52-12th Bio Zoology - NEET Study Material - English Medium PDF Download

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lail.ani. 12 - BIO ZOOLOGY a
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lail.ani. - NEET STUDYsaMATERIALS
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.wp.apda .p.apda CHAPTER I: w .p.apda
Reproduction .p.apda
in Organisms .p.apda
ww
w ww w
ww w w ww ww w ww ww w ww ww
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1. What tare t the basic featuresn(Life activities) of the Organisms?

.ani.ene of Nucleic acidslaand et
.ai.entProteins, et
i.entDNA, etet etet
s asl ai
Synthesis
l s a s
i l Replication s asl ail.anof Cell division, s asl ail.ani.n
Growth, s asl ail.ani.n
ada aa aa ada ada
w .wp.apda Development of w .wp.apdad
reproductive structures, w .apdad
.wpReproduction, Response
w pdastimuli
.wp.ato etc. w .wp.apda w
ww 2. What is asexual ww reproduction? ww ww ww ww
Reproduction without the involvement of gametes/reproductive cells(Sperms & Ova).
t t t t t
3. What
l a il.ani.entise sexual reproduction? l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas as
daadsainvolvement sas sas sas
. wp.apdaada Reproduction with .wp.apthe .wp .apdaada
of gametes/reproductive .w .apdaada & Ova).
cells(Sperms
p .wp.apdaada
w w the asexual reproduction w w w w
ww 4. In which organisms ww ww is very common? ww ww ww
Members of Protista, Bacteria, Archaea & simple multicellular organisms.
5. What t the different modes
tare toft reproductions? .ni.entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s sFission, Sporulation,da ss
Budding, Gemmule formation, s s Fragmentation &daRegeneration. ss ss
.w p.apdaada .wp.apada .wp .apdaada .wp.apada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 6. What is meant ww by fission? ww ww ww ww
Parent cell 2 or more daughter cells
7. Whatetare the different types eoftefission?
a il.ani . net a
t
il.ani.n Sporulation & strobilation. a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene
asl
Binary fission, Multiple a sl
fission, asl asl asl
asa adsa adsa adsa adsa
w.w p.apdad What is binary w
8. .wp.apda
fission? w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Parent cell w
w
only 2 daughter ww cells (Amitosis) ww ww ww
9. What is mitotic division?
etet etet etet .ani.ente
t etet
s asl ail.ani.n Karyokinesis &
Includes
s a sl ail.ani.n
Cytokinesis Genetically
s asl ail.ani.nidentical 2 daughter s asl ailcells. s asl ail.ani.n
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad What are the different
10.
w .wp.apda types of binary fission? w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Simple irregular, ww Transverse, Longitudinal ww and Oblique binary wwfission. ww ww
11. What is simple binary fission?
t t ntet ntet t
Nucleus
l a il.ani.ente divides mitotically l a il ni.entetwo
.ainto daughter nuclei.
l a il.ani.eCytoplasm constricts iin
l a l.ani.ebetween l a il.ani.ente
sas adsaasproduce two daughter sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada two daughter nuclei .wp.apdaand .wp .apdaada cells. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w ww w w w
ww 12. What is meant ww by transverse binarywfission? ww ww ww
Cell divides transverse axis. e.g: Euglena
13. Whatentisetmeant by longitudinal tbinary
t fission? t t t t t t
a l a
Cell il.anidivides
.
vertically in a l a il.ani.ene
longitudinal axis. e.g: l
Euglena
a a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
asas ss
apdaada binary fission?.wp.apdaada
ss adsas adsas
w .wp.apdad What is meantwby
14. .wp.oblique w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Cell division takes place in oblique axis.
15. What is tmeant by multiple fission?
te t t tet ntet cytoplasm encircles t t
a l a il.ani.enthe
First, nucleus divides a l il.ani.ene
repeatedly
a & produceamany l a il.ani.endaughter nuclei. Then,a l a il.ani.ethe a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda each daughter w .wp.apda & form many daughter
nucleus w .wp.apda cells. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 16. What is strobilation? ww ww ww ww ww
Several transverse divisions occur simultaneously and produce many daughter cells.
17. What etet etet etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.nis budding? s a sl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Parent’s body produces ada many small out growths ada called buds. They aare a
adexogenous buds. papdaada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w.w. w
ww They develop wwinto new individuals. ww ww ww ww
18. What are gemmules?
They aret hard spherical structures t with internal mass oft archaecytes. It is internal t bud. t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasGemmule gives risedto as
syoungone. sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.apaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww S.Nandagopal, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,M.Ed. ww ww ww ww ww
Principal, Sathak Dastagir Matric School, Ramnad.
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Send Your Model Questions
Please ww to our Email Id:ww padasalai.net@gmail.com ww ww
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t t t t t t t t t t
l il.ani.ene
19. aFragmentation:
a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s adsa s s
adsa into one adsa s
w .wp.apda Parent body splits w pdad many fragmentsw(pieces)
.wp.ainto .wp.apda and each piecewdevelops .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww young one. ww ww ww ww ww
20. Regeneration:
Growth etetof lost parts or injured t
eteparts. etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s as l ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
21. ada Types of regeneration: ada ada ada ada
ww Morphalaxisw& w Epimorphosis. ww ww ww ww
22. Morphalaxis:
Smallentfragment t develops
t into whole body. t e.g: Hydra, Planaria t t
l a il.ani. e l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
23. adsaasEpimorphosis: sas sas sas sas
.wp.apda Reparative or regenerative .wp.apdaada regeneration..wpDevelopment .apdaada of lost . p.apdaadIta is not a method .wp.apdaada
region.
w
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
of reproduction.
24. Syngamy:
It
l a .entet
il.anifertilization.
is Fusion of
l a ilmale
t
.ani.ente gamete(sperm) and l a .entet gamete (ovum)
il.anifemale l a il.anto et
i.entproduce a zygote. l a
t t
il.ani.ene
asasa a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apdad External Fertilization:
25. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww The sperm and ww ovum fuse outside the wwbody of the female, ie., wwin the surrounding water ww ww
26. Internal Fertilization:
The
l a .entet and ovum fuse
il.anisperm l a ilin ntet female reproductive
.ani.ethe l a
tet
il.ani.entract. l a il.ani.ene
t t
l a
t t
il.ani.ene
as
27. adsa Autogamy: adsaas adsaas adsaas adsaas
ww Sperms andwova w are produced by the wwsame cell or same organism. ww ww ww
28. Exogamy:
Sperms entetand ova are produced etbyet different parentsi.(nimale etet & female parents) biparental.
etet etet
lail.ani.
29.dadsaasHologamy: s asl ail.ani.n s asl a la .n s as l ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa aa ada ada
w .wp.apa Entire organismw.behaves wp.apdad as gametes. w.wp.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
30. Paedogamy:
Sexualt union of young individuals tet produced immediately tet after mitosis of parents tet cell.
i . ni .en et i . ni e
. n i . ni .en i . n i e
. n i .ani.ente
t
l ala
31. sasMerogamy: l a l a l a l a l a l a l a l
p.apdaada Fusion of small sized p. dsaas morphologicallypdifferent
apdaaand .
sas
apdaada gametes. p.
sas
apdaada p.
sas
apdaada
w .w .w .w .w .w
ww 32. ww ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
Isogamy: w
Fusion of morphologically identical gametes.
t t t t t t t t t t
33.
a l il.ani.ene
Anisogamy:
adsas asas daadsas and ovum in higher adsas adsas
w .wp.apda Occurs in higher w .wp.apdad It is the fusionw.of
animals.
wp.apsperm w .wp.apda animals. w .wp.apda w
ww 34. Conjugation: ww ww ww ww ww
Temporary union of two unicellular organisms, exchange of genetic materials and then separated
35. Three t
tphases of life cycle: .ni.entet t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
s Juvenile / Vegetative, s
sReproductive / Maturity s
s& Senescent phase dadsa s s s
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apa .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 36. Juvenile phase: ww ww ww ww ww
Period of growth between the birth and reproductive maturity (adolescence)
37. Reproductive Phase:
l a il.ani.entet l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
s aIndividual
s is able to reproduce.
s as s as s as s as
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Senescence phase:
ww Degeneration wwsets in the structure and ww function of the body.ww ww ww
39. Seasonal Breeding:
t t t t t
Animals
l a il.ani.ente reproduce in a particular
l a il.ani.ente season only. lail.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
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t t t t t t t t t t
40. aExamplesl a il.ani.ene of Seasonal breeders: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda Frog, Lizard, most w pdad deer etc.
.wp.abirds, w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 41. ContinuouswBreeders: w ww ww ww ww
Reproduce continuously throughout the reproductive phase.
42. Example etet of continuous Breeders: etet etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Honey Bees, Poultry, a
adRabbit etc., ada ada ada
ww 43. Parthenogenesis: ww ww ww ww ww
Development of unfertilized ovum / eggs into a complete organism without fertilization.
44. Complete t Parthenogenesis:n.entet t t t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ai l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasNo biparental reproduction. sas No involvementdaof samale
s animals. Only females sas involved in reproduction. sas
. p.
45.
w apdaada Incomplete Parthenogenesis: .wp.apdaada .wp.apada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Both sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis will occur. Ex Honey bees
46. Paedogenesis t / Paedogenic parthenogenesis:
enteproduce t t t t t t t t
a l a i
Larvael.ani . new generation
a l a il.ani.ene of larvae by parthenogenesis.
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
asas adsas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apdad Arificial Parthenogenesis:
ww Unfertilizedwovum w is induced artificially ww to develop into a complete ww individual. It is seen ww in Annelids and ww
Seaurchin eggs.
t t t t t t t t t t
48.
a l il.ani.ene animals:
Oviparous
s
adsa Egg laying animals.aEg. s
adsaReptiles & Birds adaadsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 49. Viviparous Animals: ww ww ww ww ww
Animals give birth to young ones. Eg. Mammals
50. Hown.eOvo t Viviparity differs from etetviviparous? .entet t t etet
l .ai nte
ailvivparity, l ail.ani.n in the mother’ssbody l ail.anibut l il.ani.ene
aconnection. l ail.ani.n
s
ada aIn
s the embryo aas asgrows adaa s has no placental s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apda In Viviparous, the w .apdad
.wpembryo grows in .wp.apdabody but has placental
mother’s
w w .wp.apdaconnection. w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
. ni e
.ntet . ni e
. nteCHAPTER
t II: Human Reproduction
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
1. sasFunctions
l i
ala of human reproductivel a il a system: l a il l a il l a il
sas saas dsaas dsaas
.wp.apdaada Producing gametes .wp. aada
apd(Sperms & Ova), .w apdaad&
transport
p . sustaining gametes,
.wp.apdaanurture the developing
.wp.apdaafoetus
w w w w w w
ww and produce wwhormones. ww ww ww ww
2. Gametogenesis:
t t t t .entet & ovary) t t t t
a l il.ani.ene of gametes (sperms
Formation
a a l a il.ani.ene& ova) in the gonads a l a il.ani(testis a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad Spermatogenesis:
3.
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Formation of wwspermatozoa in the testis ww of males. ww ww ww
4. Oogenesis:
Formation t t of ova in the ovary toft females. t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
5. adsa Insemination: asa s s s s s s s
.wp.apda Transfer of semen pdad
.wp.ainto .wp apdaada
. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w female reproductive w tract. w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
6. Fertilization:
Fusion of a sperm and ovum etoteform a zygote
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.n t l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
7. saasCleavage: s as s as s as s as
ad aa ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Repeated mitotic w .apdad of zygote to develop
.wpdivision w .wp.apda a multicellulularwhollow .wp.apda structure calledwblastocyst. .wp.apda w
ww 8. Implantation: ww ww ww ww ww
Attachment of blastocyst with the wall of uterus.
t t t t t
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
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t t t t t t t t t t
9. a l il.ani.ene
Placentation:
adsa s asa s adsa s s s adsa s
.wp.apda Development of .w pdad tissue called w
ap.aspecial .wp.apda between the foetus
placenta aada the uterine wall .for
.wp.apdand p.apdathe
w w w w w w
ww exchange ofwnutrients w and waste. ww ww ww ww
10. Gastrulation:
Blastocyst etet develops into a ihollow etet gastrula with three tet
eprimary germ layers. i.ni.entet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl al.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl a la s asl ail.ani.n
11. ada Organogenesis: adaada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Development wwof tissues, organs & organ ww systems in the three wwprimary germ layers ofwgastrula. w ww
12. Parturition: (Child Birth)
Expulsion t of the foetus fromn.ethe t mother’s womb n.entet t t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ai nte l a il.ai l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
13. adsaasWhy the scrotum is hanging sas from abdomendinadsmales? as sas sas
.wp.apda Acts as thermoregulator, .w p.apdaada having 2-3 °C less .wp. a a
apthan the normal body .wp apdaada
.
temperature which is . p.apdaada for
suitable
w
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
spermetogenesis.
14. Tunica Albuginea:
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene fibrous layeralcovering
Outermost
a a il.ani.ene the testis. alail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
asas asas adsas adsas adsas
w p.apdad Which occupy the
15.
.w w pdad portion of thewtestis?
.wp.amajor .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Seminiferous wwtubules occupy 80% ofwspace w in the testis ww ww ww
16. Name the epithelial tissues found in seminiferous tubules. What are their functions?
t t t t t t t t t
l .ani.ente / nurse cells – nourish
a.ailSertoli
l a il.ani.ene the sperms andaproduce l a il.ani.ene “inhibin” for negative l a il.ani.enefeedback control.alail.ani.ene
as
17. adsa Interstitial cells / pLeydig as
adsa cells: adsa s adsaas adsa s
w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Soft connective ww tissues found around wwthe seminiferous tubules. ww ww ww
18. Role of Leydig cells:
Endocrine etet tissue secretes male etehormones
t called androgens etet like testosterone ethat
tet initiates etet
s a l ail.ani.n
spermatogenesis.
s s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Role of testosterone:
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Initiates spermatogenesis.
20. Tubulus tet Rectus: tet
i . ni e
.n i .ani.enlobe i et
.ania.entsingle i
tet
.ani.enTubulous i .ani.ente
t
l a l a
Seminiferous tubules of each
l a l converge to form
l a l large tube called
l a l Rectus. Itl a l
sas dsaas testis. sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada conveys sperms .into w p.apdaarete .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
. .wp.apdaada
w ww ww w w w
ww 21. Rete Testis:wTubular Network in thewposterior side of the testis. ww It receives sperms from ww tubulus rectus. ww
22. Epididymis and its functions:
t
thighly t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene
Single
a coiled tube.laTemporary
a il.ani.ene storehouse,laprovides
a il.ani.ene physiologicalamaturity l a il.ani.ene and sperms attain a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda motility here. w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 23. Urethra: ww ww ww ww ww
Terminal portion of male reproductive system, used to convey both urine and semen.
