Optical and Quantum Electronics (2023) 55:557

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11082-023-04852-3

Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit

for long haul optical links and WDM systems

Baseerat Gul1 · Faroze Ahmad1

Received: 12 February 2023 / Accepted: 12 April 2023 / Published online: 2 May 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
This report presents a comprehensive approach to dispersion management, including vari-
ous techniques, mathematical analysis, and their advantages and disadvantages in different
scenarios. A deep mathematical analysis of chirped fiber Bragg grating (CFBG) is con-
ducted for various chirping techniques and apodization profiles, highlighting the impor-
tance of this aspect in dispersion management. Additionally, a detailed study of the imple-
mentation of CFBG and dispersion compensating fiber (DCF) is performed to determine
which technique is suitable for long-haul links and which is best for WDM networks, both
for low and high capacity. The report also sheds light on how dispersion compensation
techniques can be useful in mm wave propagation. The paper provides new insights into
the field of dispersion management and the results of the study make it an interesting and
valuable addition to the literature.

Keywords Dispersion · Dispersion compensation · Wavelength-division multiplexing

(WDM) · Dispersion compensating fiber (DCF) · Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) · Pulse
spreading

1 Introduction

Optical fiber communication was introduced roughly three decades ago and quickly
became the preferred method in telecommunications due to its numerous advantages, par-
ticularly its vast capacity and security (Sharma et al. 2019; Senior and Jamro 2009; Keiser
2000, Agarwal 2012). However, the issue of dispersion limits the ability of optical systems
to meet the needs of users (Sharma et al. 2019; Senior and Jamro 2009; Keiser 2000). Dis-
persion is the effect that causes pulse broadening as it propagates through the fiber (Senior
and Jamro 2009; Keiser 2000). If this pulse broadening exceeds a certain threshold, it leads
to Inter-symbol Interference (ISI) (Senior and Jamro 2009; Keiser 2000; Bhupeshwaran

* Baseerat Gul
baseerat.gul@islamicuniversity.edu.in
Faroze Ahmad
drferoz07@gmail.com
1
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Islamic University of Science
and Technology, Awantipora, Jammu and Kashmir 192122, India

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557 Page 2 of 28 B. Gul, F. Ahmad

and Sivasubramanian 2013). This can cause the pulse to become distorted, which results
in a reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and an increase in the bit error rate (BER)
(Kumar et al. 2019). Conventional Single Mode Fibers (CSMF) are free from Intermodal-
dispersion, but Chromatic-dispersion, also known as Intramodal-dispersion, is the domi-
nant form in CSMF (Senior and Jamro 2009; Keiser 2000). The effects of dispersion are
cumulative with increasing distance (Gul and Ahmad 2022). For externally modulated
sources, the transmission distance limited by chromatic dispersion is mathematically
defined by Agarwal (2012) as:
( )
L < 2𝜋c∕ 16|D|.𝜆2 .B2 ; (1)

where c, B, and D, are the speed of light, bit-rate, and dispersion for the medium at the
central wavelength λ, respectively. This equation also illustrates that dispersion limits the
bit rate of the system in addition to the transmission length, due to the narrowing of pulses
at high bit rates. The maximum bit rate (B) for a pulse with an initial pulse width (τ0),
allowed to avoid the ISI is mathematically defined by Senior and Jamro (2009) as:
( )
B ≤ 1∕ 2𝜏0 . (2)

For CSMF with a 1550 nm wavelength, the maximum permissible bandwidth for a link
with a distance of 80 km is typically around 50 MHz. As the distance of the link increases,
the maximum permissible bandwidth decreases. For example, a link with a distance of
160 km would typically have a maximum permissible bandwidth of around 25 MHz. How-
ever, the dispersion can be compensated by the dispersion compensating modules, which
are used to counteract the effects of dispersion and increase the maximum permissible
bandwidth (Kumar et al. 2019; Gul and Ahmad 2022; Neheeda et al. 2016; Meena and
Meena 2018; Palumbo et al. 2018). This way, the distance of the link can be increased,
with the trade-off of complexity increase and system cost.
The pulse spreading results in a reduction of the signal power and leads to further losses
(Agarwal 2012), illustrated in Fig. 1. One way to mathematically model the relationship
between dispersion and signal power is through the use of the pulse broadening equation,
which describes how the width of an optical pulse increases over distance due to disper-
sion. The pulse broadening equation is:
{ ( ) }(1∕2)
𝜏(z) = 𝜏0 . 1 + 𝜆2 .D.L ∕ (2𝜋 c.𝜂) ; (3)

where, τ(z) is the pulse width at a distance z, L is the link distance, and η is the refractive
index of fiber (core). The term {(λ2.D.L)/(2πcη)} represents the dispersion effect on the
pulse broadening. Equation (3) demonstrates the impact of dispersion on the pulse width
and signal power over distance. The relationship between dispersion and signal power is
1

Input Output
pulse pulse
2

Optical fiber channel

3

1
2
3

Fig. 1  Pulse spreading due to disperion

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Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit for long haul… Page 3 of 28 557

non-linear, with the rate of signal power decrease dependent on the amount of dispersion
and link distance. The nonlinear refractive index further complicates the relationship and
presents limitations for distance and power in transmission systems. It is important to note
that the equation applies specifically to single-mode fibers and would differ for multimode
fibers.
WDM is widely adopted to fully utilize the capacity of optical networks, which splits
the total bandwidth of a single channel system across multiple wavelength components
(Neheeda et al. 2016; Sayed et al. 2021). WDM offers a range of desirable properties,
including high bandwidth availability, low signal attenuation and distortion, minimal
power requirements, efficient material usage, minimal space requirements, and low cost
(Chatterjee 2016). In WDM systems, the direct modulation of laser diodes (LDs) is gener-
ally preferred as a data transmission technique, due to its ability to lower power consump-
tion and decrease overall system cost when compared to external modulation techniques
(Zhang et al. 2018)]. However, as the number of channels propagating through the fiber
increases, dispersion reduces the maximum transmission distance (Dilendorfs et al. 2016)
and introduces crosstalk between the consecutive channels in a WDM system (Meena and
Meena 2018). As the different channels emit different wavelengths of light, and all wave-
lengths travel at different speeds, they interfere with each other, causing crosstalk between
channels (Meena and Gupta 2019) and also, the signal strength decreases, making it more
difficult to detect the signal at the receiver (Eq. 3). This makes difficult to separate the
different channels and leads to a reduction in the number of channels that can be trans-
mitted simultaneously. Hence, limits the distance over which a WDM system can operate
effectively, reducing the system’s overall capacity (Wang et al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2018).
Finally, the dispersion can also lead to nonlinear effects such as four-wave mixing (FWM)
(Wang et al. 2019), which can cause inter-channel crosstalk and degrade the signal quality.
This can be particularly problematic in systems that use closely spaced channels, such as
dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) systems.
The dispersion management technique is crucial for retrieving an error-free signal in
both single-channel and multiple-channel optical communication systems (Bhupeshwaran
and Sivasubramanian 2013). Implementing an electric filter within the channel is not
a solution, as it requires O/E conversion and vice versa, making the system excessively
complex (Agarwal 2012). The dispersion management technique must be implemented
in a way that compensates for dispersion while keeping the signal in optical form. The
most common dispersion management techniques involve the implementation of DCF and
FBG (Sharma et al. 2019; Ghosh and Priye 2018; Hussain et al. 2019; Ahmad 2017; Bhu-
peshwaran and Sivasubramanian 2013; Meena and Meena 2018). DCF offers numerous
advantages such as the ability to upgrade an already installed system, efficient dispersion
compensation, and uniform dispersion compensation for multiple spectral components
(Neheeda et al. 2016). It is the first choice for dispersion management in optical commu-
nication systems (Hussain et al. 2019), particularly WDM networks. However, the cost of
DCF is high, at approximately $3/m (Agarwal et al. 2022), and as the transmission distance
increases, the expansion of DCF makes the system even more expensive.
FBG is a cost-effective option and is well suited for use as a dispersion management
unit. FBG reduces the cost of a system by more than 50% (Meena and Meena 2020), and
by optimizing its grating parameters, it can be upgraded for a specific application (Palumbo
et al. 2018). The dispersion compensation efficiency of FBG can be improved through
the analytical optimization of grating length, apodization profile, and chirping profile
(Ranathive et al. 2022; Khan and Islam 2012). Additionally, the effect of side lobes present
in the reflection spectrum of CFBG can be minimized by controlling its grating length,

