, like vitamin B12 and folic acid. Deficiency symptoms include dermatitis, swollen tongue, peripheral neuropathy, anemia, depression and confusion, and
weakened immune function. A vitamin B6 deficiency in infants can cause irritability, acute hearing issues, and convulsive seizures
Source
Vitamin B6 is widely distributed in foodstuffs-good sources being muscle meat, liver, green vegetables, and grain cereals with bran.
Sources include legumes, organ meats, fish, meats, starchy vegetables, and whole grains and fortified cereals.
Recommended allowance
The recommended daily allowance for adults is approximately 2 mg, and 2.2 mg during pregnancy and lactation. Women taking steroid contraceptive pills may
require higher levels.
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for vitamin B6 is 1.3 mg/day for adult males and females through age fifty (Table 1). The RDA for male and females over fifty
years of age is 1.7 mg and 1.5 mg, respectively.
Vitamin B5 Pantothenic Acid

Pantothenic Acid, also known as vitamin B5, is involved in energy production, and aids in the formation of hormones and the metabolism of fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates from food.
Source
Because pantothenic acid is widespread in foods, obvious symptoms of its deficiency are rare in humans
Almost all plant- and animal- based foods contain pantothenic acid in varying amounts. Richest dietary sources include fortified breakfast cereals, liver, kidney, meats, and
seeds.
Deficiency
But a deficiency may appear in experimental animals on limited diets or in severly malnourished individuals. In this case there is a general lowering in the
state of well-being of the individual with signs of depression, less resistance to infection, and possibly less tolerance to stress.
Pantothenic Acid deficiency is uncommon due to its wide availability in most foods
Recommended allowance
The human requirement for this vitamin is not well established but is believed to be about 5 mg per day, including pregnant and lactating women. This is easily
supplied in a normal diet.
The Adequate Intake (AI) for Pantothenic Acid is 5 mg/day for both adult males and females .Pregnancy will increase the AI for Pantothenic Acid to 6mg /day .
Excessive dose
No problems with overconsumption are known for Pantothenic Acid. Rarely, diarrhea and gastrointestinal distress will occur with excessive amounts.
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) cobalamin,
Called the anti-pernicious anemia factor, Vitamin B12, also known as cobalamin, aids in the building of genetic material, production of normal red blood cells, and
maintenance of the nervous system.
Importance
vitamin B12 also is important in nucleic acid formation and in fat and carbohydrate metabolism. Vitamin B12, also called cyanocobalamin, is the largest
vitamin molecule and contains cobalt in its structure, giving rise to an essential requirement for the mineral cobalt in nutrition.
Source
Vitamin B12 is synthesized by bacteria and molds and is a commercial by-product of antibiotic production. Good natural sources of this vitamin are liver,
meats, and seafoods. Strict vegetarians may not get sufficient vitamin B12 from their diets since it is virtually absent from plant tissues.
Vitamin B12 can only be found naturally in foods of animal origin such as meats, liver, kidney, fish, eggs, milk and milk products, oysters, shellfish. Some fortified foods, like
breakfast cereals and nutritional yeast may also contain vitamin B12.
Recommended allowance
The recommended daily allowance for adults is 2.0 ~g. Vitamin B12 activity is not restricted to a single substance but is exhibited by several structurally
related compounds.
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for vitamin B12 is 2.4 mcg/day for adult males and females (Table 1). Many adults over the age of fifty do not get enough
vitamin B12, the dietary guidelines recommend consuming foods fortified with vitamin B12, such as fortified cereals
Deficiency
Vitamin B12 deficiency most commonly affects vegans, infants of vegan mothers, and the elderly. Symptoms of deficiency include anemia and neurological changes, such as
numbness and tingling in the hands and feet. In order to prevent vitamin B12 deficiency, a dietary supplement should be taken. Some people develop a B12 deficiency
because they cannot absorb the vitamin through their stomach lining. This can be treated through vitamin B12 injections
Excessive dose
No problems with overconsumption of vitamin B12 are known.