24. Mention t t the accessory glands toft male reproductive.nsystem: t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ilai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
s Seminal vesicles, bulbo s
s urethral gland (cowper’s s
s gland) & prostate gland. s s s s
.wp.apdaada .w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
. .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 25. Composition wwof seminal fluid / seminal ww plasma: ww ww ww
Contains fructose, ascorbic acid, prostaglandins, Coagulating enzyme called vesiculase.
26. Which component in the seminal plasma is importantetfor sperm motility? etet
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.net l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
etet
s aEnzyme
s vesiculase s as s as s as s as
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Use of bulbo urethral
27. w .wp.apda glands: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Lubricating w
w
the penis ww ww ww ww
28. Composition of secretion of prostate gland:
t ni.entet antigen. t t t
l a il.ani.ente enzymes, prostatic
Citrate, l a il.aspecific l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
. .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
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t t tet t t t t t t
29. aWhich l a il.ani.eneglands secrete seminal a l a il.ani.enplasma? a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s
asa gland and bulboaurethral adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda Seminal vesicles, w .apdad
.wpprostate w .wp.pda glands.
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 30. Functions ofwseminal w plasma: ww ww ww ww
Transport medium nourish sperms and activates the sperm motility.
31. Functions etet of female reproductive etet system: etet etet etet
ada Ovulation, fertilization, adapregnancy & child birth ada(parturition) ada ada
ww 32. Length of each ww ovary: ww ww ww ww
2 – 4 c.m long.
33. Germinal t epithelium of ovary: t t t t
sasThin, cuboidal epithelium sas covering the ovary. sas sas sas
. p.
34.
w apdaada Tunica albuginea: .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
.
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Dense connective tissue below the germinal epithelium of ovary.
35. Regionstof ovarian stroma:
.ani.ente cortex contains ovarian t t t t t t t t
aa)
l a ilouter a l a il.ani.ene follicles a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda b) inner medulla w .apdad connective tissue
.wpcontains w .wp.apd,ablood vessels andwnerve .wp.apda fibres. w .wp.apda w
ww 36. Mesovarium: ww ww ww ww ww
It is a ligament connecting ovary with the uterus and pelvic wall.
t t i.ente
t system:ail.ani.entet t t t t
37.
a l a il.ani.ene organs of female
Accessory
a l a il.anreproductive a l a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa Fallopian tubes / uterine s
adsa tubes / oviducts, auterus s
adsa & vagina. adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 38. Four regions wwof fallopian tube: ww ww ww ww
Funnel shaped infundibulum, finger like projections from the edge called fimbriae, basal part of
infundibulumentet called ampullan.e& telong
t narrow tube called eteisthmus.
t etet etet
lail.ani.
39.dadsaasUterus: s asl ail.ai n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa daada ada aa
w .wp.apa Also called womb, w pdad
.wp.ahollow, thick, w .wp.aphighly
muscular, vascular & .wp.apda pear shaped organ
inverted
w w .wp.apdadin the
lying w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
pelvic cavity between urinary bladder and rectum.
40. Fundus: t t t t t
Round
l a il.ani.entesuperior portion of l a il.ani.ente
uterus. l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.41.
wp.apdaada Cervix: .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
.
w w w w w w
ww Uterus opens wwinto vagina through cervix. ww ww ww ww
42. Birth canal:
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene canal and vagina
Cervical
a a l il.ani.ene form birth canal.
together
a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
asas s
daadsaof adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apdad Three layers inwthe
43. .wp.apwall uterus:
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Outer serous wwlayer called perimetrium ww ww ww ww
Middle muscular layer called myometrium &
Inner t t
glandular layer called.nendometrium. t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a ilai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
44. adsa Structures includeddin sa s s s s s s s
.wp.apda Labia majora, Labia aadexternal
.wp.apminora,
genitalia in females:
. p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p apdaada
.
w w hymen w w w
&wclitoris w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww
45. Which is called greater vestibular gland?
Bartholin’s gland
l a il.ani.entet l ni.entet
ail.aWhat l ail.ani.n
etet
lail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
46. saasWhere are skene’s glands? s as are their functions?
s as s as s as
ad ada ada aa ada
w .wp.apda Located in the w .wp.apda wall of vagina &waround
anterior .wp.apda the lower end of w .wp.apdad
urethra. w .wp.apda w
ww Secrete lubricating ww fluid similar to the wwfluid secreted by prostate ww gland in males. ww ww
47. Hymen:
Thin
a il ntet like tissue partially
.ani.ering a il .entet
.anicovering the external a iopening
l
t
.ani.ente of Vagina. lail.ani.ente
t
a il.ani.ente
t
sas l sas l sas l sas sas l
.wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
.
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
48. aMammary l a il.ani.ene glands: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda Modified sweatwglands, .wp.apda rudimentary inwmales .wp.apda and functional in wfemales. .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 49. Areola: ww ww ww ww ww
Nipple of mammary gland is surrounded by black pigmented ring containing sebacious glands.
50. How tet lobes are there .in
emany tet mammary glands?.ni.entet
ethe etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ailani.n s asl aila s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada 20 to 25 lobes ada ada ada ada
ww 51. Which tissue ww in memory gland secretes ww milk? ww ww ww
Cells of alveoli
52. Whatentisetmammary ampulla? entet t t t
l a il.ani. l a il.ani. l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasSeveral mammary ducts a join together and form
daadsas sasa wider tube called dmammary sas ampulla. sas
. p.
53.
w apdaada What is lactiferous .wp.apsinus? .wp .apdaada .wp.apaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Each lactiferous duct expands and form lactiferous sinus. It acts as milk reservoir.
54. Spermiogenesis:
t t tet t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene
Transformation of spermatids
a l a il.ani.eninto spermatozoa. a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad Spermiation: w.wp.apdad
55. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Transfer of w w
sperms w
into the cavity ofwseminiferous tubules ww ww ww
56. Rate of sperm production in a day:
200
l a .entet sperms per day
il.animillion l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
t t
l a
t t
il.ani.ene
as
57. adsa Role of the following adsaas
hormones: adsa as adsaas adsaas
ww Gonadotropin wwReleasing Hormone (GnRH) ww – Stimulates the production ww ww
of FSH & LH (GonadotropinS) ww
FSH – stimulates the testicular growth, enhance the production of antigen binding protein and helps in
spermiogenesis.
entet t .entet t etet
l ail.a–ni.Stimulates l ail.an i.ente l ail.aniwhich l .ani.ente
ailspermatogenesis. l ail.ani.n
aas aLH
s leydig s
ada a
cells
s to produce testosterone
adas as in turn controls
s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apdad Acrosome:
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Small cup like structure found at the tip of the nucleus of a sperm. Formed by the fusion of Golgi
bodies.
etet .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l ail.ani.n
59. sasHyaluronidase: sas l a il sas l a il sas l a il saasl a il
.wp.apdaada It is a proteolytic.wpenzyme .apdaada (Sperm lysin) found .wp .apdaadina acrosome. It is important .wp.apdaada for penetration.wpof .apdaaadsperm
w w w w w w
ww into ovum during ww fertilization. ww ww ww ww
60. Mitochondrial spiral / Nebenkern:
Itlais .entetspiral arrangement
il.anithe l a
et
i.entmitochondria
il.anof in the l a ilmiddle
t
.ani.ente piece of a sperm. l a
tet
il.anIti.enproduces ATP. l a
t t
il.ani.ene
asasa a
adsas adsasa a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apdad Percentage of normal
61.
w .wp.apda sperms: 60% w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 62. Percentagewofwactive movement of sperms ww / vigourous motility ww of sperms: 40% ww ww
63. How many follicles are left in each ovary at puberty?
60000 t –t 80000 t t t t t t t t
s
64. adsa Secondary follicle: daadsa s s s s s s s
.wp.apda Primary folliclewis.wpsurrounded .ap .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w by many w w w w
ww ww ww layers of granulose cells ww and form a new theca wwlayer . This theca ww
is called secondary follicle.
65. Graafian follicle:
l a il.ani.entet l ni.entet
ail.atertiary l i.ente
ail.anmatured
t
l ail.an i.ente
t
l ail.ani.n
etet
s aAfter
s ovum formation, s the
as follicle becomes s as follicles called
s as graafian follicle. s as
aa ada aa ada ada
w .wp.apdad Terminologies w
66. .wp.apda the structure of
regarding w .apdad ovum:
.wphuman w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww w
Noncleidoicw– no shell over the eggs.w
w ww ww ww
Alecithal – no yolk in the egg (yolk – reserve food)
t t t t t
Ooplasm
l a il.ani.ente – cytoplasm of lovum a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas a
daadsasnucleus of the ovum. sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Germinal vesicle.wp–.aplarge .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
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tet t t t t t t t t
67. aThree l a il.ani.encoverings of an egg: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda Thin innermostwlayer .wp.apda– vitelline membrane w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Thick middle ww layer – zona pellucida ww ww ww ww
Thick outer layer – corona radiata
68. Perivitellineetet space: etet etet etet etet
ada Space between vitelline ada membrane and zona a
adpellucida ada ada
ww 69. Menstrual cycle ww or ovarian cycle: ww ww ww ww
Cycle of events starting from one menstrual period till the next one commences
70. In which t phase oestrogen and progesterone
t hormones tlevel is declined? n.entet t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il .ani.ente l a il.ai l a il.ani.ente
sasMenstrual phase / Menstrual dsaas period / Bleeding saperiod
s sas sas
. p.
71.
w apdaada Reasons for absence .wp.apdaaof menstruation: .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
.
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Pregnancy, stress , hormonal disorder and anaemia
72. L.H surge:
It
l ais .entet secretion of LHladuring
il.animore
t t
il.ani.ene ovulatory phase l a il.ani.ene
t t
l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
asasa a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apdad Ovulation:
ww Rupture of w w
graafian follicle and release ww of ovum into the peritonial ww cavity by the influence ww of LH ww
74. Transitory gland and its use:
t t t t i.ente
t t t t t
a l il.ani.eneluteal phase, thealruptured
During
a a il.ani.ene graafian follicle a l a isil.antransformed
a l a il.ani.ene gland called acorpus
into an endocrine
l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa luteum. It secretesamore s
adsa progesterone. adaadsa s adsa s adsa s
ww 75. Corpus albicans: ww ww ww ww ww
In the absence of fertilization corpus lutuem disintegrates and leaves a scar called corpus albicans.
76. Which eteare
t suitable materialsn.eto t tkeep menstrual hygiene? t t t t etet
a l ail.ani.nabsorbing clothing, a l il.ai ne
asanitary a l il.ani.ene
atampons a l il.ani.ene
acups. a l ail.ani.n
aas Clean
s aas s napkins, pads,
s
ada s and menstrual s
ada s s
ada s
w .wp.apdad Menopause: w.wp.apdad
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Phase in women’s life when ovulation and menstruation stop. It happens at the age of 45 – 50 years.
78. Capacitation: tet
i .ania.enbio-chemical i et
.ani.entenables i .ani.ente
t
i .entet
.aniegg. i .ani.ente
t
sasIt
l aisl eventsas l a l
that a sperm to
sas l a l
penetrate and fertilizesas the
l a l sas l a l
.79.
wp.apdaada Actual site of fertilization:.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
.
w w w w w w
ww Fallopian tube ww ww ww ww ww
80. Fertilization membrane:
t t t t t t tet (entrylaofil.ani.ente
t
a l il.ani.ene granules fuse together
Cortical
a a l a il.ani.eneand form a fertilization
a l a il.ani.enemembrane. It prevents a l a il.ani.enpolyspermy a
w .wp.apda many sperms into w pdad
.wp.aovum) w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 81. Morula: ww ww ww ww ww
After 72 hours of fertilization, a loose collection of cells forms a berry shaped cluster of 16 or more
cells. t t cluster of cells is .called
The t t Morula. t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a ilani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
82. adsa Ectopic Pregnancy: daadsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda It is the implantation w .wp.ap of fertilized egg outside w .wp.apda the uterus. 95% occurs w .wp.apdain fallopian tube. w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
83. What are extra embryonic membranes?
Amnion, yolk sac, allantois and chorian
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
84. saasUses of extra embryonic s as membranes: s as s as s as
ad ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Protect the embryo w .wp.apdafrom dessication, mechanical w .wp.apda shock, help in
w .wp.apda
absorption of nutrientsw .wp.apdaexchange
and w
ww of gases. w
w ww ww ww ww
85. Chorionic villi:
t t tet t t
l a il.ani.ente
Trophoblast cells of blastocyst
l a il.ani.enteproduce several finger l a il .ani.enlike projections called
l a il i.ente
.anChorionic villi. l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
.
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t t t t t t t t t t
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t t t t t t t t t t
86. aWhat l a il.ani.enise placenta? a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s adsa s s
daadsa placenta. It connects adsa s
w .wp.apda Chorionic villi and w pdad wall tissues form
.wp.auterine w .wp.apdaadisc shaped structure w .wp.apcalled w .wp.apda the w
ww foetus withwuterine w wall. ww ww ww ww
87. Organs developed from Ectoderm:
CNS, tet epidermis and its.niderivatives
ePNS, etet and mammary t
eteglands etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl aila .n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
88. ada Organs developedafrom ada Mesoderm: ada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Connectivewtissues, w cartilages, bones, wwmuscles, excretory system ww and reproductive system. ww ww
89. Organs developed from Endoderm:
Gastro-intestinalt tract, respiratory t system, liver , pancreas, t thyroid glands, parathyroid t glands. t
90. adsaasWhat is gestation? What adsaas is its duration? adaadsaas a sas
. p.apda Pregnancy period . p .apdacalled . p . p . p. pdaadsas
aweeks. . p.apdaada
w w w w is gestation. The
w w duration is 280 days /w40w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
91 Role of relaxin:
Helps int relaxation of pelvic ligament during delivery / parturition.
92. asHormones i .ani ente produced by placenta:
. i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
l a l a l a l a l a a l a a l a
adsa asas asas somatotropins aand adsas adsas
w .wp.apda Human chorianic w .apdad
.wpgonadotropins , human
w .apdad
.wpchorianic w .wp.pda relaxin. w .wp.apda w
ww 93. Labour: ww ww ww ww ww
Series of events that expels the infant from the uterus.
t t t t t t t t t t
94.
a l il.ani.ene– Hicks Contractions:
Braxter
s
adsa The uterus undergoes periodical adsa s episodes of weak s
adsand
a strong contractions dsa s
athroughout s
adsa to
pregnancy. Itdaleads
w .wp.apda “False Labour” w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.ap w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
95. What is foetal ejection reflex or Furguson reflex?
The descent of foetus causes dialation of cervix of the uterus and vaginal canal resulting neuro hormonal reflex.
etet etet etet etet etet
s asl ail.aniis.ncalled Furguson Reflex.