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557 Page 4 of 28 B. Gul, F. Ahmad

which directly enhances the Q-factor (Khan and Islam 2012; Ali et al. 2019). Chirped FBG
(CFBG) as a DCU improves the Q-factor value of the system by 2.7% Kumar et al. 2019).
Effective compensation for chromatic dispersion in high-bit-rate optical communication
systems has been demonstrated using Apodized and Linearly Chirped Fibre Bragg grat-
ings (Khan and Islam 2012). Furthermore, it has been reported in (Dar and Jha 2017) that
FBG parameters require optimization in order to achieve optimal performance for disper-
sion management, specifically in terms of size, adjustability and loss. However, it should
be noted that FBG has been used as a standalone dispersion compensation unit in certain
studies (Panda et al. 2020; Sayed et al. 2021), which have reported that FBG alone may
not be sufficient to support transmission distances beyond 80 km. Additionally, it is known
that there is a trade-off between output power and Q-factor in FBG (Ranathive et al. 2022).
Research studies in (Sharma et al. 2019; Kumar et al. 2019; Ali et al. 2019; Hussain et al.
2019] have compared the performance of DCF and FBG as dispersion compensators and
have found that DCF offers a higher level of dispersion compensation efficiency. Addition-
ally, studies in (Hussain et al. 2019; Dar and Jha 2017) have demonstrated that the imple-
mentation of a combination of DCF and FBG as a dispersion management unit can be a
cost-effective solution, as it maximizes the benefits and minimizes the drawbacks of both
methods. Despite the availability of studies on dispersion management techniques, there is
a scarcity of research on the implementation of these techniques in directly-modulated fiber
networks, such as wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) systems.
The paper is organized as follows: In Sect. 2, Chromatic dispersion is discussed, includ-
ing its mathematical analysis and behaviour in the low-loss window of optical communica-
tion. Section 3 delves into the topic of DCF in detail. Section 4 provides a comprehensive
examination of FBG, including mathematical and theoretical analysis, different types, and
their impact on dispersion in optical networks. Section 5 evaluates various dispersion com-
pensation modes and their advantages and disadvantages. Section 6 outlines important out-
put characteristics to consider during optical link implementation. Finally, Sect. 7 presents
a summary and discussion of the findings.

2 Chromatic dispersion

In SMF, the variation in group velocity inside the fiber is caused by chromatic dispersion.
The variation in group velocity with respect to wavelength due to the dispersive effects for
a SMF is defined by Gul and Ahmad (2022) and illustrated in Fig. 2. The group velocity
(Vg) reaches its maximum at 1300 nm and decreases monotonically on both sides of the
wavelength. Thus, Chromatic dispersion is also referred to as group velocity dispersion
(GVD). Chromatic dispersion is a cumulative effect of material and waveguide dispersion
(Senior and Jamro 2009; Keiser 2000), and is the dominant form of a dispersion in SMFs,
referred to simply as "dispersion" in this report. For the majority of the spectrum, mate-
rial dispersion is the more prominent of the two dispersion components (Senior and Jamro
2009; Keiser 2000; Keiser 2003).
Material dispersion occurs as a result of non-linear variations in the core refractive
index relative to wavelength (Udayakumar et al. 2013). The fiber core, composed of
purified silica glass, exhibits variations in refractive index as illustrated in Fig. 3. The
refractive index varies from 1.453 to 1.445 within the wavelength range of 850–1550 nm
(Keiser 2003). Each optical signal emitted by a source possesses a finite spectral width
(σλ), with all spectral components propagating at distinct velocities, resulting in pulse

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Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit for long haul… Page 5 of 28 557

Fig. 2  Group velocity variation

relative to wavelength inside
SMF

Fig. 3  Refractive variation

1.54
relative to wavelength for a pure
silica glass

1.4
0.2 1.27 3.5
Wavelength (µm)

broadening (Senior and Jamro 2009; Keiser 2000; Gul and Ahmad 2022), termed mate-
rial dispersion. Mathematically, material dispersion (­DM) can be defined as the varia-
tion in group delay per unit length (τg) with respect to wavelength (λ) (Khan and Islam
2012), i.e.,
DM = d𝜏g ∕d𝜆, (4)

The group delay per unit length (τg) is defined by the Senior and Jamro (2009) as:
𝜏g = (1∕c) . {𝜂 − d𝜂∕d𝜆}; (5)
By substituting the value of τg from Eq. (5) in Eq. (4), Material dispersion solves as:
{ }
DM = (𝜆∕c) ⋅ −d2 𝜂∕d𝜆2 ; (6)

Equation (6) shows that material dispersion is directly proportional to the derivative of
the dispersion slope. Due to a linear variation in the refractive index at 1270 nm, mate-
rial dispersion is null at 1270 nm and is thus referred to as a zero-material dispersion
wavelength.