Folacin Folate: Folic Acid Vitamin B9,M,Bc, pteroylglutamic acid

Folacin and folate are the names given to related compounds exhibiting the vitamin activity of folic acid.
also known as folic acid or folacin, aids in protein metabolism, promoting red blood cell formation, and lowering the risk for neural tube birth defects. Folate may also play a
role in controlling homocysteine levels, thus reducing the risk for coronary heart disease.
Importance
Like Vitamin B12 folacin prevents certain kinds of anemias, is involved in the synthesis of nucleic acids, and is synthesized by microorganisms.
Source
Folacin is present in animal and plant foods, especially liver, leafy vegetables, legumes, and cereal grains and nuts.
Sources of folate include liver, kidney, dark green vegetables, meats, legumes, fish, whole grains, and fortified grains and cereals. Check the nutrition label to see if folic acid
has been added.
Recommended allowance
The recommended daily allowance for folacin is about 200 ~g for adult males, 180 ~g for females, and 400 ~g during pregnancy. This allowance recognizes a
limited biological availability of the vitamin from certain foods of a mixed diet.
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for folate is 400 mcg/day for adult males and females. Pregnancy will increase the RDA for folate to 600 mcg/day
Deficiency
Folate deficiency affects cell growth and protein production, which can lead to overall impaired growth. Anemia is the primary clinical sign of folate deficiency and includes
symptoms like fatigue, headache, and heart palpitations. A folate deficiency in women who are pregnant or of child bearing age may result in the delivery of a baby with
neural tube defects, such as spina bifida.
Excessive dose
Over consumption of folate offers no known benefits, and may mask B12 deficiency as well as interfere with some medications (Table 2). For this reason, the FNB
established an upper limit for folate from supplements or fortified foods of 1000 mcg/day.
Biotin and Choline vitamin B7

Two additional substances that are water soluble and generally listed with the vitamins of the B complex are biotin and choline.
Biotin helps release energy from carbohydrates and aids in the metabolism of fats, proteins and carbohydrates from food.
Source
these and other growth factors, such as inositol and para-aminobenzoic acid, are produced by the normal microflora of the intestine.
Sources of Biotin include liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk, most fresh vegetables, yeast breads and cereals.
Recommended allowance
The Adequate Intake (AI) for Biotin is 30 mcg/day for adult males and females
Importance
Biotin is active in the metabolism of fatty acids and amino acids. Choline is a component of cell membranes and brain tissue, and it functions in the
transmission of nerve impulses. Biotin and choline are seldom in short supply when the diet is adequate in the other B vitamins.
Deficiency
Biotin deficiency is uncommon. A few of the symptoms of biotin deficiency include hair loss, skin rashes, and brittle nails, and for this reason biotin supplements are often
promoted for hair, skin, and nail health. However, these claims are only a few case reports and small studies.
Excessive dose
No problems with overconsumption are known for Biotin.
Difference between fat soluble and water soluble vitamins
Water soluble Fat soluble
Meaning As the name states – vitamins that can dissolve Similarly, vitamins that dissolve in fat are called
in water are called water-soluble vitamins fat-soluble vitamins
Vitamins B, C A, D, E, K
Site of Absorption Small intestines Small intestine
Dietary Intake Excess intake usually detected and Excess intake tends to be stored in fat
excreted by the kidneys -storage sites
Solubility Hydrophilic Hydrophobic
Capitalize Easily absorbed the blood, travels freely in Absorbed into the lymphatic system,
the bloodstream many require protein carriers to travel
in the blood
Body storage Not generally Yes
Deficiency Deficiency symptoms appear relatively Deficiency symptoms are slow to
quickly e.g. weeks to months. develop e.g. months to more than a year.
Toxicity Low risk, Excess amounts are readily excreted in the Higher risk Can become toxic in excess amounts (likely
urine so toxicity resulting from overdosing is rare. to result from supplements and not diet) as these are
not readily excreted and are stored for later use.
Need for daily consumption Yes frequently intake required every two to three No , required in periodic doses once a week or a few
days doses in a month
Transportation Travels freely in the bloodstream Many vitamins require carriers (proteins) to
travel in the blood
How Body Handles Excess Excess vitamins are excreted by the kidney Excess is stored in the body’s fatty tissues
STORE Not stored in a considerable quantity (except vitamin Stored in the liver and fatty tissues until the body needs
B12), so needs to be supplied by the diet frequently them so it does not need to be supplied by the diet
frequently
EXCRETION The excess is eliminated through urine by our kidneys They are excreted very slowly by our body