This
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad What is after birth?
96.
ww Placenta along wwwith the umblical cord together ww called after birth.ww ww ww
97. Lactation:
Production entet of milk by mammary glands
t t t t
98. saasLet lail.a–ni.down reflex? l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
p.apdaad Actual ejection of .w p.
milk
dsaas mammary glandsp.acaused
apdaafrom p
a
daadsas by oxytocin. p.
sas
apdaada p.
sas
apdaada
w .
w .w .w . w
ww 99. ww ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
Colostrum: w
Mammary glands secrete a yellowish fluid called Colostrom during the initial few days after parturition.
t t of Colostrum: i.ni.entet t t t t t t
100. Composition
a l a il.ani.ene a l a l a a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
aa dadsasLess lactose, no fat, more aa
s
dadsaproteins, dadsas and IgA.
vitamin A, minerals
aa dadsas
aa dadsas aa
w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t Chapter
t t 3 – Reproductive t t Health t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsas adsa s adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda1. Amniocentasis: w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww A prenatal test wwused to detect any chromosomal
ww w
abnormalities inwthe foetus. It is being misused ww to identify the ww
sex of the foetus.
s sl ail.ani.n foeticide:
2. aFemale
s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada daada in the mother’s womb. ada ada ada
w.wp.apda Aborting the female w .wp.apfoetus w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww 3. Female infanticide: ww ww ww ww ww
Killing the female child after her birth.
t t t t t
4. UNDP’s
l a i
l .ani.enteGII: l ail.ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada United Nations Development.
wp.apdaada Programmes Gender .wp.apdaadaInequality Index .wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
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t t t t t t t t t t
5. PCPNDT
a l a il.ani.ene act: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda Preconception and w .apdad Diagnostic Technique
.wpPrenatal w .wp.apda Act w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 6. POCSO Act: ww ww ww ww ww
Prevention of Children from Sexual Offences Act
etet t
i.ente and females in India: etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n Marriageable age
7. Statutory
s a sl il.anMales
aof s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda For male – 21 years w .wp.apda w .w.apdayears
For female -p18
ww 8. Two types ofwcontraceptivew methods: ww ww ww ww
Temporary & permanent methods
t t t t t
9. Methods
l a il.ani.ente of temporary birth l a il.ani.ente
control:
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas and hormonal barriers. sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Natural, chemical,.wpmechanical .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 10. Natural barriers: ww ww ww ww ww
Prevent meeting of sperm and ovum
t t .entet interruptus, continuous t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.eneMethod (Safe period),
Rhythm
a l a il.aniCoitus a l a il.ani.ene abstinence & Lactationala l a il.ani.ene amenorrhoea. alail.ani.ene
adsasLife of sperms and ovum
11. adsains female reproductive adsas
tract: adsas adsas
ww 72 hours forw w
sperms and 48 hours for ovum ww ww ww ww
12. Continuous Abstinence:
Not.nto t coitus over a period
thave tofttime t t t t t t
a l a ilai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa Coitus interruptus: adaadsa
13. s adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww Penis is withdrawn ww before ejaculation. ww ww ww ww
14. Lactational amenorrhoea:
Upto t tmonths after child birth
six t
tovarian cycle is not happening. t t t t t t
s
15. s
ada Which are chemical abarriers? s
ada s aas s aas s s
ada s
w .wp.apda Foaming tablets,wmelting .wp.pda suppositories, jellies w pdad
.wp.aand w .apdad
.wpsperms. w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww creams to inactivate
ww ww ww
16. Mechanical Barriers:
Usageentof t Condoms by male. Condom t is made up of polyurethane, t latex and lambskin. t t
sasDiaphragm, cervical cap as vaults preventing theadsentry
sand as of semen into female sareproductive
s tract. sas
.wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apda a .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada
w 17. Oral contraceptive w w w w w
ww ww pills: ww ww ww ww
These pills contain synthetic oestrogen and progesterone which prevent ovulation.
18. Saheli: t t t t
l a il.ani.ene non steroidal preparation l a il.ani.ene called centchroman l a ni.entet
il.aprepared l a ni.entet
il.aResesarch l a
t t
il.ani.ene
a
adsasContains a
adsas a
adsas by Central a
Drug
adsas Institute, a
Lucknow
adsas
w .wp.apda19. IUDs: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Devices inserted into the uterus. There are two types. 1. Copper releasing and hormone releasing IUDs. IUDs
engulf tthe sperms (Phagocytosis).tetIt is to delay pregnancy tet
i .ani enet
. il.ani.en il.ani.en il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
20. asl a
Which l is popular method aof
sl a contraceptions in India? asla asl a asl a
adsa s
aad–a 99% adsa adsa adsa
w .wp.apda IUDs - Success rate w .wpis.apd95 w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
21. Types of copper releasing IUDs and their functions:
CuT – 380 tet A, NovaT, CuT – 380.niAg, tetMultiload 375. They .release tet free copper and copper tetsalts to reduce sperm.ni.entet
. ni e
. n .en ni e
. n . ni e
. n
laila
motility. laila laila laila laila
a daadsaas a daadsaas a daadsaas a daadsaas a daadsaas
w.wp.p 22. Types of hormone .p
w.wpreleased .wp.p
IUDs and theirwfunctions: w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Projestrone & LNG – 20. Increase the viscacity of mucus in the cervix and thereby prevent the entry of sperms in
cervix.
t t t t t
l a i
l .ani.ente l ail.ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww S.Nandagopal, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,M.Ed.
ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
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a
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a
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene
23. Non-medical
a IUDs:
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda .wp.apda and stainless steel.wLippes
Made of plastic
w .wp.apda loop is double S shaped w .wp.apdaplastic device. w .wp.apda w
ww 24. Tubectomy :ww ww ww ww ww
It is a permanent birth control method in females. That is surgical sterility of females. Removal of small portions
t
ni.entefallopian tet are ligated. etet etet etet
a
ofail.a
l both tubes andathe
a l il.ani.enends a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n
s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
w .wp.apda25. Vasectomy: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww It is a permanent ww birth control methodwinwmales. That is surgical sterility ww of males. Removal w ofwsmall portions of ww
both Vasadeferensia and the ends are ligated
t t t t t
l a il.ani.ente of STD, VD, RTI, lSTI:
26. Expansion
a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada STD – Sexually Transmitted .wp .apdaada Diseases .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww VD – Venereal wwDiseases ww ww ww ww
RTI – Reproductive Tract infection
ntet
STIi.–ni.eSexually
a l a
Transmitted Infection
a il.ani.ene
t t
a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l
adsasWhich bacteria are transmitted
27. adsas through STI? adaadsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Gonorrhoea,wsyphilis, w chancroids, chlamydiasis ww & lymphogranuloma wwvenereum ww ww
28. Which are viral STI?
Genetal t
t herpes, Genetal warts, t t
Hepatitis – B & AIDS .ni.entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa Which STI can’t be treated
29. s
adsa but symtoms can beadcontrolled adsa s by medicines? daadsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w .wp.ap w .wp.apda w
ww Viral STI ww ww ww ww ww
30. Name the protozoan STI.
Trichomoniasis t t t t t t t t t t
s
31. s
ada Name the fungal STIadaada s s s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
w .wp.apda Candidiasis w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
32. Diseases / causative agent / incubation
ReferenTabular t Column in page No: 39
t t t t
l a il.ani. te l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasCervical cancer is caused
33. sa s -----------
by sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w Human Papilloma w w w w w
ww ww Virus - HPV ww ww ww ww
34. Symptoms of cervical cancer.
Abdominal pain, Vaginal discharge t t& Vaginal bleeding .ni.entet
l a .entet
il.anifactors l a il.ani.ene l a ila l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
35. a
adsasRisk for cervical a
cancer
adsas a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda Multiple sex partners w .wp.apda& Prolonged usage of
w .wp.apda
contraceptive pills w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
36. Major tests to diagnose cervical cancer
a. Papanicolaou Smear Test [PAPte Smear Test]
i .ani .entet i .ani en t
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l
b.
s a l
HPV Test asl a l asl a asl a asl a
adsa asa adsa adsa adsa
w .wp.apda37. At which age, HPV w .apdad is given to females?
.wpVaccine w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
9 – 13 years
38. What kind tet of life style can prevent tetcervical cancer?
en e n etet t
.ani.ente exercise etc. lail.ani.ente
t
s a l
Healthy
s
. ni .
aila diet, avoiding tobacco, s asl . ni .
aila preventing early marriage, s asl ail.ani.npracticing monogamy, s asl ailregular s as
ada a
daadproduce ada ada ada
w .wp.apda39. Inability to conceive w .wp.apor .wp.apda---------
children iswcalled w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Infertility
40. Reasons for infertility.
No
l a il ni.entet
.asufficient number of sperms
l a il
t
.ani.en&teno good quality sperms l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
s as s as s as s as sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww
S.Nandagopal, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,M.Ed. ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
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w.w.apda
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t t tet t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene of a woman to become
Inability
a a l a il.ani.enpregnant. a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda41. Causes for infertility: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Tumour in the wwpituitary or reproductiveworgans w ww ww ww
Inherited mutations in sex hormonal genes
s asl ail.ani.n
Malformation
s as ail.ani.n tube
of cervix or Fallopian
l s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada a
aadadulthood ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Inadequate nutrition w .wp.apdin w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 42. Toxins causing wwinfertility ww ww ww ww
Ingestion of heavy metal, cadmium (toxin)
Heavyi et
.ani.entconsumption of alcohol, i ntet
.ani.etobacco and marijuana i.ani.entet i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l
.wp.apdaada Injuries in Gonads.wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w Reproductive Technology)? w w w
ww 43. Which techniques ww are included in ART (Assited ww ww ww ww
Intra Uterine Insemination (IUI)
t t t t t t t t
l .ani.enteFertilization (IVF) lail.ani.ente
In ivitro
a l l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsasEmbryo Transfer (ET)adaadsas a a
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
ww Zygote Intra w w
Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT) ww ww ww ww
Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT)
Intra t t
cytoplasmic Sperm Injection t
t (ICSI) t t t t t t
s
adsa In vitro Fertilization a(Test
44. s
adsatube baby) adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww Allowed fertili wwzation in lab. Zygote is allowed ww to develop into 8 - w w embryo and then transferred
celled ww into ww
mother’s womb.
45. Cryon.e t t
Preservation of Embryo: n.entet t t t t t t
a l a il.ai ne a l a il.ai a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s s
ada More embryos are developed s
ada s in in-vitro fertilization s s
ada and the embryos areadpreserved s
ada s in frozen temperature s s
ada for
w .wp.apda future use. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
46. How many hours before the hCG (human Chorianic Gonadotropins) is injected into female for egg retrieval?
34 – 37 hours
t t t t t
sasWhere the 8 celled embryo
47. sas is transferred in female sareproductive
s tract in IVF? sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w Into the uteruswof w w w w w
ww w female. ww ww ww ww
48. Which is transferred into female reproductive tract in ZIFT? Where?
Zygote teist transferred into fallopian ttube. t t t t t t
l a il.ani.enare l a i.ente
il.anand l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
49. a
adsasWhich transferred in a
GIFT
asas where are they a
transferred?
adsas a
adsas a
adsas
w .wp.apda Ovum and healthy w .apdad are transferred w
.wpsperms in .apdaof
.wpone the fallopian tubes.
ww ww ww ww ww ww
50. What is meant by intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)?
Only one sperm is injected into the cytoplasam of ovum fortefertilization in the lab. Then 8 celled embryo is
i .ani entet
. i .an i entet
. i .ani en t
. i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l
transferred
s into uterus. asl a l asl a l asl a l asl a
adsa adsa adsa adsa adsa
w .wp.apda51. Surrogacy: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
An agreement whereby a woman agrees to carry a pregnancy for another woman. 8 celled embryo is
transferred tet into the uterus of.nsurrogate tet mother.
e n e n etet etet etet
52.
s a l aila. ni
Azoospermia:
s
.
s asl aila i .
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Absence of sperms w .apda
.wpin the ejaculated semen. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
53. Micro Testicular Sperm Extraction[TESE]:
Small mild incision in scrotum is made. Then seminiferous tubules are dilated and little amount of testicular
t t t ni.entet more active sperms. t
l a i
tissues
l.ani.enteof active sperm production l a il.ani.ente are separated. These l a il i.ente are stimulated to
.antissues l a il.produce
a l a il.ani.ente
s as s as s as s as s as
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww
S.Nandagopal, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,M.Ed. ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene
54. Amniocentesis:
adsa s daadsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda Taking small sample w .wp.apof amniotic .wp.apda the foetus to diagnose
fluid that surrounds
w w .wp.apda the chromosomal abnormalities.
w .wp.apda w
ww 55. When is amniocentesis ww done in a pregnant ww woman? ww ww ww
15th to 20th weeks of pregnancy
s asl ail.ani.n Villus Sampling:
56. Chorianic
s as ail.ani.n
(CVS)
l s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada abnormalities p.apdaada
w .wp.apda Test involved bywtaking .wp.apda the sample from placental w .wp.apda tissue to diagnosewchromosomal
.wp.apda w.w w
ww 57. Foetoscope:ww ww ww ww ww
It is used to monitor the foetal heart beat rate and other functions during late pregnancy.
58. Foetal i et beat rate:
.ani.entHeart i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
sas l a l l a l l a l l a l l a l
apdaada Average of 120 to 160 apdaadsaas per minute
beats sas
apdaada
sas
apdaada
sas
apdaada
w.wp. w.wp. w.wp. w.wp. w.wp. w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Chapter 4 – Principles of Inheritance & variation
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l ail.ani.ene al a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
1. adsasGenetics: adsas ss adsas adsas
.wp.apda Branch in Biology p.apdadeals
.that
w .wp.apdaada .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w with heredity w w w w
ww ww ww and variations. ww ww ww
2. Unit of heredity:
Gene (a segment of DNA) is the unit of heredity
i .ani entet
. i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
3. sasVarition:
l a l asl a l asl a asl a asl a
ada adsa s
aada adsa adsa
w .wp.apda Degree of difference w .wp.apdabetween progenywand .wp.apdparents. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 4. How will you wwachieve betterment ofwhuman w
race? ww ww ww
By eugenics, euthenics & Euphenics
5.
s as ail.ani.n alleles:
Multiple
l s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada When three or more da
adifferent types of alleles a control a particular
adthat a occupying the same
adtrait adalocus in
ww the homologous ww chromosome are called ww multiple alleles. ww ww ww
6. Multiple allelism:
t of multiple alleles et t t t
l a il.ani.ente
Inheritance
l a il.ani.entgeneration after generation
7. daadsaasFactors determiningdablood sas groups sas sas sas
.wp .ap .wp.ap ada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w Antigens & w ww
antibodies w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww
8. Blood group antigen:
It is a protein granules presentteon the outer surface ofteRBCs (Surface Antigen) tet
i .ani entet
. i .ani en t
. i .ani en t
. il.ani.en
t t
il.ani.ene
9. saasTypes lal of Antigens: saaslal a l a l a l a a l a
ad ad adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda Antigen A & Antigen w .wp.apdaB(made of protein) w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 10. Based on which ww factor we give blood wwgroup names? ww ww ww
Based on the presence or absence of antigen.
tet t t t t t t t t
11.
a
Who
l a il.ani.endiscovered blood groups?
w .wp.apda Karl Landsteiner w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 12.; Who discovered ww ‘AB’ Blood group?ww ww ww ww
In 1902, Von De Castelle and Sturli (Lansteiner’s students) discovered ‘AB’ Blood group.