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557 Page 6 of 28 B. Gul, F. Ahmad

In contrast, waveguide dispersion is a result of the differences in propagation con-

stants between the core and cladding (Sharma et al. 2019; Senior and Jamro 2009; Keiser
2000). SMF confines a majority of the light, 80%, within its small diameter core, while
the remaining 20% travels faster along the cladding, resulting in waveguide dispersion. In
contrast, multimode fiber, due to its larger diameter, is able to confine almost all the power
within the core, leading to waveguide dispersion primarily occurring in SMF (Udayakumar
et al. 2013). The group delay per unit length (τg) resulting from the difference in propaga-
tion constant (β) can be mathematically expressed as the reciprocal of the group velocity
­(vg), i.e.,
𝜏g = d𝛽∕d𝜔; (7)
where ω is the angular frequency. Further, the propagation constant ‘β’ is mathematically
defined by Keiser (2000) on page no. 123 as:
𝛽 = 𝜂2 . k. (1 + b.Δ); (8)
where, η2, Δ, b, and k are the cladding refractive index, the relative refractive index of
fiber, the normalized propagation constant and the vacuum propagation constant (given as
k = 2π/λ), respectively. Substituting the value of ‘β’ in Eq. (7), τg can be solved as:
( )
𝜏g = 𝜂2 ∕c . {(1 + b.Δ) + 𝜔 (Δ.db∕d𝜔)}. (9)

Using the chain rule of differentiation, Eq. (9) can be modified as:
( )
𝜏g = 𝜂2 ∕c . {(1 + b.Δ) + 𝜔 .Δ. (db∕dV × dV∕d𝜔)}; (10)

Where V is the normalized frequency, defined by Senior and Jamro (2009)] on page no.
38 as:
V = 2𝜋a.(NA)∕𝜆. (11)
where NA represents the numerical aperture of the fiber. Differentiating Eq. (11) w.r.t ω,
we get
dV∕d𝜔 = V∕𝜔. (12)
Substituting the value of dV/dω in Eq. (11), we get
( )
𝜏g = 𝜂2 ∕c . {(1 + b.Δ) + Δ.V.db∕dV)}, (13)

or
( )
𝜏g = 𝜂2 ∕c . {1 + Δ(b + V.db∕dV)}, (14)

or
( )
𝜏g = 𝜂2 ∕c . {(1 + Δ d(bV)∕dV)}. (15)

Further, the Waveguide dispersion ­(Dw) can be calculated as (Sayed et al. 2021)
Dw = d𝜏g ∕d𝜆. (16)
By substituting the value of τg from Eq. (15), Eq. (16) can be expressed as:

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Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit for long haul… Page 7 of 28 557

( )
Dw = 𝜂2 ∕c . {Δ. (d2(bV)∕dV2).(dV∕d𝜆)}. (17)

Differentiating Eq. (11) w.r.t. λ, we get

dV∕d𝜆 = −V∕𝜆 (18)
Substituting the value of dV/dλ from Eq. (18), Eq. (17) can be solved as:
( ) { }
Dw = − 𝜂2 ∕c . Δ.(V∕𝜆). d2 (bV)∕dV 2 ; (19)

Equation (19) illustrates that the waveguide dispersion is dependent on the curvature of
the bv-diagram and its numerical value is always negative. The bv-diagram for SMF can
be readily obtained from (Senior and Jamro 2009; Keiser 2000; Agarwal 2012). The com-
bined impact of the two dispersion parameters is depicted in Fig. 4. The wavelength of
1300 nm is designated as the zero-dispersion wavelength (ZDW), as the two dispersion
components cancel each other out, resulting in zero total dispersion at this point. However,
due to the least attenuation and the efficient operation of the erbium-doped fiber ampli-
fier (EDFA) at 1550 nm, optical transmission is typically initiated at 1550 nm Meena and
Meena 2020; Islam 2004), and the standard value of dispersion parameter for a SMF at
1550 nm wavelength is 17 ps/nm/km (Sharma et al. 2019; Senior and Jamro 2009; Keiser
2000; Gul and Ahmad 2022; Salgals T et al. 2020). Additionally, zero dispersion can pro-
mote four-wave mixing (FWM), making it unsuitable WDM systems (Sharma et al. 2019).

Fig. 4  Chromatic dispersion variation relative to wavelength inside SMF

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557 Page 8 of 28 B. Gul, F. Ahmad

2.1 Dispersion in various optical band

A SMF has a low-loss window that encompasses the O, E, S, C, and L bands (De Moura
et al. 2020), spanning from 1260 to 1625 nm (184.5 THz to 237.9 THz), with a bandwidth
of 365 nm. Among these bands, the S, C, and L bands exhibit the least attenuation. Fig-
ure 5 depicts the total dispersion variation evaluated in depth by (Salgals T et al. 2020) for
various optical bands within the low-loss window, demonstrating that dispersion is least
in the S-band, followed by the C-band, and then the L-band. The C-band is widely used
(Sharma et al. 2019; Kumar 2019; Bhupeshwaran, and Sivasubramanian 2013; Gul and
Ahmad 2022; Neheeda et al. 2016) due to the efficient operation of EDFAs within it (Islam
2004). EDFAs are the most commonly used amplifiers (Tan et al. 2022), providing sev-
eral advantages such as compact size, high gain with minimal crosstalk, high amplification
efficiency, and low noise (Sirleto et al. 2020; Forghieri et al. 1995). In contrast, Raman
amplifiers have less pumping efficiency at lower signal powers, therefore they require a
longer gain fiber (Islam 2002). EDFAs can support instantaneous amplification for multi-
ple wavelengths within the C- and L-bands (Sirleto et al. 2020), but their main disadvan-
tage is that a significant portion of the low-loss spectrum is inaccessible to them (Desurvire
et al. 1994; Agarwal 2012; Agarwal 2011). EDFAs can utilize only half of the low-loss
window, limiting the number of simultaneous channels that can propagate through the opti-
cal transmission system (Islam 2004). In contrast, Raman amplifiers can offer gain at any
wavelength (Sirleto et al. 2020; Mohammed et al. 2020), allowing for the upgrading of
already installed fibers and offering the flexibility of tailoring the gain spectrum by adjust-
ing the pump wavelengths (Islam 2002).Raman amplifiers have a wide bandwidth with
a dominant peak near 13.2 THz (Islam 2002; Sirleto et al. 2020; Desurvire et al. 1994).
Additionally, they enable distributed amplification within the transmission fiber itself and
improve SNR (Tan et al. 2022). Unrepeated submarine systems and terrestrial transmis-
sion systems widely employ Raman amplifiers (Rosa et al. 2015; Bissessur 2013), but they
are more expensive. Research in (Mohammed et al. 2020) indicates that for lower-capacity

Fig. 5  Dispersion variation relative to wavelength evalauted by Salgals T et al. (2020) for various optical
bands

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systems, EDFAs perform better than Raman amplifiers in increasing maximal transmis-
sion distance. Due to the long length of the fiber, the distributed Raman scattering (DRS)
noise, which is proportional to the length of the fiber and the gain in the fiber, is particu-
larly significant in Raman amplifiers. Additionally, WDM signal channels may experience
nonlinear penalties in the amplifier. Moreover, utilizing the S-band in an optical network
can increase throughput gains by 65% (Semrau et al. 2020). In addition to dispersion com-
pensation, the advancement of data communication requires an increase in throughput in
dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) networks (Islam 2004), for which multi-
ple band utilization or band swapping becomes a viable option.