Daily Allowances and Insufficiency

Daily Allowances
Recommended daily allowances for vitamins not only differ for children and adults, for different physiological states, and for different levels of physical activity,
but a distinction also must be made between recommended levels and minimum acceptable levels. The recommended levels provide a substantial margin of
safety and may be as much as five times the minimum levels required to sustain life.
Insufficiency
Although diet may provide liberal quantities of the various vitamins, several practices and life situations that have become common can result in vitamin
inadequacies. As mentioned, women taking steroid contraceptive pills may require higher intakes of vitamin B6 • Oral contraceptives also lower body levels of
vitamins C, Bl> B2, B12, and folacin. Heavy consumption of alcohol may result in vitamin Bl> B6 , and folacin insufficiency. Smoking reduces blood levels of
vitamin C. Emotional stress can decrease absorption and increase excretion of vitamins and other nutrients. Prolonged use of certain drugs also can increase
vitamin and other nutrient requirements.

Anti-vitamins
Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins. For example, avidin is a protein in raw egg whites that inhibits the absorption
of biotin; it is deactivated by cooking. Pyrithiamine, a synthetic compound, has a molecular structure similar to thiamine, vitamin B1, and inhibits the enzymes that use
thiamine

Biochemical functions
ach vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions. [29]

On fetal growth and childhood development

Main article: Nutrition and pregnancy

Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus develops from
the nutrients it absorbs. It requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. [9] These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among
other things, skin, bone, and muscle. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor
deficiencies may cause permanent damage.[30]
On adult health maintenance
Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a
multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats required for cellular respiration.[7]

Governmental regulation
Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general umbrella of foods, not drugs. As a result, the manufacturer, and not the
government, has the responsibility of ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed. Regulation of supplements varies widely by
country. In the United States, a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994.[53] There is no FDA approval process
for dietary supplements, and no requirement that manufacturers prove the safety or efficacy of supplements introduced before 1994. [34][35] The Food and Drug
Administration must rely on its Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor adverse events that occur with supplements. [54] In 2007, the US Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR) Title 21, part III took effect, regulating Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) in the manufacturing, packaging, labeling, or holding operations for
dietary supplements. Even though product registration is not required, these regulations mandate production and quality control standards (including testing for
identity, purity and adulterations) for dietary supplements.[55] In the European Union, the Food Supplements Directive requires that only those supplements that have
been proven safe can be sold without a prescription.[56] For most vitamins, pharmacopoeial standards have been established. In the United States, the United States
Pharmacopeia (USP) sets standards for the most commonly used vitamins and preparations thereof. Likewise, monographs of the European
Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.) regulate aspects of identity and purity for vitamins on the European market.

Evolution of vitamin-dependent organisms

Evolution of metabolic processes in primitive forms of life required the development of enzyme systems to catalyze
the complex sequences of chemical reactions involved in metabolism. In the beginning, the environment
presumably could supply all the necessary compounds (including the vitamin coenzymes); eventually, these
compounds were synthesized within an organism. As higher forms of life evolved, however, the ability to synthesize
certain of these vitamin coenzymes was gradually lost.

Since higher plants show no requirements for vitamins or other growth factors, it is assumed that they retain the
ability to synthesize them. Among insects, however, niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B6, vitamin C, and
pantothenic acid are required by a few groups. All vertebrates, including humans, require dietary sources of vitamin
A, vitamin D, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B6, and pantothenic acid; some vertebrates, particularly the more highly
evolved ones, have additional requirements for other vitamins.