13. Who tet
ediscovered the multiple et
etalleles of blood groups? etet etet etet
a a Bernstein in 1925 adaada aa aa aa
w .apdad
.wp14. w .wp.p w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w
ww How many autosomal ww alleles are concerned ww with blood groups? ww Where are they located? ww ww
Three pairs of autosomal alleles for blood groups and they are located in chromosome 9th pair.
t t t t t
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
15. alForms a il.ani.eneof alleles of I gene: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s asa s s
daadsaI B gene for Antigen adsa s
.wp.apda I genes occur inwthree .wp.apda allelic forms. I for .apdad – A (Blood Group .wp.a–pdaB ((Blood
A
w w .wpantigen w .wp.apA), w w
ww Group B), Iowfor w absence of antigenswAwand B. ww ww ww
16. Enzymes produced by I A allele:
N –i.nAcetyletet galactose transferase etet and can add N – Acetyl etetgalactosamine etet etet
s asl alai.n s a
Bsl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
17. ada Enzyme producedaby adIa allele: ada ada ada
ww Galactose transferaseww and that addswgalactose w to precursorsww ww ww
18. Which are dominant genes for blood group?
I A &entIeBt are dominant genesentet t t t
19. adsaasWhich are co-dominant sasgenes? sas sas sas
.wp.apda I A & I B are co -.wpdominant .apdaada genes .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
20. Six possible genotypes of blood group:
I A I A , ItA I o I B I B , I B I O , I A I B and t I OI O
te te t t t t t t
21. asFour l a n en
il.ai.possible Blood groups: a l a n
il.ai. en
adsa adsas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda A, B, AB & O w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 22. Genotypes w forw each blood group: ww ww ww ww
1. Group A - I A I A or I A I o
t t t t t t t t
.ani.ente B - I I or I I lail.ani.ente il.ani.ene il.ani.ene il.ani.ene
2.ailGroup B B B O
asl as asl a asl a asl a
adsa 3. Group AB - I A I Badaadsa adsa adsa adsa
w .wp.apda Ow .Owp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 4. Group o -wIw I ww ww ww ww
23. Who discovered Rh factor / Antigen? Where is it present?
Rh factorni.entet / antigen was discovered ni.entet by Karl Landsteiner ete&t Alexander wieneri.ain e1940.
tet etet
s asl
Rh ail.aantigen is found on s a l
the
s ail.aouter surface of RBCs.
s asl ail.ani.n s asl al ni.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Why this antigen
24. w .apdacalled
.wpis Rh antigen? w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Because this antigen was first identified in Macaca rhesus monkey(Rh stands for rhesus)
25. Whattdoes Rh factor refer to?t t
i . ni e
.n et i .ani.ene D Antigen. i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
Rh
l a l afactor refers to Immunogenic
l a l l a l l a l l a l
sas saas dsaawhom?
s sas sas
.26.
wp.apdaada Regarding RH Factor, . wp.apdaadwho can donate blood
.wp.apdaato .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w ww w w w w
ww Rh +ve & Rhw–ve can donate to Rh +ve ww ww ww ww
Rh –ve can donate blood to Rh –ve
t t t t t t t t t t
27.
a l il.ani.ene Rh factor who
Regarding
a a l a il.ani.ene donate blood atolawhom?
cannot il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda Rh +ve cannot w donate
.wp.apda blood to Rh –ve.w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 28. Write the multiple ww alleles for Rh factor: ww ww ww ww
Cc, Dd & Ee located in three different loci of homologous chromososmal pair – 1.
29. What t the parental combinations
tare t t for the cause of t t
incompatibility of Rh factor? t t t t
s
s Rh-ve mother and Rh s
s father
+ve s s s s s s
.wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 30 Symptoms w ofwErythroblastosis Foetalis ww ww ww ww
Haemolysis of foetal RBCs, Haemolytic jaundice and anaemia
31. Howecould Erythroblastosis foetalis be prevented from second conceivemnet?
l a il.ani.ntet l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l adelivery.
t t
il.ani.ene l ail.ani.n
etet
s aAnti
s D antibody should s be
as injected into Rh –ve s mother
as soon after the first
s as s as
ada aa ada ada ada
w .wp.apda It should be done w .apdad every child birth.
.wpafter w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 32. Homomorphic ww individuals: ww ww ww ww
Sex chromosomes are similar. eg. XX
t t .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
a il.ani.ene
33. alHeteromorphic individual: l a il l a il l a il l a il
ss
apdaada Sex chromosomes aas
daadsdissimilar.
aare eg. XY .p.apdaada
sas sas
apdaada apdaada
sas
w .wp. w . wp. p w w w .wp. w .wp. w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
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t t t t t t t t t t
34. aHomogametic
l a il.ani.ene individual: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s
daadsa of gametes, all are s
daadsa same type of sex s s adsa s
.wp.apda Produces only w one.wp.aptype .wp.aphaving aada
.wp.apdchromosome. .wp.apda
w w w w w
ww 35. Heterogametic ww Individual: ww ww ww ww
Produces two types of gametes with different sex chromososme.
36. What et of chromosomali.ncombination
etkind etet etet
is seen in iheterogametic males? i.ni.entet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl alai.n s asl al.ani.n s asl a la s asl ail.ani.n
ada XO type & XY Typeadaada ada ada ada
ww 37. Which animals ww show XX-XO type of w sex
w determination? ww ww ww
Bugs, cockroach & grasshopper
38. When the
t sex of the foetus nis.endetermined? t t t t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ai te l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasDuring fertilization dadsaas sas sas sas
. p.
39.
w apdaada What is the other .wp.apa used for XX-XY type
term .wp . aada
apdof sex determination? .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Lygaeus type
40. Which organisms show XX – XY type of sex determination?
i . n
Drosophila
a i entet and human i.ani.entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l a a l a a l a
ww 41. Which gamete ww determines the maleww sex in human? ww ww ww
Sperm carrying Y Chromosome.
42. In
l a ni.entet organisms the males
il.awhich l a
t t
il.ani.eneare homogameticaland a ntet
il.ani.efemales are heterogametic?
l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
as
adsa Some insects, fishes saas
,adreptiles and birds. papdaadsa s adsaas adsaas
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 43. ww
Types of heterogametic females: ww ww ww ww
ZO-ZZ type & ZW-ZZ type
44. Which eteanimals
t show ZO-ZZ ntype entet of sex determination? etet etet etet
s a l ail.ani.n butterfly & domestic
Moths,
s s asl ail.ai.chicken s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Which animalswshow
45. .wp.apdaXW-ZZ type of sexwdetermination? .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Gypsy moth, fish, reptiles and birds.
46. Sex chromosomaltet combinationt in Gypsy moth:
i . ni e
. n i . ni e
. n et i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
ZW
l a l a (heterogametic) l a l a l a l l a l l a l
sas saas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada 47.What do NRY.wpand .apdaad SRY stand for in Y .w .apdaada
chromosome?
p .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww NRY – Non Combining ww Region of Y chromosome ww ww ww ww
SRY – Sex Determining Region of Y chromosome
t t t t t t t t t t
48.
a
What
l a il.ani.enise barr-body? a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas aada
ss asas sas condensed body of
apdaisadthe adsas
w .wp.apda Barr-body was w first
.wp.apdobserved w w .apdad in a female cat.
by Barr and.pBertram
w .wp.It w .wp.apda sex w
ww chromatin found ww in the nerve cells of wwfemale cat. But absentwin w male cat. ww ww
49. How many functional X chromosomes are found in females in mammals?
One t t
functional X chromosome t other X chromosome
t and t t is inactivated. t t t t
s
50. adsa Lyon’s hypothesis: Barr-bodies asa s represented din s
sinactive chromosome,dawhich s s in females become s
stightly
.wp.apda coiled, condensed pdad
.wp.aand .wp .apaada .wp.apada .wp.apdaada
w w form visible chromatin. w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
51. Which are Hymenopteron insects?
Honey bees, ants and wasps.etet
l a il.ani.entet l .ani.n
aildiploidy? l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
52. saasWhich insects show haplo s as s as s as s as
ad aa ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Hymenopteronw.insects wp.apdad such as honey bees, w .wp.apdaants and wasps. w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 53. w
How is the wsex determined in haplowdiploidy?
w ww ww ww
Fertilized eggs (2n) develop into queen bee and workers
t tet .entet t t
l a il.ani.ente
Unfertilized eggs (n) develop
l a il.ani.eninto Drones (males) l by
a il.aniParthenogenesis l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
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t t t t t t t t t
54. aKin l a i.ente
il.anselection: l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa as as as as
.wp.apda Only one female .apdadis functional in laying
.wp(2n) daadsa on maturity
.wp.apeggs .wp.apda
adsa
.wp.apda
adsa
w w w w w w
ww Other females, ww though diploid, unable wwto lay eggs but they raise ww the eggs laid by queen ww bee. ww
55. Why only one queen bee is fertile and other females are unfertile in honey bees?
Queen t is secreting a hormone
etebee etet that suppressesi.athe t
eteother females beingi.nfertile. etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl al ni.n s asl alai.n s asl ail.ani.n
56. ada Sex linked genes, a a
sexadlinked inheritance: adaada ada ada
ww Genes for somatic ww traits located in Xwand w Y chromosomes are wwcalled sex linked genes. ww ww
Inheritance of such traits is called sex linked inheritance.
57. Whatentare t X - linked and Y - linked t genes? t t t
sasGenes for somatic traits alocated in X chromosome
daadsas sas are called X-linked dgenes.
saas sas
.wp.apdaada Genes for somatic .wp .atraits
p located in Y . p.apdaada are called Y-linked
chromosome
w .wp.apdaagenes or holandric . p.apdaada
genes.
w
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Note: Y – linked genes have no corresponding genes in X chromosome.
58. Which will express only in males?
Y i .ani
–linked entet genes always express
. t t
il.ani.enetheir charactersaonly il.ani.in
t
entemales. It was first discovered
t t
il.ani.ene John Cotto in
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a a l a a l a
w .wp.apda 1803. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 59. How does haemophiliaww occur? ww ww ww ww
Due to the presence of recessive gene in X chromosome. Lack of thromboplastin causes lack of blood
t t t t t t t t t t
a
clot.
l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
60. adsa Which genetic disease s
adsais following criss-cross s
adspattern
a of inheritance? adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Haemophilia ww ww ww ww ww
61. Mention etet two characters that eare

tet inherited by X-linked etinhertitance?
et etet etet
s a l ail.ani.n
Haemophilia
s and colour s asl ail.ani.n
blindness. s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa ada ada ada ada
w .w p.apdad Which genotype
62. w .apdacause
.wpcan colour blind?
ww ww ww ww ww ww
XcXc (Homozygus recessive) in females and XcY in males.
63. Whicht colours could not be distinguished by a colour blind tet person?
. ntet
i . ni e
. n i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
colour
l a l a blind person can’t l a l a
distinguish red and green.
l a l a l a l l a l
sas sas sas adsaas a
daadsas
.64.
wp.apdaada What kind of offspring .wp .apdaadaproduced in F2 generation .wp.apdaada when colour blind .wp.apdaman marries a normal
.wp .apwoman?
w w w ww w w
ww In F2 generation ww normal females (25%) ww normal males(25%) ,wcarrier females(25%) and wwcolour blind ww
males(25%)
tet of offsprings produced t t t
.ani.ente normal man marries t t t t
65.
a
What
l a il.ani.enkind a l a il.ani.ene in F2 generation a l a ilwhen a l a il.ani.enaecolour blind woman? a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas adsas asas asas
w .wp.apda In F2 generationw.carrier wp.apdad females (25%) ,wnormal .wp.apda males (25%) colour w pdad males(25%) and
.wp.ablind w .apdad blind
.wpcolour w
ww males(25%)ww ww ww ww ww
66. Examples for Y-linked characters.
Hypertrichosis t t (Excessive hair t
tgrowth pinna of ear),.nBald t t head etc.. t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ilai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
67. adsa What is Karyotypingda?adsa s s s s s s s
.wp.apda The technique w .wp .ap .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww of separation of complete ww sets of chromosomes ww from the nucleus andww the arrangement ww
of paired chromososmes.
68. Idiogram:
l .entet
ail.anidiagrammatic l
etet
ail.ani.n of chromosomal l ni.entet
ail.apairs. l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
s aThe
s representation
s as s as s as s as
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Who describedwthe
69. .wp.apdaculturing of lymphocytes? w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Tjio and Levan ww (1960) ww ww ww ww
70. Types of chromosomal aberrations:
t t t t t
l a il.ani.ente duplication, translocation
Deletion, l a il.ani.ente and non-disjunctionl a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
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w.w
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w.w.apda
w
tet tet et
i.entcentromere t t t t
71. aThree l a il.ani.entypes of chromosomes a l a il.ani.enbased on the position a l a il.anof in human?