3 DCF

One way to compensate for dispersion is to use a DCF, which has a negative dispersion
coefficient (Gul and Ahmad 2022). When a pulse is launched into a DCF, the different
wavelengths of light are brought back into temporal alignment, effectively compensating
for the dispersion that occurred in the preceding fiber. The amount of dispersion compen-
sation required can be calculated using the following equation:
Dcomp = Dtotal − Dfiber ; (20)
where ­Dcomp is the amount of dispersion compensation required, D ­ total is the total disper-
sion budget for the link, and ­Dfiber is the dispersion of the fiber in the link.
The DCF has a unique refractive index profile that offsets the dispersion in transmission
fiber (Kumar et al. 2019). It can be made from various optical fiber types and is commonly
used in long-haul optical communication systems to enhance distance and capacity. The
DCF core is doped with GeO2, inducing high negative dispersion, with optimal disper-
sion range of − 70 to − 80 ps/nm/km. Higher doping results in increased losses, as does
the smaller DCF core area of 2–3 µm (Pal and Pande 2002; Hui and O’Sullivan 2022). The
DCF’s effective fiber area is 40% of the Single Mode Fiber, leading to higher nonlinear
effects and increased insertion loss (Ali et al. 2018). The length of DCF required for dis-
persion management as defined by (Hussain et al. 2019), can be calculated as:
L1 . D1 + L2 .D2 = 0. (21)
where, ­L1, ­D1, ­L2, and D
­ 2 are the SMF length, SMF dispersion parameter, DCF length, and
DCF dispersion parameter, respectively. Equation (21) shows that the amount of dispersion
compensation achieved with DCF is proportional to its length and the difference in disper-
sion coefficients between the standard fiber and DCF. Longer transmission length requires
longer DCF length, leading to increased losses and the need for an amplifier, and increas-
ing the system’s cost. Short-distance transmission is supported by optical networks, but
longer distances require ultra-long-haul links, which can significantly increase the system’s
expense with the inclusion of DCF.

4 FBG

FBGs are a type of optical filter that are inscribed in the core of an optical fiber (Kumar
et al. 2019; Gul and Ahmad 2022; Ali et al. 2018; Tosi 2018; Mihailov and Stephen
2012). They are typically created by exposing the fiber to a high-energy ultraviolet

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557 Page 10 of 28 B. Gul, F. Ahmad

(UV) light source, such as a frequency-doubled laser (Mihailov and Stephen 2012). This
causes a change in the refractive index of the fiber, creating a periodic pattern of regions
with higher and lower refractive indexes (Khan and Islam 2012; Tosi 2018), as shown in
Fig. 6. The variations in the structure of a material that repeats periodically are known
as gratings. The distance between two gratings is referred to as the grating period (Λ),
and the length of the fiber with gratings etched into it is called the grating length (­ Lg),
expressed by (Gul and Ahmad 2022) as:
Lg = N.Λ; (22)
where ‘N’ is the number of grating segments etched on the fiber. This pattern causes a phe-
nomenon known as Bragg scattering, where the light at a specific wavelength (known as
the Bragg wavelength) is reflected back while other wavelengths continue to travel through
the fiber (Kumar et al. 2019, Gul and Ahmad 2022; Mohammed et al. 2014; James 2003).
By designing the FBG to reflect the wavelength that has the highest power after propagat-
ing through the link, it is possible to reduce the effect of dispersion on that wavelength. The
mathematical relation to the reflection wavelength is given by Bragg’s equation, defined by
(Mohammed et al. 2014) as:
𝜆B = 2. 𝜂eff. Λ; (23)
where ηeff is the effective refractive index of FBG. Equation (23) demonstrates that the
wavelength reflected by FBG depends on the grating’s period and refractive index. By
altering the grating’s period, various wavelengths can be reflected and compensate for dis-
persion during long-distance transmission (Sharma et al. 2019; Tosi 2018). FBGs are used
in both single-mode and multi-mode fibers (Sharma et al. 2019)], and in combination with
other compensation techniques for optimal transmission (Gul and Ahmad 2022; Hussain
et al. 2019, Dar and Jha 2017; Gul and Ahmad 2022),]. They have various applications,
including WDM systems, sensor systems, and compensators (Sharma et al. 2019;, Gul and
Ahmad 2022; Meena and Meena 2020; Palumbo et al. 2018; Agarwal 2012; Panda et al.
2020;- Sayed et al. 2021; Khan and Islam 2012; James 2003). In WDM systems, FBGs
separate wavelength channels for efficient bandwidth usage, while in compensators, FBGs
counteract dispersive effects in fibers causing pulse spreading and signal degradation (Gul
and Ahmad 2022; Tosi 2018).
FBGs have several advantages over other types of optical filters, such as their small
size, ruggedness, lightweight, inexpensive, and immunity to electromagnetic interfer-
ence (Ali et al. 2018; Tosi 2018; Mihailov and Stephen 2012). They are also relatively
low-cost and easy to integrate into existing systems (Khan and Islam 2012, Hussain

Fig. 6  Uniform FBG and its spectral response

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Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit for long haul… Page 11 of 28 557

et al. 2019). However, they also have some limitations, including a relatively narrow
bandwidth and a limited temperature operating range.

4.1 CFBG

CFBG is a non-uniform grating structure with a varying grating period along the propagation
axis (z), as depicted in Fig. 7. CFBGs and their chirping profiles can be used to compen-
sate for dispersion in optical fibers by selectively reflecting certain wavelengths of light while
allowing others to pass through (Ranathive et al. 2022, Khan and Islam 2012). By engineer-
ing the chirping profile of a CFBG to match the dispersion profile of the optical fiber, the
CFBG can effectively cancel out the dispersion and restore the original shape of the optical
signal (Kumar et al. 2019; Gul and Ahmad 2022). CFBGs provide dispersion management
by introducing a controlled amount of chirp into the signal. There are several types of chirped
fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) as explained by (Gul and Ahmad 2022; Dilendorfs et al. 2016)
including:

1. Linear chirping: In a linear chirped fiber Bragg grating (FBG), the grating period
changes linearly along the length of the fiber, resulting in a linear change in the Bragg
wavelength of the grating.
2. Quadratic chirping: In a quadratic chirped FBG, the grating period changes in a quad-
ratic fashion along the length of the fiber, resulting in a quadratic change in the Bragg
wavelength of the grating.
3. Square-root chirping: In a square-root chirped FBG, the grating period changes in a
square-root fashion along the fiber length, resulting in a square-root change in the Bragg
wavelength of the grating.
4. Cubic-root chirping: In a cubic-root chirped FBG, the grating period changes in a cubic-
root fashion along the length of the fiber, resulting in a cubic-root change in the Bragg
wavelength of the grating.