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda Metacentric, sub w .apdad
.wpmetacentric .wp.apda chromosomes. w.wp.apda
and acrocentric
w w .wp.apda w
ww 72. Pedigree analysis: ww ww ww ww ww
It is a family tree. It is a study of traits as they have appeared in a given family line for several
generations.etet etet etet etet etet
s as l ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
73. ada Genetic Disorders:adaada ada ada ada
ww Diseases orwsyndromes w that are caused ww by an abnormality ofwan w individual’s DNA. ww ww
74. Examples of Mendelian disorders:
Thalassemia, t albinism, phenylketonuria, t sickle cell anaemia, t huntinton’s chorea tetc t
75. adsaasWhich disorders are caused sas by autosomal recessive sas genes? sas sas
.wp.apda Thalassemia, phenylketonuria, .wp .apdaada albinism . p
etc.
w .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
76. Which disorder is caused by autosomal dominant genes?
Huntinton’s chorea
77. asChemical i .ani entet composition of normal
. t t
il.ani.ene haemoglobin. alail.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
l a l a l a a l a a l a
adsa asas adsas globulin chains. adaadsas adsas
w .wp.apda Four polypeptile w .apdad – two alpha and
.wpchains w .wp.apdaBeta
two w .wp.p w .wp.apda w
ww 78. Genotype ofww normal haemoglobin HBA ww 1 +HBA2 located in chromosome ww 16 for two alpha ww globulin ww
chains. But one HBB gene is located in Chromosome 11 for two beta globalin chains.
t t t t t t t t t t
79.
a l il.ani.ene aneamia:
Cooley’s
s
adsa Beta thalassemia isadmost s
adsa common thalassemia. s
adsaIt is known as Cooley’s s
adsaaneamia. adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 80. What is a role wwof PAH gene? ww ww ww ww
Gene PAH is a dominant gene located in chromosome 12. It is responsible for the synthesis of an
enzyme etetcalled “Phenylalanine hydroxylase”
t in liver.n.entet etet etet
ail.ani.n is the role of enzyme i.ente
ail.anPhenylalanine ail.ai ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
81.dadsaaslWhat s
ada asl
aas asl
hydroxylase? s
ada asl s
ada asl
w .wp.apa This enzyme converts w .wp.apda Phenylalanine into w .apdad
.wptyrosine. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
82. What is the effect of PAH recessive gene?
PAH recessive tet gene cannot produce tet the enzyme Phenylalanine tet hydroxylase. So, tetPhenylalanine cannot t
be
l a il.ani e
. n
converted into tyrosine. l a il.ani e
. n
Phenylalanine accumulates
l a il.ani e
. n which is converted l a il.ani
into
e
. n Phenylpyruvic acid.
l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.83.
wp.apdaada How melanin is synthesized? .wp .apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w ww w w w
ww ww
3,4 Dihydroxyphenylalanine wTyrosinase ww
Melanin ww ww
84. How albinism is caused?
t t ntet skin colour lacks atyrosinase t t ntet .entet
a l il.ani.enewith recessive alleles
Person
a a l a il.ani.efor a l il.ani.ene enzyme. Lacklaof
a il.ani.e
tyrosinase leads to lack
a l a il.aniof
w .wp.apda melanin pigment. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 85. Symptoms of wwHuntington’s chorea: ww ww ww ww
Involuntary jerking of body, progressive degeneration of nervous system, gradual mental and physical
deterioration. t t t t t t t t t t
s
86. adsa How do chromosomal adsa s
abnormalities occur?daadsa s s s s s
.wp.apda Chromosomal abnormalities .wp.apda .wp .ap .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w occur due w w w w
ww ww ww to failure of segregation ww of chromatids during wwcell division. ww
87. Syndromes:
Group of signs and symptomsetthat occurs together and characteristic chromosomal abnormalities is etet
i . ni.entet i . ni.net i . ni.entet i . ni.entet .ni.n
adsa l a l a
ascalled syndrome. adsaas l a l a
adsaasl a l a
adsaasl a l a
adsaaslaila
w.w p.apda Aneuploidy: w.wp.apda
88. .p.apda .p.apda .p.apda
ww w w w ww w w ww w w ww w ww
w
Gain or loss of one or more chromosomes with normal number is called Aneuploidy.
89. Examples of chromosomal disorders:
Down i et
.ani.entsyndrome, Turner’s i .ani.ente
syndrome,
t
Klinefelter’s .ani.ente
syndrome,
i
t
Patau’s syndrome i
t
.ani.enteetc., i .ani.ente
t
sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l sas l a l
.wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w p
w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
tet tet entet t t t t

90. aWhat l a il.ani.encondition causes aDown l a il.ani.enSyndrome and Patau’sa l a il.ani.syndrome? a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s
daads–aTrisomy adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda Down Syndrome w .wp–.ap21 w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Patau’s Syndrome ww – 13 – Trisomy ww ww ww ww
91. Characters of Down Syndrome:
Mental etetRetardation, defective t
etedevelopment of CNS, etet
increased space between et flattened nose,i.ni.entet
eteyes,
a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n lala
a da
s s
ada malformed ears, constantly a da
s
ada s opened mouthaand da
s s
adaprotruded tongue.adaada s s
a daadsaas
w.wp.p w.wp.p syndrome: w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww 92. Characters w ofwPatau’s ww ww ww ww
Multiple body malformations, mental deficiency, small head with small eyes, cleft pallet, malformed
brainenand t internal organs. n.entet t t t
l a il.ani. te l a il.ai l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
93. adsaasExamples for autosomal a abnormalities: sas sas sas
. p.apda Down Syndrome.wp–.ap21 daadsas . p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
w w w – Trisomy w w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Patau’s Syndrome – 13 – Trisomy
94. Examples for allosomal abnormalities:
i . ni entet
.
Klinefelter’s
a syndrome (XXY .entet and Turner’s lsyndrome
il.animales)
t t
il.ani.ene (X0 females)alail.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a a a a l a
asas adsas combination foraKlinefelter’s adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apdad What is the chromosomal
95. w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda
syndrome? w .wp.apda w
ww Male with 47 wwchromosomes (44AA+XXY) ww ww ww ww
96. Characters of Klinefelter’s syndrome:
t t tet high pitched voice t t t t t t
a l il.ani.enemale, tall, obese,allong
Sterile
a a il.ani.enlimbs, a l a il.ani.eneunder developedagenitalia,
l a il.ani.ene feeble breastsalail.ani.ene
s
adsa development adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww 97. ww
What is gynaecomastia? ww ww ww ww
Feeble developments breasts in males.
98. What etisetthe chromosomal icombination etet for Turner’s syndrome? etet etet etet
s a l ail.ani.n with 45 chromosomes
Females
s s asl al.ani.n (44AA+XO) saslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Characters of Turner’s
99. w .wp.apda syndrome: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Sterile female, low stature, webbed neck, under developed breasts, rudimentary gonads, lack of
menstrual tet cycle etc. t t t t
100. sasWho l i . ni e
. n
ala is the founder of smodern l a il.ani.enteEugenics movement? l a il.ani.ente l ai l.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
as sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Fransis Galton .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww 5 – Molecular Genetics
Chapter ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
1. a l il.ani.ene
Gene:
w .wp.apda Physical basis and w pdad
.wp.afunctional .wp.apda
unit of heredity.
w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 2. Who first explainedww the concept of the ww gene? ww ww ww
Gregor Mendal in 1860. He called a gene as “factor”.
tet t t t t t t t t
3.
a
Who
l a il.ani.encoined the term gene?
s
adsa Danish biologist, Wilhelm s
adsa Johannsen adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww 4. Who introduced ww the classical concept wwof gene? ww ww ww
Classical concept of gene was first introduced by Sutton in 1902.
5. Define eteclassical
t concept of gene: ntet
l ail.ani.n occupy definitesloci l ani.ethe
ail.in l .entet
ail.aniare l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
s
ada aGenes
s adaa s chromosomes s
ada aand
s responsible fors
ada a
expression
s of specific s
ada as
w.wp.apda phenotypic characters. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
6. What is “nuclein”? Who isolated first?
Substances tet from cell nucleus ist called nuclein. It was isolated first by Swiss Physician Friedrich Mieschert t
e n e n et entet e ntet ee
s ain
sl i .an
al1869.i .
s asl i
ala . ni .
s asl i
ala . ni .
s asl i
ala . ni .
s asl ail.ani.n
adaada adaada adaada adaada adaada
w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w w.wp.p w
w S.Nandagopal, M.Sc.,M.Phil.,M.Ed. w w w w ww
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
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a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
tet t t t t t t t t
7. a Who
l a il.ani.enrenamed nuclein as a l il.ani.ene acid?
nucleic
adsa s s
adsa nuclein as nucleicad s s adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda Altman in 1889wrenamed .wp.apda aada
.wp.pacid. .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w w w
ww 8. What are the wwchromosomes made up wwof? ww ww ww
Chromosomes are made up of proteins and DNA.
9. What et Griffidh’s experiment
etdid t
eteprove? etet etet etet
ada Griffidh’s experiment a
adproved that DNA is aagenetic ada material by bacterial ada transfer experiment. ada
ww 10. Who repeated ww Griffidh’s experiment? ww ww ww ww
Oswald Avery, Colin Macleod and Maclyn Mc carty in 1944 repeated Griffidh’s experiment in in-vitro
system. t t t t t
11. adsaasWhich are virulent and anon virulent strains ofadsbacteria aas in Griffidh’s experiment?
sas sas
. p.apda S-strain is virulent . p . daadsas
a(pathogenic)
p . p.apdais non . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
w w w w and R-strain
w w virulent (non w pathogenic)
w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
12. In Griffidh’s experiment, which chemicals taken from S type that are changing R type to S type?
DNA , RNA and proteins of S type changed the R type into S type.
tet entet entet t t t t
13. asRole l a il.ani eof
. n Dnase: a l a il.ani .
a l a il.ani .
w .wp.apda It is an enzymewthat .wp.apdadestroys DNA. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 14. Role of Rnase wwand proteases: ww ww ww ww
Rnase destroys RNA and proteases destroy proteins taken from bacteria.
t t t t t t t t t t
15.
a
Which
l a il.ani.eneis involved in transformation?
s
adsa Only DNA is involved s
adinsatransformation. RNA s
dsa proteins are notpinvolved
aand s
adsa in transformation. adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 16. ww
What is transformation? ww ww ww ww
DNA taken from R strain, when introduced into S strain is able to retain some of the properties of
R strain entetin S strain. This is called t ttransformation. .ni.entet etet etet
lail.ani. experiment finally l il.ani.ene
aproved l aila material? l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
17.dadsaasWhose daada s as that DNA is a
s
ada a
genetic
s s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apa In 1952, Hershey w .wp–.apChase Experiment. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
18. Which were incorporated with 35S and 32P in Hershey – Chase (Blender) Experiment?
35S was incorporated with protein in Capsid and 32P was incorporated with DNA of virus.
etet .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l ail.ani.n
19. sasComposition of Nucleuotide: a l a il sas l a il sas l a il sas l a il
. p.apdaada Nitrogenous base, . p .apdaadsas sugar and a phasphate.
pentose . p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
w w w w ww w w w w w w
ww 20. What is a difference ww in the sugar of w DNA and RNA? ww ww ww
DNA has Deoxyribose sugar and RNA has Ribose sugar.
t t ni.entet atom less than t
.ani.ente sugar. t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene
Deoxyribose sugar has one
a l a il.aoxygen a l a ilRibose a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
asas sas
aadPurines? adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apdad Which are included
21.
w .wp.apdin w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Adenine (A)wand w Guanine (G). They have ww double carbon nitrogen ww ring structures. ww ww
22. Which are included in Pyrimidine?
Thymine t t (T) and Cytosine (C) t t Uracil (U). Uracil is
and t t only in RNA. .ni.entet
found t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila a l a il.ani.ene
s
23. adsa Which is giving aciddaproperty adsa s to nucleic acids? daadsa s s s s s
.wp.apda Phospate functional .wp.ap group (PO4) gives acid .wp.approperty .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w to nucleic w w w
ww ww ww wwacids. ww ww
24. Why DNA and RNA called acids?
Because +
e ntet they release an H .nion or proton in a solution.
.entet etet etet etet
l a il.ani
25. saasWhat are esters?
.
s asl a il a i
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ad ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Bonds that arewformed .wp.apda from phosphates w .wp.apdaesters.
are w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 26. w
What is thewrole of negatively charged wwphosphate? ww ww ww
It ensures the retention of nucleic acids within the cells or nuclear membrane.
t t t t t
sas sas sas sas sas
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
27. aWhat l a il.ani.enise nucleuoside? alail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s sa s adsa s adsa s asa s
.wp.apda A nitrogenous w base aadchemically
.wp.apdis .wp.apdaone molecule of sugar(at
linked with .wp.apda the 1-carbon of the .apdad is
.wpsugar)
w w w w w
ww called nucleuoside. ww Nitrogenous base ww+ sugar = nucleuosideww ww ww
28. What is nucleuotide?
t t tetthe same sugar, nucleoside etet becomes a i.ani.entet
When
l a il.ani.entea phosphate grouplais il i.ente
.anattached to the 5’ carbon
l ail.ani.n
eof
l ail.ani.n lal
s as
ada nucleuotide s
ada as s
ada as s
ada as adsaas
a da a da a da a da a da
w.wp.p Nitrogenouswbase
.p.p
ww w+ sugar + Phasphate w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww ww = nucleuotide ww ww ww
29. What is Phosphodiester bond?
The chemical t bond that linksethe t sugar componentsnof adjacent
t nucleuotidesenistecalled t Phosphodiesterentet
il.ani.ente’ il.ani.nte il.ai.ente il.ani. i.ani.
l a l a l a l a saaslal
’ ’ ’
d adsaasbond. 3 --->5 or 5 ----->3 d adsaas d adsaas d adsaas d ad
w.w p.apa What does thewsymbol
30. .wp.apa 5’refer to? .p.apa .p.apa .p.apa
ww ww w ww w w ww w w ww w ww
w
The symbol 5’ refers to the Carbon in the sugar to which PO4 is attached.
31. What does t the symbol 3’ refer to?
The
l a n .ent
il.aisymbole
3’ refers to the
l a ni.entet in the sugar tolawhich
il.acarbon
t t
il.ani.ene hydroxyl (OH-) a group
l a
t t
il.ani.eniseattached. l a
t t
il.ani.ene
asasa a a a
p.apdad Who proposedwthe
32.
.w daadsas helix model of.pDNA?
.wp.apdouble
asas
.apdad .wp.apda
adsas
.wp.apda
adsas
w w w w w w
ww James Watson ww and Francis Crick in 1953. ww ww ww ww
33. Who made X-ray diffraction analysis of DNA?
t t tet t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene Wilkins and Rosalind
Maurice
a a l a il.ani.enFranklin a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
34. adsa What is the base ppair s
sa by Erwin Chargaff?
adrule adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww A=T(with 2Hwbonds) w ww ww ww ww
GΞC(with 3H bonds) and vice versa.
35. Who efirst
tet independently proposed t t that “RNA world” eastethe
t first stage in thenevolution etet of life? etet
a l ail.ani.nOrgel, Francis Brick a l il.ani.ene
aand a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ai.n a l ail.ani.n
aas sLeslie aas s Carl Woese s
ada s s
ada s s
ada s
w .wp.apdad Who coined the
36. w .wp.apdadRNA World?
term w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Walter Gilbert in 1986.