The chirping profile of the CFBGs can be described mathematically as:

Linear ∶ 𝜆(z) = 𝜆0 + Cz; (24)

Fig. 7  CFBG and its spectral response

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557 Page 12 of 28 B. Gul, F. Ahmad

Quadratic ∶ 𝜆(z) = 𝜆0 + Cz2 ; (25)

Square-root ∶ 𝜆(z) = 𝜆0 + C(z)1∕2 ; (26)

Cubic root ∶ 𝜆(z) = 𝜆0 + C(z)1∕3 ; (27)

where λ(z) is the wavelength of the reflection at position z within the FBG, λ0 is the central
wavelength of the reflection, which actually represents the Bragg’s wavelength, C is the
chirp rate, which represents the rate of change of the wavelength per unit length, math-
ematically given as:
C = d𝜆B ∕dz; (28)
Equation (24) to Eq. (27) show that the reflection wavelength changes with the position
of the grating, and the chirp rate, C, is positive for a positive chirp and negative for a nega-
tive chirp. In general, a positive chirp is applied to compensate for positive dispersion in
the standard fiber, while a negative chirp is applied to compensate for negative dispersion,
usually required for optical wavelengths below 1300 nm. The central wavelength λ0 is cho-
sen to match the wavelength where the dispersion is maximum.

4.2 Apodized FBG

Several different types of apodization profiles can be used for CFBGs to achieve differ-
ent dispersion characteristics. Some examples defined mathematically and theoretically by
(Sharma et al. 2019; Bhupeshwaran and Sivasubramanian 2013; Gul and Ahmad 2022;
Dar and Jha 2017; Panda et al. 2020;, Khan and Islam 2012; Gul and Ahmad 2022; Ashry
2014) include: Gaussian apodization, Sinc apodization, Super Gaussian apodization,
Square apodization, Tanh Apodization.
It’s worth noting that each apodization profile has its own unique characteristics and
trade-offs. The selection of the appropriate apodization profile depends on the specific
requirements of the application. The two most commonly used apodization profiles for
dispersion compensation in fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) are the Gaussian-apodization and
Tanh-apodization (Udayakumar et al. 2013). Both of these profiles have been shown to
effectively reduce the dispersion of the grating, but the Gaussian profile is generally con-
sidered to be more efficient in terms of dispersion compensation (Gul and Ahmad 2022).
Research in reference Kumar et al. 2019) found that using a Gaussian apodized fiber Bragg
grating (FBG) with linear chirping produced the best results among all chirping techniques
and the research in (Gul and Ahmad 2022) reported that the Gaussian apodization gives
the highest dispersion compensation with quadratic chirping technique. According to the
findings in reference (Ashry et al. 2014), both Gaussian-Apodized-FBG and Tanh-Apo-
dized-FBG showed superior performance in terms of reducing side lobes and achieving
maximum reflectivity. Further, the study in (Tosi 2018) revealed that the bandwidth of the
compensated spectrum can be optimized by selecting the appropriate grating length and
chirp rate for the chirped FBG. Additionally, apodization helps to reduce the susceptibility
of the FBG to back reflection, which can lead to signal loss.æ An investigation, reported
in (Sharma et al. 2019), looked into six different apodization profiles to determine the best
apodization profile for LCFBG in terms of dispersion compensation. The investigation

13
Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit for long haul… Page 13 of 28 557

concluded that the Sinc-apodization profile provided superior performance in terms of side
lobe suppression and maximum reflectivity for LCFBG.

4.3 CFBG’s Principle of operation as DCU

The operating principle of Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) is based on the coupling between
the forward and backward propagating core modes, as described in reference (Palumbo
et al. 2018). When an input pulse experiences dispersion and passes through a CFBG, its
width is reduced and its shape is restored at the output. Initially, the grating period of the
chirped FBG is shorter, but it increases linearly as the grating length increases. As a result,
shorter wavelength signals are reflected earlier than those with longer wavelengths, as they
propagate further into the fiber grating before being reflected, as stated in (Sharma et al.
2019; Gul and Ahmad 2022). Additionally, the power reflectivity characteristics of a FBG
can be improved by apodization, as stated in reference (Palumbo et al. 2018).
The mathematical explanation for compensating dispersion through a FBG involves the
Talbot equation, given as follows:
{ ( )}
m = 2 Lg ∕ 𝜆B . Λ ; (29)

where m represents the grating order. According to this equation, the order of the grating
changes based on the wavelength of light, given a specific grating length and periodicity.
Also, by adjusting the length or periodicity, the order of the grating can be altered for a
given wavelength. Both uniform and chirped FBGs fall under the scope of the Talbot equa-
tion, and it allows the calculation of the required grating length to reach a specific grating
order, or the number of segments in a FBG. By customizing the grating to have a particular
group delay dispersion (GDD), it is possible to correct the dispersion in optical fibers.
Group delay dispersion (GDD) quantifies the change in the group delay of a material
or device with respect to wavelength. In fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs), GDD arises from
variations in the refractive index, leading to a non-uniform phase shift across the grating.
This non-uniformity causes the pulse arrival time to broaden. The GDD of a FBG can be
calculated using the equation:
{ ( )}
GDD = 2𝜋Λ2 𝜂eff (𝜆) − 𝜂eff 𝜆B ∕𝜆2 ; (30)

where ηeff(λ) and ηeff(λB) represent the effective refractive indices at wavelength λ and λB,
respectively. It is important to keep in mind that this equation assumes 100% reflection
from the FBG and negligible loss in the fiber, which is not always the case in real systems
where loss and reflections can occur. Additionally, it is crucial to note that this method only
compensates for dispersion at the central wavelength λB, and other methods or devices may
be needed to correct dispersion at other wavelengths.
Dispersion compensation in FBGs can also be achieved through the principle of phase
matching, which states
{ } ( ( ))
m.𝜆B = 2Lg ∕N . 𝜂eff 𝜆B ; (31)

This equation means that for the light to be reflected by the grating, the light’s phase
must match the phase of the refractive index modulation, i.e., the light must be in phase
with the grating at the Bragg wavelength. The Bragg wavelength is the wavelength at
which phase matching is achieved.

13
557 Page 14 of 28 B. Gul, F. Ahmad

The equation for group delay dispersion (GDD) in a chirped fiber Bragg grating
(CFBG) is different from a regular FBG, as it takes into account the wavelength-depend-
ent grating period, Λ(λ). The equation for GDD in a CFBG is represented as:
{ { ( )} }
GDD = 2𝜋 ∫ Λ(𝜆)2 neff (𝜆) − neff 𝜆B ∕𝜆2 d𝜆; (32)

This means that the grating period is no longer constant, but varies with wavelength,
resulting in a broader reflection band and a more linear dispersion characteristic.
Regarding the phase-matching condition, it can also be modified for a CFBG, and is
given as:
{ }( ( ))
m.𝜆B (z) = 2Lg (z)∕N(z) . neff 𝜆B , z ; (33)

For various chirping techniques the length of grating and the chirp rate can be
expressed as:
Linear chirping ∶ Lg (z) = z.Lg (0); (34)

And C = Lg (0)∕N(0). (35)

Square-root chirping ∶ Lg (z) = (z)1∕2 .Lg (0); (36)

And C = {Lg(0)}1∕2 ∕N(0); (37)

Cubic-root chirping ∶ Lg (z) = (z)1∕3 .Lg (0); (38)

{ }1∕3
And C = Lg (0) ∕N(0); (39)

Quadratic chirping ∶ Lg(z) = (z)2 .Lg(0); (40)

And C = {Lg(0)}2 ∕N(0); (41)

The modified phase matching equation for various chirped FBGs are given as:
( )
Linear chirping ∶ m.𝜆B (z) = 2z.Lg(0).𝜂eff 𝜆B , z ∕(N(z)); (42)

( )
Square-root chirping ∶ m.𝜆B (z) = 2(z)1∕2 .Lg(0). 𝜂eff 𝜆B , z ∕(N(z)); (43)

( )
Cubic-root chirping ∶ m.𝜆B (z) = 2(z)1∕3. Lg(0). 𝜂eff 𝜆B , z ∕(N(z)); (44)

( )
Quadratic chirping ∶ m.𝜆B (z) = 2(z)2 .Lg(0). 𝜂eff 𝜆B , z ∕(N(z)); (45)

The apodization profile A(z) can be included in the phase matching equation for
a CFBG by multiplying the length of the grating, by the apodization profile at each

13
Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit for long haul… Page 15 of 28 557

position along the grating’s length. The modified phase matching equation for each type
of chirping with apodization profile A(z) is as follows:
( )
Linear chirping ∶ m.𝜆B (z) = 2zLg (0).A(z). 𝜂eff 𝜆B , z ∕(N(z)); (46)

( )
Square-root chirping ∶ m.𝜆B (z) = 2(z)1∕2 Lg (0).A(z). 𝜂eff 𝜆B , z ∕(N(z)); (47)

( )
Cubic-root chirping ∶ m.𝜆B (z) = 2(z)1∕3 Lg (0).A(z) 𝜂eff 𝜆B , z ∕(N(z)); (48)

( )
Quadratic chirping ∶ m.𝜆B (z) = 2z2 Lg (0).A(z).𝜂eff 𝜆B , z ∕(N(z)); (49)

where A(z) is the apodization profile function, and can be a Gaussian, raised cosine, etc. As
the research study in (Gul and Ahmad 2022; Ashry 2014) reports that Tanh and Gaussian
apodized FBG gives the highest dispersion compensation, so the two profile are explained
below in detail.
The apodization profile for Gaussian apodization is given by:
( ( ))
A(z) = exp −z2 ∕ 2𝜎 2 ; (50)

where z is the position along the grating’s length and σ is a parameter that controls the
width of the Gaussian function. The Gaussian apodization profile smoothly tapers the
amplitude of the grating from the center to the edges, which results in a lower sidelobe
level and a higher central transmission peak in the reflection spectrum.
The apodization profile for Tanh apodization is given by:
{ [( ) ( )]}
A(z) = 1− tanh z − Lg (0)∕2 ∕ t.Lg (0) ∕2; (51)

where t is the parameter that controls the slope of the apodization. The Tanh apodization
profile smoothly tapers the amplitude of the grating from the center to the edges, which
results in a lower sidelobe level and a higher central transmission peak in the reflection
spectrum. It is also known as hyperbolic tangent apodization.
It is difficult to mathematically compare the different chirping equations for Gaussian
and Tanh apodization as it depends on the specific requirements of the application, such
as the amount of dispersion compensation needed, the desired reflection spectrum, and the
loss budget. However, research studies in (Gul and Ahmad 2022), reports that the Gaussian
apodization is a better choice for dispersion compensation in long-haul single-channel and
Tanh apodization is a good choice for dispersion compensation in WDM networks. Ulti-
mately, the best choice between Gaussian and Tanh apodization will depend on the specific
requirements of the application, and both apodization profiles are widely used in practice.

5 Dispersion compensation modes

In optical communication systems, there are three main types of dispersion compensation
modes: pre-compensation, post-compensation, and symmetrical compensation (Gul and
Ahmad 2022;, Neheeda et al. 2016, Ranathive et al. 2022, Sayed et al. 2021; Ali et al.
2019; Ahmed 2017), illustrated in Fig. 8. Each mode has its own unique set of advantages
and disadvantages, and is suitable for various types of communication systems.

13
557 Page 16 of 28 B. Gul, F. Ahmad

DCU DCU
Pre-compensation mode Post-compensation mode

DCU DCU
Symmetrical-compensation mode

DCU

Fig. 8  Schematic diagram of various compensation modes

1. Pre-compensation: In the pre-compensation mode, dispersion compensation is applied

before transmission using a DCF or FBG (Agarwal 2012; Neheeda et al. 2016, Ranathive
et al. 2022). This method is simple and efficient for constant dispersion in long-haul
systems, but not adaptable to changing conditions. FBG narrows the signal’s spectral
width, while DCF introduces negative dispersion. The work in (Sayed et al. 2021) used
FBG for spectral width reduction, but failed to achieve a good Q-factor value due to
signal weakening.
2. Post-compensation: In the post-compensation mode, dispersion compensation is applied
after transmission using a DCF or FBG (Sayed et al. 2017; Chakkour et al. 2017). This
method is used in systems with varying dispersion and offers greater flexibility but
requires more complex and expensive equipment. Research studies (Sayed et al. 2017;
Chakkour et al. 2017) simulated WDM networks using FBG as a post-compensation
method for managing dispersion at the receiver at different distances and bit rates.
3. Symmetrical compensation: In the symmetrical compensation mode, dispersion com-
pensation is applied both before and after transmission using a combination of DCF and
FBG (Agarwal 2012; Gul and Ahmad 2022; Neheeda et al. 2016, Ranathive et al. 2022).
This method is used in systems with varying dispersion and high compensation require-
ments, offering the highest level of compensation (Agarwal 2012; Gul and Ahmad 2022)
but also requiring the most complex and expensive equipment.