37. What tis tthe ability of RNA? t t t t t
It
l a il
can
e
.ani.enact as the genetic il
material
l a .ani.ene and catalyst. lail.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.38.
wp.apdaada Which is called template? .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w ww ww w w
ww It is the sequence ww of bases arrangedwin one strand of DNA orwRNA. ww ww
39. Which nucleic acid mutates faster? Why?
RNAa ntet
il.ani.emutates faster thanlaDNA tet RNA is much unstable.
il.ani.enas a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a a l a l a l
asas dsas stable? Why? p.apdaadsas
daamore adsas adsas
w .wp.apdad Which nucleic acid
40.
w .wp.apis w .w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww DNA is more ww stable because any oneww strand (template) can join ww with its complementwmuch w faster and ww
form a double strand. (stable)
41. What tis tthe distance between t consecutive basenpairs
ttwo t t in DNA? t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
s 0.34 nm (0.34x10 m) -9 s s s s s s s s
w w w w w w
ww 42. How do youwcalculate w the total length wwof DNA? ww ww ww
Total length of DNA = Total no.of. base pairs X distance between two consecutive base pairs
43. Genophore: entet etet etet
l ail.ani.of l ail.ani.ncircular and lack schromatin l ail.ani.n organization.sItaslis ni.entet
ail.acalled l ail.ani.n
etet
s asDNA Prokaryotes is salmost
as as genophore. s as
aa aa ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Nucleosome: w.wp.apdad
44. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww Chromatin in wwEukaryotes is formed by wwa series of repeating units ww called Nucleosome.ww ww
45. What is the composition of a nucleosome according to Kornberg?
Two i ntet
.ani.emolecules of four histonei
t
.ani.enteproteins such as Hla2A, i ent2eB,t H3 and H4 organized
.ani.H i et form a unit of 8 i.ni.entet
.ani.entto
l a l l a l l l a l lala
a daadsaasmolecules called histone a daadsaas octamere. a daadsaas a daadsaas a daadsaas
w.wp. p w.wp. p w.wp. p w.wp. p w.wp. p w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t
ntenucleosome t t t t t t t t
46. aHow l a il.ani.eis formed?
adsa s s s adsa s s
asa octamere to form adsa s
.wp.apda Negatively charged aada is wrapped around
.wp.apdDNA .wp.apdathe positively charged pdad
.wp.ahistone .wp.apdaa
w w w w w w
ww structure called ww nucleosome. ww ww ww ww
47. When does replication of DNA take place?
During eteSt – phase of cell cycle. etet etet etet etet
48. ada What is replicationaof a
adDNA? ada ada ada
ww Production w ofwtwo identical copies of wwDNA. ww ww ww
49. Mention the three hypothesis of replication of DNA:
Conservative, t semi conservative t and disruptive replication. t t t
50. adsaasConservative Replication: dsaas dsaas a sas
. p.apda Original double helix . p.apdaaDNA . p.apadaanew . p. daadsas
apDNA . p.apdaada
w w w w is preserved and
w w identical copy wofw is synthesized. w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
51. Disruptive Replication:
OriginaltDNA molecule is brokent into pieces and each piece acts as template to synthesize
i . ni ente
.
complimentary
a fragments. i .ani ente
. i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l a l a l a a l a
w .wp.apdad Semi conservative
52. w pdad
.wp.aReplication: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Two strandswof w DNA unwind and start wwseparating at one end.ww The separated single strand ww acts as ww
template for the synthesis of corresponding complimentary strand.
tet t t t t t t t t
53.
a
Who
l a il.ani.enproposed Semi conservative
a l a il.ani.ene type of Replication? a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa Watson and Crick in adsa
1953.s adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww 54. Name the technique ww to differentiatewheavy w DNA and light DNA: ww ww ww
Cesium Chloride (CsCl) Density Gradient Centrifugation.
55. Which enteist called Kornberg enzyme? etet etet etet etet
s a l
DNA
s ail.ani.polymerase – I is s a l
known
s ail.ani.nas Kornberg enzyme. s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa daada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad What is the role
56. w .wp.apDNA
of polymerase – II?
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Enzyme DNA polymerase – II is involved in DNA repair mechanism.
57. How many tet enzymes of DNA.nithat tet can catalyse DNA .polymerization?
5l a il.a
typesni e
. n of DNA polymerases. l a il a e
. n
l a il ani.entet l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
sas a
daadsas enzyme? sas sas sas
.58.
wp.apdaada What is the role .w of
p.aprepair .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w ww ww w
ww During replication ww of DNA, if any error wwoccurs (mutation) thewrepair enzyme correctswthe error. ww
59. Which enzyme is responsible for unwinding of DNA strands?
DNAa ntet
il.ani.ehelicase a il.ani.ene
t t
a il.ani.ene
t t
a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l
asas adsas adsas asas asas
w .wp.apdad What is leadingwstrand?
60. .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w
ww One strand,wthat w is a template strand wwwith polarity 3’------>5w wcalled leading strand w
’ is w
because the ww
replication is continuous here.
61. Lagging t tstrand: t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.en’ e a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa The other strand, that adsa s
is coding strand with dpolarity adsa s ’
5 ------> 3 is called s
adsalagging strand as the adsa s
replication
w .wp.apda is discontinuous. w .wp.apda w .wp.apa w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
62. Okazaki Fragments:
Discontinuously synthesized efragments of lagging strand are called Okazaki fragments . These
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.ntet l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l ail.ani.n
etet
s afragments
s are joined by
s aDNA
s ligase. s as s as s as
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Role of DNA polymerase:
ww Complimentary ww nucleotides are paired ww with existing nucleotides ww on the parent strand wwand are ww
covalently bonded together by an enzyme DNA polymerase.
t t t t t
sas sas sas sas sas
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
64. aReplication
l a il.ani.ene fork: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s s
adsa like helicase and top adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda At the point ofworigin .wp.apda of replication, thewenzymes .wp.apda w .wp.apda isomerases (DNAwGyrase) .wp.apda unwind w
ww and pull apart wwthe strands forming awYwshaped structure called wwreplication Fork. ww ww
65. Transcription:
Copying etet genetic information tet one strand of DNA
efrom tet RNA is called transcription.
einto etet etet
a
DNAad------> RNA ada ada ada ada
ww 66. Reverse Transcription:
ww ww ww ww ww
In Retroviruses(HIV), the flow of information is reverse from RNA to DNA.
67. Translation: t t t t t
sasGenetic information isstransferred as from RNA ato saprotein
s synthesis. adsaas sas
. p.
68.
w apdaada Role of mRNA: .wp.apdaada .wp .apdada .wp .apda .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It carries genetic information encoding a protein from DNA (gene) to tRNA of the cells cytoplasm.
69. Three regions of transcriptional tunit in DNA:
i .
Promoter,
ani entet Structural gene iand
. .ani.entetTrminator t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad TATA Box (Goldberg
70. w .wp.apda– Hogness Box) w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww In Eukaryotes, ww the promoter has A-Twrich w regions. These regions ww are called TATA Box.ww ww
71 Pribnow Box:
t tet A-T rich regions. These t t ni.entet Box. t t
l .ani.ente
Inailprokaryotes, the promoter
l a il.ani.enhas l a il.ani.ene regions are called l a il.aPribnow l a il.ani.ene
as
72. adsa Template strand:papdaadsa as adsaas adsaas adsaas
w .wp.apda w .w. ’ ’ w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Strand thatwhas w the polarity 3 ---->5 wiswtemplate strand ww ww ww
73. Coding strand:
Thenstrand t that has the polarity t5’------>3’ is coding strand. etet etet etet
l a il.ai.ente l a il.ani.ente l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
74:dadsaasMonocistronic mRNA: s
ada as aas as aas as s
ada as
w .wp.apa In Eucaryotes, w .wp.apdamRNA carries a single
each w pdad that is encoding
.wp.agene w .wp.apdad
information for only a .wp.apda protein.
single
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It is called monocistronic mRNA.
75. Polycistronic tet mRNA: t t t t
In
l a il.ani e
. n
prokaryotes, clusters of
l a il.ani.ente genes (Operon)
related l a il.ani.ente found next to each
often l a il i.ente in the chromosome
.another l a il.ani.ente
sas adsaas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada and are transcribed .wp.apdatogether to give one .w .apdaada It is called Polycistronic
mRNA.
p .wp .apdaada mRNA .wp.apdaada
w ww ww w w w
ww 76. Two majorwcomponents of bacterialwRNA Polymerase: ww ww ww
Core enzyme (β1,β and alpha) and Sigma sub units.
tetcore enzyme and Sigma t t t t t t t t
77.
a
Uses
l a il.ani.enof a l a il.ani.ene sub unit: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas 1,β and asas asas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda Core Enzyme (βw.w p.apdad alpha) is for RNA w .wp.apdad
synthesis.
ww Sigma sub unit ww is for recognition of w w
promoter. ww ww ww
78. Three major types of RNAs:
mRNA, t
t tRNA and rRNA. .ni.entet t t t t t t
s
79. adsa Functions of three types s
asa of RNAs: adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda mRNA – provides w .apdadtemplate
.wpthe w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
tRNA – brings aminoacid and reads the genetic code
rRNAe–teplays structural and catalytic role during translation.
l a il.ani.n t l a il.ani.entet l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
80. saasExons (Expressed sequences) s as s as s as s as
a ada aa aa aa
w p.apdad Eucaryotes, thewmonocistronic
In
.w .wp.apda structuralw .apdad have interrupted
.wpgenes w .apdad sequences called
.wpcoding w .apdad
.wpExons. w
ww 81. Introns (Intervening ww Sequences) w
w ww ww ww
In Eucaryotes, the non coding sequences are called introns.
t t .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
82. aSplicing:
l a il.ani.ene l a il l a il l a il l a il
ss saas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Process of removal .wp. aadintrons
apdof is called Splicing.
.wp .apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t
.ani.ente and Tailing? lail.ani.ente
t t t t t
83. aWhat l a il.ani.enise happening during a l a ilCapping a a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s s adsa s adsa s daadsa s
.wp.apda Unusual nucleotide aada as Methyl guanosine
.wp.apdsuch .wp.apda triphosphate is added .wp.apdaat the 5 end whereas
’
.wp.apadenylate
w w w w w w
ww residues (Poly ww– A) are added at thew3w’ end in tailing. ww ww ww
84. Stop codon:
Out ete64
of t Codons, 61 codons tet for aminoacids but
ecode et remaining three icodons
etthe etet are not code fori.aany etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl al.ani.n s asl al ni.n
ada aminoacids. Theseathree ada codons are functioning ada as stop codon (Termination) ada ada
ww 85. Triplet Codon: ww ww ww ww ww
mRNA with three nitrogenous bases is called triplet codon.
86. Use of mRNA
t – UUU: t t t t
sasmRNA – UUU codon codes
sas for phenylalanine in
sasall cells of all organisms. sas sas
. p.
87.
w apdaada Non-overlapping.wpCodon: .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It means that the same letter is not used for two different codons. Eg, GUU & GUC represent as two
separatet codons.
t t t t t t t t t
88. asDegenerate
l a il.ani.ene code: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa ss asas as
daadsGUU, asas
.wp.apda It means that more aada one triplet could.pcode
.wp.apdthan .apdad for one amino acid. .wp.apEg GUC, GUA w .apdadcode for
&.wpGUG
w w w w w w
ww valine. ww ww ww ww ww
89. Non-ambiguous codon:
t t .entet amino acid. t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene that one codon
Itameans
a l
for
a il.anione a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
90. adsa Stop or Non-sense adsa
codons:s adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww UAA, UAG are wwmeant for tyrosine and wwUGA for tryptophan are wwknown as terminationwor w stop codon. ww
91. Mutation:
Anynsudden etet change in a gene eand
tet corresponding alteration etet in amino acid sequence etet of a specific i.ani.entet
a l ail.ai.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n lal
a da
s
ada protein.
s
a da
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a daadsaas
w.w p.p
92. What are thewfour p
w.wp.polypeptide chainswofw.w p.p
haemoglobin w.wp.p
molecule? w.wp.p w
ww w w ww ww ww
Two alpha chains and two Beta chains.
93. Give an tetexample for substitution tet gene mutation: .ni.entet t t
i
Sickle
l a l.ani e
.ncell anaemia where l a il.
theani e
. nsixth codon of Beta l a il a
globulin gene – GAG is l il.ani.ente
substituted
a by GTG. l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.94.
wp.apdaada Which is adapter.wpmolecule? .apdaada Why? .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada
w w w ww w w
ww tRNA is called wwadapter molecule because ww it picks up suitablewamino acid and also reads ww specific mRNA. ww
95. Which looks like clover leaf?
t t t t t t t t t t
a
tRNA
l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
asas daadsas of tRNA? .p.apdaadsa
s adsas adsas
w .wp.apdad What is the actual
96.
w .wp.apstructure w w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Inverted L ww ww ww ww ww
97. Mention the arms of tRNA :
D loop t –t DHU arm, T loop –.nT(chi)C, t t anti codon loop.ni–.enAminoxyl t t binding loop, t t
Ribosomal binding loop /t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a ilai.ene a l a ila e a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
s amino acid acceptordaend s
s and variable loop or s s
extra arm. s s s s
.wp.apdaada .wp.apada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 98. Aminoacylation ww / charging: ww ww ww ww
The process of addition of amino acid to tRNA is called Aminoacylation and the resultant product is
Aminoacyl – tRNA (Charged tRNA )
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
99. saasUncharged tRNA: s as s as s as s as
ad ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda tRNA without w .wp.apda ACID.
AMINO w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 100. Enzyme responsible ww for Aminoacylation: ww ww ww ww
Aminoacylation is catalyzed by aminoacyl – tRNA synthetase.
t t t t .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
101. aWhat l a il.ani.enise translation? alail.ani.ene l a il l a il l a il
ss ss sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada It refers to the process .wp.apdaadaof polymerization.wpof . aada acids to form .polypeptide
apdamino wp.apdaada chains. .wp .apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
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w.w.apda
w
t t i.ente
t t t t t t t
102. aCellular
l a il.ani.ene Factory for protein a l a il.ansynthesis: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda Ribosomes w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 103: Components ww of ribosomes: ww ww ww ww
Ribosomes consist of structural RNAs and 80 different types of proteins.
104. Composition etet of prokaryotic etet
ribosome: etet etet etet
ada Ribosome (70s) consists ada of a large sub unita50s adaand a smaller sub unit a
ad30s. ada
ww 105. Composition ww of Eukaryotic ribosome: ww ww ww ww
Ribosome (80s) consists of a large sub unit 60s and smaller sub unit 40s.
106. Whatentdoes t S stand for with nreference t to ribosome? entet t t
l a il.ani. e l a il.ai.ente l a il.ani. l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas“S” denotes the sedimentation sas coefficient which sasis expressed as Svedberg sas unit. sas
. p.apdaada What is reading frame?
107.
w .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It is one of the ways of dividing up a sequence of bases in DNA or RNA.