6 Dispersion compensation techniques: enabling reliable mm wave

communication in 5G‑based networks

Millimeter wave (mm Wave) optical communication is a rapidly developing area that has
gained significant interest in recent years, especially with the deployment of 5G-based net-
works (Niu et al. 2015; De Sousa et al. 2021). This form of wireless optical communica-
tion uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in the millimeter range
to transmit data over short distances, providing high-bandwidth and low-latency commu-
nication essential for many emerging applications (Dar et al. 2021). However, mm Wave
signals are subject to several propagation impairments, including attenuation, scattering,
and dispersion. Dispersion compensation methodologies are crucial in mm Wave optical
communication systems to mitigate the effects of dispersion-induced signal distortions,
which can cause inter-symbol interference, limit the achievable data rate, and reduce the

13
Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit for long haul… Page 17 of 28 557

communication range (Dolatsha et al. 2016). Both DCF and FBG can be used in mm Wave
communication systems to improve the range and reliability of the communication link by
reducing the effects of dispersion.
DCF is used to compensate for chromatic dispersion, which occurs due to the differ-
ent speeds of light waves of different wavelengths. By introducing an opposite dispersion
effect, chromatic dispersion can be effectively compensated, allowing for higher data rates
and longer communication distances. FBG on the other hand, is used to compensate for
both chromatic and polarization mode dispersion (PMD), caused by the different propa-
gation speeds of light in different polarization modes of the optical fiber. The FBG can
selectively reflect light of different wavelengths and polarization modes, allowing for effec-
tive compensation of dispersion-induced signal distortions. FBG can compensate for PMD
by reflecting light of different polarization modes differently, effectively introducing a
time delay that compensates for the polarization mode dispersion. The use of dispersion
compensation techniques in mm Wave optical communication systems can enable the use
of longer optical fibers and more complex optical networks, leading to cost savings and
improved scalability of the optical communication system.

7 Summary of dispersion compensation methodologies

Over the years, various dispersion compensation methodologies have been proposed and
developed. Some of the major contributions in this area are tabulated in the Table 1. Over-
all, each of these dispersion compensation methodologies has its advantages and limita-
tions, and the choice of approach will depend on the specific requirements of a given opti-
cal communication system.

8 Performance measuring parameters

Several techniques can be used to measure the dispersion performance characteristics of an

optical link. These include:

(1) Chromatic Dispersion (CD) measurement: Chromatic Dispersion (CD) is a metric that
measures the degree to which different wavelengths of light traverse an optical fiber
at varying velocities. To measure CD, a broadband light source is launched into the
fiber, and the delay between the different wavelengths of light at the other end of the
fiber is measured using a time domain visualizer, as described by Bhupeshwaran and
Sivasubramanian (2013) and Dar and Jha (2017).
(2) BER measurement: Bit Error Rate (BER) is a metric that quantifies the number of
errors present in an optical communication system, defined by Breed (2003) as:
BER = Errors∕total number of bits; (52)

A lower BER indicates that the link is operating with fewer errors and is therefore
providing a higher-quality signal. Studies by Jiang (2010) report the typical requirement
for Bit Error Rate (BER) in an operating optical telecommunications link is very low,
usually on the order of ­10−15. The specific requirements of the system and the operating
conditions of the link determine the minimum Bit Error Rate (BER) needed for a good

13
 Table 1  Summary of previous major contribution in terms of dispersion compensation methodologies
557

Methodology Implemented in Pros and Cons

13
DCF as dispersion compensator in single channel Sharma et al. (2019), Dar and Jha (2017), Dilendorfs Pros:
system et al. (2016), Ranathive et al. (2022) Effective for transmission systems that require high levels
Page 18 of 28

CFBG as dispersion compensator in single channel
systems
Sharma et al. (2019), Dar and Jha (2017), Dilendorfs
et al. (2016)
of dispersion compensation
Involves simple manufacturing processes
Low insertion loss in DCF minimizes signal loss and
preserves signal quality
Cons:
Cost per metre is very high and increases sharply with the
increasing length
More prone to non-linearity, such as self-phase modula-
tion and four-wave mixing. These effects can distort
the signal and introduce additional noise, reducing the
overall performance of the system
More prone to bending losses, which can lead to a reduc-
tion in signal strength and increased noise levels
Pros:
Provides precise and tunable dispersion compensation,
allowing for more accurate and flexible compensation
Easy to integrate into existing fiber networks and compat-
ible with compact system designs
Cons:
Requires complex manufacturing processes
High Insertion Loss
Provides effective dispersion compensation within a
certain range of wavelength, but is not suitable for
compensating for large amounts of dispersion
B. Gul, F. Ahmad
 Table 1  (continued)
Methodology Implemented in Pros and Cons

DCF as dispersion compensator in WDM systems
CFBG as dispersion compensator in WDM systems
Dilendorfs et al. (2016), Neheeda et al. (2016), Meena
and Meena (2018), Gul and Ahmad (2022),
(Meena and Meena (2020), Ahlawat (2019), Ghosh and
Priye (2018), Meena and Gupta (2019)
Pros:
Provides broadband dispersion compensation, com-
pensating for the dispersion of multiple channels
simultaneously
Cons:
DCF is a single-mode fiber with limited bandwidth,
which can limit the maximum data rate that can be
transmitted through the system
Pros:
Provide precise and tunable dispersion compensation,
allowing for more accurate and flexible compensation
for a particular frequency channel
Cons:
Single FBG provides effective dispersion compensation
within a certain range of dispersion values, but not suit-
able for compensating for large amounts of dispersion
Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit for long haul…

for multiple channels

No. and the length of FBGs required for dispersion com-
pensation increases with increasing no. of channels
Page 19 of 28 557

13
 Table 1  (continued)
557

Methodology Implemented in Pros and Cons

13
Dispersion compensation by Hybrid module Hussain et al. (2019), Gul and Ahmad in press);, Gul Pros:
(DCF + FBG) and Ahmad (2022), Gul and Ahmad (2022),
Provides a more comprehensive monitoring solution as it
Page 20 of 28

allows for distributed sensing of the entire fiber length

through DCF and point sensing at specific locations
using FBG
Increased Accuracy
Hybrid module’s flexible design allows for customization
according to specific applications and requirements
Cons:
Complex structure
Cost can be higher than using just one sensing technology
due to the increased complexity and the need for more
sophisticated equipment
Maintenance can be more challenging
May not be suitable for all applications such as ultra-high
capacity WDM
B. Gul, F. Ahmad
 Table 1  (continued)
Methodology Implemented in Pros and Cons

Dispersion compensation in Pre-compensation mode
Dispersion compensation in Post compensation mode
Sharma et al. (2019), Agarwal (2012), Neheeda et al.
(2016), Ranathive et al. 2022, Sayed et al. (2021), Dar
and Jha (2017), Dilendorfs et al. (2016), Hussain et al. Improves the quality of the transmitted signal by reducing
(2019), Gul and Ahmad (2022)
Sharma et al. (2019), Kumar et al. (2019), Dar and
Jha (2017), Panda et al. (2020), Ali et al. (2019),
Dilendorfs et al. (2016), Ranathive et al. 2022;, Hus-
sain et al. (2019), Gul and Ahmad (2022), Sayed et al.
Pros:
the distortion caused by chromatic dispersion prior to
transmission
Cost-effective way to compensate for chromatic disper-
sion
Cons:
Limited Range of Dispersion Compensation
Less efficient as compared to other two modes
Precise tuning of the compensation components to match
the specific dispersion values in the system
Pros:
Wider Range of Dispersion Compensation
Flexible in handling different system configurations and
changes
Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit for long haul…