108. Open reading frame: [ORF]
Any i .an i entet
.
sequence of DNA or RNA
tet
il.ani.enthat begins with a short
tet
il.ani.encodon and which can il.anbe
t
i.entetranslated into protein t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a a l a a l a a l a
w .wp.apda is called open reading w .wp.apda frame. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 109. What is translational ww unit in mRNA?ww ww ww ww
A translational unit of mRNA that is flanked by start codon (AUG) and a stop codon that codes for
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene
polypeptides.
s
110.adsa Untranslated regions: s
ads(UTR)
a adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww mRNA has w w additional sequences
some ww that are not translated. ww They are called untranslated ww regions. ww
111. What is S-D sequence (Shine – Dalgarno Sequence)?
5’ end eteoft mRNA of prokaryotes etehas
t a special sequence etwhich
et proceeds the initial etet AUG start codon of etet
s a l ail.ani.n This ribosome sbinding
mRNA.
s asl ail.ani.nsite is called S-Dssequence. asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Initiation Complex:
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Assemblage of ribosomal sub units, mRNA and tRNA together represent initiation complex.
113. Operon: t tet t t t
il
Cluster
l a .ani.enteof genes with related l a il.ani.enfunctions is called il
Operon.
l a .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Structure of Operon:
114. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w ww w w w w
ww It is a unit ofwgene expression and regulation. ww It consists of one ww or more structural genes ww and an ww
adjacent operator gene that controls transcription.
t t t t t t t t t t
115. What
a l a il.ani.enise Lac Operon? alail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda Cluster of genes w .wp.apdad
responsible for the metabolism
w .wp.apda of lactose in E.coli. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 116. Three enzymes ww needed for lactose w w
metabolism in Lac Operon: ww ww ww
a. Permease b. Beta - Galactosidase[B.Gal] c. Transacetylase
117. Functions te t of three enzymes t
needed
e t for lactose metabolism: t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.en a l a il.ani.en a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa a. Permease – For athe s
adsentry
a of lactose into the s
scell. s s s s
.wp.apda b. Beta - Galactosidase[B.Gal] .wp.pda .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w
– Hydrolysis of lactose into glucose w w w
ww ww ww ww and galactose. ww ww
c. Transacetylase – transfers acetyl group from acetyl Co – A to Beta - Galactosidase.
118. Whatetare the components ofeLac Operon?
l a il.ani.net l a il.ani.ntet l
etet
ail.ani.nsites (p) and operator l
t
i.ente (o). Also containslail.ani.ente
ail.ansite
t
s aOne
s regulator gene (i –
s aGene)
s as inhibitor, promotion
s as s as s as
ada aa ada ada ada
w .wp.apda three structural w .wp.apdad such as Lac – z, w
genes Lac.wp.a–pday and Lac – a genes. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 119. Functions ofwLac w
genes: ww ww ww ww
Lac – z gene codes for Beta - Galactosidase
t t t t t
Lac
l a il.an–i.enytegene codes for permease l a il.ani.ente and l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas as
daadsaTransacetylase sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Lac - a gene codes .wp.apfor .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
tet ntet Operon? t t t t t t

120. aWho l a il.ani.enproposed the model a l a il.ani.eLac
of a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda Jacob and Monod w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 121. How many base ww pairs (bp) are foundwin w HGP? ww ww ww
3X109 bp
122. Microsatellite: etet etet etet etet etet
ada The genetic and physical ada maps on the genome adaare assigned using information ada on polymorphism ada of
ww restriction endonuclease
ww recognition wwsite and some repetitive wwDNA sequences are together ww called ww
Microsatellite.
123. Whatentisetshot gun sequencing?entet t t t
sasIt is the latest method sof
as sequencing even longer
daadsas
a fragments of DNA using sas super computers. dadsaas
apdaada How many nitrogenous apdaadabases are there in aan
p apdaada aa
w . p.
124.
w w .wp . w .wp. average gene? w .wp. w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
3000 bases
125. Which ist the largest human gene? Why?
i . ni ente
. i . ni . et
entcontaining .entet
il.anibases.
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a Dystrophin
l a l a is the largest a lgene
a l a 2.4 Million
a l a a l a a l a
asas adsas daadsasdensity? adsas adsas
w .wp.apdad Which chromosome
126. w .wp.apdaof human has highest w .wp.ap
gene w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Chromosome ww19 ww ww ww ww
127. Which chromosome of human has lowest gene density?
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene
Chromosome
a 13 and Y chromosome
s
128.adsa How many genespare sa s
adfound in human genone? adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww May be about ww35000 to 40000 genes. ww ww ww ww
129. How many nucleotides are exactly same in all people?
Almost ente99.9
t nucleotide bases are
t same in all the people. entet etet etet
l ail.ani.many l i.ente
ail.anin l l.ani.Y?
aiin l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
130. s
ada asHow genes are s a
found
s chromosome 1 and
s as s as s as
.wp.apda Chromosome 1whas aada
.wp.apd2968 .wp.apda
ada
.wp.apda
ada
.wp.apda
ada
w genes and Chromosome
w Y has 231 genes.
w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
131. Expansion for SNPs – Pronounce as ‘snips’
Singletnucleotide polymorphisms
i . ni e
. n et i ni.entet technique? lail.ani.entet
.aprints i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
132. sasWho l ala first developed finger sas l a l saas sas l a l sas l a l
.wp.apdaada Finger print technique .wp apdaadawas first developed
. .wp. daadAlec
apby Jeffreys in 1985.
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w ww w w w w
ww 133. What awardwhe receives? ww ww ww ww
Royal society’s Copley Medal in 2014.
tet have same finger.nprints? t t t t t t t t
134. lWho
a a il.ani.enwill a l a ilai.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda Identical twinsw.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 135. What does w w stand for? What does
VNTR ww it mean? ww ww ww
VNTR stands for Variable Number Tandem Repeats.
In DNA t
t finger printing, short t t
repetitive nucleotide sequences t t are specific for t
a tperson. These t t
s
s nucleotide sequences s
sare called VNTR. s s s s s s
.wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 136. What are bulk ww DNA? ww ww ww ww
In the Genone of human, there are two divisions. In some small specific regions in DNA, the sequences
are repeated many times. Such repeated sequences eare called repetitive DNA and the remaining bulketet
i . ni.entet i . ni.entet i . ni.ntet i . ni.entet .ni.n
adsa l a l a
asDNA sequences are called ad sa l a l a
as bulk DNA ad saasl a l a
adsaasl a l a
adsaaslaila
w.w p.apda What is satellite
137. p.apda
.DNA? .p.apda .p.apda .p.apda
ww w ww w w ww w w ww w w ww w ww
w
In the Genome of human, the bulk DNA forms major peak and other small peaks are called satellite
DNA.
t t ni.entet .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
138. aApplications
l a il.ani.ene of DNA finger l a il.aprints: l a il l a il l a il
ss saas aas
adsConservation sas dsaas
.wp.apdaada a. Forensic analysis .wp apdaadb.
. Pedigree analysis .wp.apdac. of wild
.wp. aada d. Anthropological
apdlife .wp.apdaastudies
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
139. aUses l a il.ani.enofe forensic analysis: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s asa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda Identifying thewperson .wp.apda involved in criminal w pdad
.wp.aactivities, .wp.apda and maternal disputes
settling paternal
w w .wp.apdaand for w
ww migration ww ww ww ww ww
140. What is pedigree analysis?
Patterns etet of inheritance of genes etet through generation etet generation to detect
after t inherited diseases.
etethe etet
141.ada Uses of DNA fingerprinting ada in Anthropological a
adstudies: ada ada
ww Determiningww the origin and migration wwof human population w and
w genetic diversities. ww ww
t t Chapter 6 – Evolution t t t
1. adsaasThree kinds of evolution a of mankind: sas sas sas
. p.apda Chemical, organic . p. daadsas
aand
p . p.apdaada . p.apdaada . p.apdaada
w w w w social / cultural evolutions.
w w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
2. What is the age of solar system and the earth according to radiometric dating of meteorites?
Around t4.5 to 4.6 Billion years t
te t t t t t t t
3. a State
l a il.ani.enspecial creation theory:
adsas sas
acreated adsas asas adsas
w .wp.apda It states that life w p.apdad
.wwas by super w .wp.apda power referred as
natural w .apdad
God.
.wp w .wp.apda w
ww 4. What is abiogenesis? ww ww ww ww ww
It is also called the theory of spontaneous generation. According to this theory , living organisms
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene from nonliving
originated
a a l a il.ani.ene
materials.
s
5. adsa Who coined the term sa s
adabiogenesis? adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww Thomas Huxley ww ww ww ww ww
6. State Biogenesis:
Biogenesis entet states that life arose etetfrom the preexisting elife.
tet etet etet
lail.ani. eras of earth’s history:
7. dadsaasThree s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apa Paleozoic, Mesozoic w .wp.apdaand Coenozoic (recent) w .wp.apdaeras. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
8. Characteristics of Paleozoic era:
Chracterized tet by abundance of tfossils of marine invertebrates, marine and terrestrial vertebrates exceptt t
en e n et e ntet e ntet ee
s asl i . ni .
ala and mammals. saslala
birds i . ni .
s asl i
ala . ni .
s asl i
ala . ni .
s asl ail.ani.n
aa adaada adaada adaada adaada
w.w p.apdad 7 periods of Paleozoic
9. w.wp.p era and inhabitants w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
w w w w w w ww
Period w w Inhabitants w w
Cambrian Age of invertebrates
te t te t t t t t t t
a l a n
Ordovician
il.ai. e n
a l a n
il.ai. e n Fresh waterlafishes,
a il.ani.ene Ostracoderms, aMolluscans
l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas sas
aadfish adsas adsas
w .wp.apda Silurian w .wp.apda Origin
w .wp.apdof w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Devonian ww w of fishes
wAge ww ww ww
Pennsylvanian Earliest reptiles
Mississippians te t te t Earliest amphibians, t t Echynoderms .ni.entet t t
a l a il.ani.en a l a il.ani.en a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila a l a il.ani.ene
s
s Permian s s Mammals s
s like reptiles s s s s
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 10. Which is called ww the golden age of reptiles? ww ww ww ww
Mesozoic era (Dominance of the reptiles on the earth)
11. Periods of Mesozoic era and einhabitants:
l a il.ani.entet l ail.ani.n
tet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
s as Period s as Inhabitants s as s as s as
ada ada daada ada ada
w .wp.apda Triassic w .wp.apda Origin of .wp.aplaying
egg
w mammals w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Jurassic w
w ww domination, fossils w
Dinosaurs
w
of Archaeopteryx ww ww
Cretaceous Extinction toothed birds, dinosaurs and emergence of modern birds.
. ni e
. ntet . ni e
. ntet .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
l a il a l a il a l a il l a il l a il
sas as
daadsaof sas sas sas
.12.
wp.apdaada Which is called the .wp.apage mammals? .p.apdaada
w .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene era (recent) alail.ani.ene
Coenozoic
asa s adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apdad Periods of Coenozoic
13.
w .wp.apda era and inhabitants: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Period ww w
wInhabitants ww ww ww
Tertiary abundance of mammalian fauna
Quartenary e te t e tet
Decline of mammals iand t
eteemergence of human tet life
esocial etet
s as l ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl al.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
14. ada Uses of relative dating: ada ada ada ada
ww It is used towdeterminew a fossil’s agewby w comparing it to similar wwrocks with fossils of known ww age. ww
15. Uses of absolute dating:
It is used t to determine the precise t age of fossils by using t radiometric datingnto measure
t the decay of entet
il.ani.ente il.ani.ente il.ani.ente il.ai.ente i.ani.
d ad
l a
saasisotopes. d adsaasl a
d adsaasl a
d adsaasl a
d adsaaslal
w.w p.apa What palaeontology?
16. w.wp.p
aa
w.wp.p
aa
w.wp.p
aa
w.wp.p
aa
w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Study of pre-historic life through fossils of various strata of earth.
17. What is tfossilization?
a
t
il.ani.ene by which plantsaand
Process a il.ani.entet
animals remains are il.ani.ene
preserved
a
t t
in the sedimentary a
t t
il.ani.enerocks. a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l l a l a l a l
w .wp.apdad Actual remains:w.wp.apdad
ww Original hard wwparts such as bones, teeth, ww shell etc., are preserved ww as such in the earth wwand covered by ww
sedimentation in the deep sea.
t t t t t t t t t t
19.
a l il.ani.ene
Petrifaction:
s
adsa Original chemical molecules adsa s are disintegrated s
adsand
a are replaced by asurrounding adsa s minerals. papdaadsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w.w. w
ww 20. Principal minerals ww involved in Petrifaction: ww ww ww ww
Iron, Pyrates, Silicon, Calcium Carbonate and bi-carbonates of calcium and Magnesium.
21. Natural etetmoulds: t etet t t etet
l ail.ani.nthe disintegration l .ani.ente
ailthe l ail.ani.n impressions in the l il.ani.ene
asoft l ail.ani.n
s
ada asAfter s aof
s body, the animals s as leave s as mud which later s as
.wp.apda becomes hardened aada
.wp.apdinto
ada
.wp.apda in the rocks are .wcalled
aa
p.apdad moulds. .wp.apda
ada
w w stone. Such impressions
w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
22. Natural Casts:
The cavities tet of the moulds mayt get filled up by hard minerals and get fossilized.
i . ni e
.n i . ni e
. n et i . ni e
. ntet
i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
23. sasWhich l ala are all giving evidence sas l a l a for evolution in sas l a l
comparative a anatomy? sas l a l sas l a l
.wp.apdaada Homologous, analogous, .wp.apdaada vestigial organs,.wpconnecting .apdaada links and .w .apdaadaorgans.
atavistic
p .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 24. What are homologous ww organs? ww ww ww ww
Organs having similar basic structure and different in functions.
t t t t t t t t t t
25.
a l il.ani.ene of homologous
Examples
a a l a il.ani.ene
organs:
w .wp.apda Four limbs of vertebrate w .wp.apda animals w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 26. What are analogous ww organs? ww ww ww ww
Organs having different structural pattern but similar function.
27. Examples t t of analogous organs: t t t t t t t t
s
s Wings of insects anddabirds s s s s s s s s
.wp.apdaada .wp.apada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 28. What are vestigial ww organs? ww ww ww ww
Organs that are of no use to the possessor and are not necessary for existence. Examples: Vermiform
appendix, coccyx, wisdom teeth, body hairs, nictitating membrane, Mammaeein males etc.