(2017), Chakkour et al. (2017)

Does not require precise tuning of the compensation
components, making it easier to deploy and maintain
Cons:
Can cause a reduction in the signal quality due to the
residual dispersion and noise introduced during the
transmission
Not effective for ultra-long-distance transmission, as the
signal deteriorates completely prior to compensation
Page 21 of 28 557

13
 Table 1  (continued)
557

Methodology Implemented in Pros and Cons

13
Symmetrical compensation mode Agarwal (2012), Gul and Ahmad (2022), Neheeda et al. Pros:
(2016), Ranathive et al. (2022), Gul and Ahmad in
press),; Hussain et al. (2019) Improved Signal Quality, as it compensates for both the
Page 22 of 28

dispersion accumulated before and after the midpoint of

the transmission path
Can handle a wider range of system configurations and
changes, making it more adaptable to different trans-
mission scenarios
Most efficient compensation mode
Cons:
Complexity of Design and Implementation
B. Gul, F. Ahmad
Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit for long haul… Page 23 of 28 557

optical link. In general, a lower BER is considered to be better as it indicates that fewer
errors are occurring in the transmission. It is important to note that BER is also affected
by other factors such as the quality of the fiber, the characteristics of the optical source,
the receiver sensitivity, and the optical power budget of the link.

(3) Eye diagram: Eye diagrams are used to evaluate the quality of a signal by displaying
the signal’s amplitude and phase over time. A well-defined, open-eye diagram indicates
that the signal is free of distortion, while a closed or distorted-eye diagram indicates
that the signal is affected by distortion such as dispersion (Breed 2005). The simple
BER measurement cannot distinguish between amplitude noise and timing jitter, both
of which can affect system performance. The eye diagram, however, offers more insight
into both types of noise, particularly timing jitter, and also measures the extinction
ratio (Jiang 2010). For error-free transmission, the ideal eye diagram is usually square,
meaning that the signal is clear and free of any distortion. However, when dispersion
occurs, it causes the eye-opening to decrease (Breed 2005).
(4) Q-factor measurement: Q-factor is a measure of the signal quality, it can be used to
determine the dispersive effect on the signal, the higher the Q-factor the lower the
dispersive effect on the signal. The Q-factor is used to describe the performance of an
optical receiver and can be used as a measure of the system’s sensitivity to noise and
the reliability of the signal transmission. A higher Q-factor indicates that the receiver
is able to detect a weaker signal with less noise, thus resulting in a higher SNR and a
lower BER. The mathematical relationship between the Q-factor and the bit error rate
(BER) of an optical link is defined by (Dar and Jha 2017) using the following equation:
( ( )) { ( )} { }
BER = (1∕2).erfc Q∕ 21∕2 ≈ exp −Q2 ∕2 ∕ Q(2𝜋)1∕2 ; (53)

For BER small enough, the Eq. (30) can be approximated as:
( )
BER = 2B − 1 ∕Q; (54)

where B is the bit rate of the signal. The acceptable Q-factor value should be greater or
equal to 6.8 for an ideal optical system (Ghosh and Priye 2018). However, for systems with
higher data rates or more complex modulation formats, a higher Q-factor may be required
to maintain a low BER. It is important to note that the Q-factor is not only affected by the
receiver, but also by other factors such as the quality of the fiber, the characteristics of
the optical source, and the optical power budget of the link. As reported in (Kumar et al.
2019), the increase in transmission distance decreases the Q-factor value of the system.

(5) OSNR measurement: Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio (OSNR) is a measure of the quality
of an optical signal in an optical communication system. It is defined as the ratio of the
optical power of the signal to the total optical power of all other sources of noise in the
system. The typical unit of measurement for OSNR is decibels (dB). OSNR is a crucial
parameter in optical communication systems, as it can impact the system’s performance
and BER. A higher OSNR indicates that the signal is stronger compared to the noise,
which can lead to a lower BER and better system performance. The minimum OSNR
required for a good optical link will depend on the specific modulation formats and the
bit-rates used in the system and are defined by Jiang (2010) as:

13
557 Page 24 of 28 B. Gul, F. Ahmad

(a) Return-to-Zero (RZ) modulation format: RZ format has shorter pulses and high
peak power, therefore it is more sensitive to noise. An OSNR of around 12–14 dB
is typically sufficient for the RZ modulation format.
(b) Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) modulation format: NRZ format has longer pulses
and lower peak power, therefore it is less sensitive to noise. An OSNR of around
10–14 dB is typically sufficient for the NRZ modulation format.

It’s worth mentioning that these values are for a single-channel transmission, if you
are working with Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) systems, the OSNR require-
ments will depend on the number of channels and the channel spacing. High OSNR is the
prime parameter of the optical link in addition to the dispersion compensation. The optical
power at the receiver end must match the criteria of the receiver sensitivity. Consequently,
the OSNR of the final stage must meet the OSNR requirements. OSNR is described by
Xiancheng et al. (2012) in terms of Q-factor as:
√
2.OSNR
Q= √ (55)
1 + (1 + 2OSNR)

As described by Ghosh and Priye (2018) Q ≥ 6.8, the above equation solves
OSNR ≥ 17.47 dB.
These measurements can be performed using specialized test equipment such as opti-
cal time-domain reflectometers (OTDRs), chromatic dispersion analyzers, and polarization
mode dispersion analyzers.

9 Conclusion

DCF and FBG are two types of dispersion compensation units that are commonly used to
counteract the effects of dispersion in optical communication systems. Both methods rely
on manipulating the properties of the optical fiber to achieve dispersion compensation, but
they work in different ways. DCF can be used to compensate for dispersion over a wide
range of wavelengths, hence more suitable for WDM systems and is a passive method of
dispersion compensation, which means that it does not require any external power source.
DCF can be relatively expensive, as it requires a specific type of fiber. While as FBG is
a type of optical filter that is inscribed into the fiber. FBG can provide high levels of dis-
persion compensation, which makes it suitable for use in single-channel systems where a
high degree of dispersion compensation is required. FBG is relatively small in size and
can be easily integrated into existing systems. However, it is an active method of dispen-
sation compensation, which means that it requires an external power source. FBG is also
relatively expensive to manufacture and may require a high degree of precision and it is
wavelength specific. Further, among different compensation modes, pre-compensation is
simple and efficient but not adaptable to changing dispersion conditions, post-compensa-
tion allows for greater flexibility but requires more complex and expensive equipment, and
symmetrical compensation provides the highest level of dispersion compensation but also
requires the most complex and expensive equipment.

Authors contributions Baseerat Gul and Faroze Ahmad contributed equally.

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Review of FBG and DCF as dispersion management unit for long haul… Page 25 of 28 557

Funding No funding is received.

Data availability Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during
the current study.

Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Ethical approval Not applicable.

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