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.ntet l ail.ani.n
etet
29. saasConnecting Link: s as s as s as s as
ad aa daada ada ada
w .wp.apda Organisms which w .apdad the characters
.wppossess w .wp.aptwo
of different groups.
ww 30. Examples for wwconnecting links: ww ww ww ww
Perpatus – Link between Annelida & Arthropoda
t tet t t t
l a il.ani.ente
Archaepteryx – Link between
l a il.ani.enreptiles and birds l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas a
daadsas sas sas sas
.31.
wp.apdaada What are atavistic .wp.aorgans?
p .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t i.ente
t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene appearance of vestigial
Sudden
a a l a il.ani.eneorgans in advanced a l a il.anorganisms. Example:alpresencea il.ani.ene of tail in human a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda baby. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 32. What was the wwcontribution of Ernst w w Haeckel?
Von ww ww ww
He propounded that bio genetic law or theory of recapitulation.
33. What etisetOntogeny? etet etet etet etet
ada Life history of an individual. ada (Embryonic development) ada ada ada
ww 34. What is Phylogeny? ww ww ww ww ww
It is the evolutionary history of the race.
35. Whoenwrote t “Philosophie Zoologique”? t t t t
sasJean Babtiste de Lamarck sas wrote “Philosophie Zoologique”
sas in 1809. adsaas sas
. p.
36.
w apdaada Two principles of.wpLamarckian .apdaada theory: .wp.apdaada .wp.apda .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Theory of use and disuse organs.
Theory of inheritance of acquired characters.
tet entet of Acquired characters? t t t t t t
37. asWho l a il.ani endisproved
. Lamarcks a l a il.an
theoryi .
adsa sas
daadan adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda August Weismann w .wp.ap
by experiment onwmice. .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 38. Who are allwNeo w – Lamarckists? ww ww ww ww
Cope, Osborn, Packard and Spencer
tet the book written.nby t t t t t t t t
39.
a
What
l a il.ani.enwas a l a ilai.eneCharles Darwin?alail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa The Origin of Species s
sa natural selection. dadsa
adby s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apa w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 40. What for the wworganisms struggle? ww ww ww ww
Organisms struggle for food, space and mate.
41. `Three eteways
t of struggle according etet to Darwin? etet etet etet
s as l ail.ani.n
Intraspecific – Struggle s a l ail.ani.n the members ofsasame
among
s sl ail.ani.n species. s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Interspecific – w .wp.apda among the members
struggle w .wp.apdaof different species. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Struggle with environmental factors such as climatic variation, flood, earthquake, drought etc.
42. What tis tover specialization? t t
Over
a il
e
.ani.engrowth of some organsa il nesome animals. ail.ani.entet
.ani.ein a il.ani.ente
t
a il.ani.ente
t
sas l sas l sas l sas l sas l
.43.
wp.apdaada Examples of overspecialization.
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w ww w w w w
ww Large tusks wof extinct mammoths, antlers ww of extinct Irish deer. ww ww ww
44. Mutation theory was put forth by ____
tet Vries t t t t t t t t
a
Hugo
l a il.ani.ende a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad De Vries experimental
46.
w .wp.apda plant was ____ w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Evening Prime ww rose plant (Oenothera wwlamarckiana) ww ww ww
47. Who proposed Modern synthetic theory?
Sewall t
t Wright, Fisher, Mayer, t t
Huxley, Dobzansky, Simpson t t and Haeckel. .ni.entet t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila a l a il.ani.ene
s
48. adsa How does genetic recombination adsa s occur? daadsa s daadsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda Genetic recombination w .wp.apda occurs due to crossing w .wp.ap over of genes during w .wp.apmeiosis. w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
49. Adaptive radiation.
Newespecies diverged from single ancestral form, becomes adapted to a newly invaded habitats is etet
i . ni.ntet i . ni.entet i . ni.entet i . ni.entet .ni.n
adsa l a l a
ascalled adaptive radiation. adsaasl a l a
adsaasl a l a
adsaasl a l a
adsaaslaila
w.w p.apda What is micro evolution?
50. .p.apda .p.apda .p.apda .p.apda
ww w ww w w ww w w ww w w ww w ww
w
It is the evolution in small scale. It refers to the changes in allele frequencies in a population.
51. Factors causing changes in allele frequencies.
t t t t t
Natural
l a il.ani.ente selection, geneticladrift, il.ani.entemutation, and gene l a il i.ente
.anflow. l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.52.
wp.apdaada Selection that is .w .apdaada in stable environment
operated
p .wp.apdaada is called ____ .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene selection
Stabilized
asa s s s s
adsa to _____ adsa s adsa s
p.apdad Gradual changes
53.
.w aadaenvironment is subjected
.wpin.apdthe .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww Directional w w
selection. ww ww ww ww
54. In which selection, the extreme phenotypes are selected and average phenotype are eliminated?
Disruptive etet selection or Centrifugal etet selection. etet etet etet
55. ada Gene flow: ada ada ada ada
ww Movement w ofwgenes through gametes wwor movement of individuals ww in and out of a population ww is referred ww
to as gene flow.
56. Genetic tdrift: t t t t
sasIt is a mechanism ofdevolution sas in which alleleafrequencies
sas of a population sas change over generation sas due
.wp.apdaada to chance. .wp .apaada .wp.apdada . wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
57. Random Mating:
Every organism gets a chance tot mate with any organismt in the same species without any preference t
tet ente ente entet t
afor
l a il.an
ai en
. particular genotype. a l a il.ani .
a l a il.ani .
a l a il.ani .
a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad Who were pre-historic
58. w .wp.apda men? w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Ramapithecous ww and Sivapithecous ww ww ww ww
59. Who walked like gorillas and chimpanzees respectively?
t t t t were hairy and .walked t t .ani.ente
t t t
a l a il.ani.ene
Dryopithecous and Ramapithecous
a l a il.ani.ene a l a ilani.ene like gorillas and a l a ilchimpanzees respectively.
a l a il.ani.ene
s
60. adsa Who were considered adsa s
as Australian Apespman? adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Australopithecous ww lived in East African ww grassland were calledwApe w man who lived 5 million ww years ago. ww
61. Characters of Ape man:
He was entetabout 1.5 meters tall with
t t bipedal locomotion, eteomnivorous,
t semi erect eteand
t lived in caves. n.entet
lail.ani. l il.ani.ene
aof l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n aslaila
.i
62.dadsaasDistinguishing characters adsaas ape man: adsaas adsaas adsa
w.wp.p
aa
Low forehead, .wp.apdaridges over the eyes,
Brow
w .apda
w.wpprotruding face, lack .apda low brain capacity,
wof.wpchin,
apda
w.wp.human-like w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
dentition, lumbar curve in vertebral column.
63. Distinguising tet characters of Homo tet habilis:
Brain
a il.ani e
. ncapacity was 650 – i
800
a l.ani e
. n
cc, vegetarian , bipedala il ntet
.ani.elocomotion and used a iltools
t
.ani.ente made of chippedlail.ani.ente
t
sas l sas l sas l sas l sas
.wp.apdaada stones. .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 64. Distinguishing wwfeatures of Homo Erectus ww ww ww ww
Looked like human, flattened and thicker skull, large brain capacity of around 900cc and meat eaters.
t t t t t t t t t t
65.
a l il.ani.ene
Distinguishing
a a il.ani.ene
features oflaNeanderthal:
adsas ss
aada in Neander valley, adsas asas asas , flat
w .wp.apda Neanderthals were w .wp.apdfound w .wp.apdaGermany. Brain size w .apdad 1400cc, semi erect
.wpwas w .apdad
.wpposture w
ww cranium, sloping ww forehead, thin large wworbits, hairy brow ridges, ww protruding jaws and w now chin. ww
66. Life of Neanderthals:
Used t t
animal hides for protection, t t used fire and buried t
t dead bodies. t t t t
s
67. adsa Who were the ancestors s
asa of modern Europeans? adsa s asa s s s
.wp.apda Cro-Magnon was .apdadof the forms of modern
.wpone .wp.apda human found in the pdad
.wp.arocks .wp.apdaada
w w w w of Cro-Magnon, w w
ww ww ww ww ww France and he ww
is considered as the ancestors of modern Europeans.
68. Culture of Cro-Magnon:
a il ntet
.ani.ewere entet
ail.ani.environments,
etet
ail.ani.nfor cave paintings,sfigures
etet
ail.ani.non floors and walls. ail.ani.n
etet
s asl
They adopted for various s asl well-known
s asl a sl s asl
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Characters of Homo
69. w .wp.apdasapiens: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww Arose in Africa ww 25000 years ago, moved ww to various continents wwas different races, brain wwcapacity is ww
1300 – 1600 cc, started agriculture and domesticated animals.
t tetadaptive radiation?.ni.entet t t
70. Which
l a i
l .ani.enteare the best examples
l ail.ani.enof l a i
l a l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada Darwin’s finches.wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t tet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene Chapter
a l a il.ani.ene 7 – Human Health a l a il.ani.enand Diseases a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .w p.apdad Define health according
1. w .wp.apda to WHO: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww A State of complete ww physical, mental wwand social well being. w
w ww ww
2. Role of good health:
etet i.ente
t entet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n the longevitysaand
Increases
sl ail.anreduces infant and adult
s asl ail.ani.mortality. s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
3. ada Important factorsp.to da
amaintain good health: ada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wapda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Personal hygiene, ww regular exercise and ww balanced diet. ww ww ww
4. Define disease:
l a il a .entet
It is.nidefined as the disorders
l a il ntemalfunctions
.ani.eor
t of the.nbody
l a il a
t
i.ente and mind. l a il.ani.ente
t
l a il.ani.ente
t
5. daadsaasWhich are involved din as
sdiseases? sas sas sas
. wp.ap . wp.apaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
. . wp.apdaada
w Morpholocal, w w wwinvolved in diseases.www w
ww wwphysiological and psychological ww disturbances w are ww
6. Factors causing diseases:
Environmental factors, pathogens, genetical abnormalities, life style changes ,tenutritional deficiencies,tet
n entet n entet n entet n en t en
saa la li
harmone
s
.a i . imbalance etc. saaslal i .a i .
s aaslal i .a i .
saaslal i .a i .
saaslail.ani.
a ad adaad adaad adaad
w.w p.apdad CommunicablewDiseases:
7. .wp.apda w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
w w w w w w w w ww
Also called infectious diseases, transferred from one personwto another. w
8. Pathogens. Give examples:
t t t
ni.entecalled tet t t t t
a l il.ani.ene causing organisms
Disease
a a l a il.aare pathogens.la
a
Egil.an–i.enViruses, PathogeniclaBacteria,
a il.ani.ene Fungi, protozoans, a l a il.ani.ene
w.wp.apda helminthes etc.w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 9. Possible modes ww of transmission of pathogens: ww ww ww ww
Air, water, food , physical contact , fomites and vectors.
10. Name ete t non-infectitious diseases
the etet with examples:i.ani.entet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl al s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Genetic – systic fibrosis ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Nutritional – Vitamin w .wp.apda deficiency diseases w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Degenerative – Arthritis, heart attack, stroke, cancer
11. Possible t ways of pathogenicn.bacterial t transmission: etet t t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.aiente l a il.ani.n l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasThrough air, water or by
sasinhaling the droplets s/ aaerosols
s , sharing utensils, sas dress with a infected saperson.
s
. p.
12.
w apdaada Which group of viruses .wp.apdaadacause common cold: .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
. . wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Rhinoviruses
13. Four groups of viral diseases with examples:
i . ni
Pneumotropic
a entet
. disease – i . ni
respiratory
a entet
. infection – aInfluenza il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l l a a l a a l a
adsas adsas adsas asas adsas
w .wp.apda Dermotropic disease w .wp.apda– skin and sub cutaneous w .wp.apda infection – chicken w pdad
.wp.apox w .wp.apda w
ww Viscerotropic wwDisease – Blood and visceral ww organs infection –ww Dengue fever ww ww
Neurotrophic Disease – CNS infection – Rabies and Polio
14. Howa ntet protozoan Genera
il.ani.emany a
tet
il.ani.encause diseases? ail.ani.entet a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene
asl asl asl asl asl
adsa 15 genera of protozoans adsa adsa adsa adsa
ww 15. Which is causing ww Amoebic dysentery? ww ww ww ww
Amoebic dysentery is also called amoebiasis or Colitis, caused by Entamoeba histolytica
16. Hownedoes tet Entamoeba histolytica entet feed on? t t t etet
l ail.ai.n l ail.ani.on l .ani.ente
ailbacteria l il.ani.ene
aintestine. l ail.ani.n
aas aEntamoeba
s histolytica aas a
feeds
s food particles aas a
ands found in large
s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apdad Infective stagewof.wpEntamoeba
17. .apdad histolyticaw .w
:p.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Trophozoites
18. Symptoms tet of Amoebiasis: .ni.entet
i . ni e
. n i i et
.ani.entpain i ni.entet of mucus or blood.
.aexcess i .ani.ente
t
In
l a l a
the large intestine Ulceration,
l a l a bleeding , abdominall a l and stools withl a l l a l
sas sas sas sas sas
.19.
wp.apdaada Vector of Amoebiasis: .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp apdaada
. . wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t tet t t t t
a l il.ani.ene is the vector carrying
Housefly
a a l a il.ani.enepathogens from afaecal l a il.ani.enmatter of affectedalperson a il.ani.ene to the food andawater. l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad Pathogen / causative
20.
w .wp.apda factor of African sleeping w .wp.apda sickness and thewvector: .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww African sleeping ww sickness is caused by wwTrypanosoma specieswand w the vector is TsetsewFlies w ww
21. Name the sleeping sickness, types of pathogens and the vectors:
a. iCentral etet African sleeping isickness etet – T.gambiense i–.aniGlossina etet Palpalis etet etet
s asl al.ani.n s asl al.ani.n s asl a l .n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada b. East African sleeping adasickness (Rhodesian) a–daT.rhodesiense – Glossina ada morsitans ada
ww c. AmericanwTrypanosomiasis
w (Chagaswwdisease) – T.cruzi – Triatoma ww megista ww ww
22. Kala-azar:
It is visceral t leishmaniasis caused t by Leishmania- donovani t and transmitted nby Phlebotomous
t (Sand fly) t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ai.ente l a il.ani.ente
23. adsaasOccurrence of infections sas of Kala-azar: adsaas sas sas
.wp.apda Endothelial cells,.wpbone .apdaadamarrow, liver, lymph .wp.apdaglands, blood .
vesselswp .apdaada etc.
spleen .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
24. Symptoms of Kala-azar:
Weight tloss, anaemia, fever , enlargement of spleen andt liver.
25. asCausative i .ani ente factors of Malaria:
. i .ani .entet il.ani.ene
t t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
adsa asas and P. falciparum adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda P.vivax, P.ovale, w .wp.apdad
P.malariae w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 26. Vector of Malaria: ww ww ww ww ww
Female Anopheles mosquito
t t t t t t t t t t
27.
a l il.ani.enein the life cycle of
Phases
a a l il.ani.ene
Plasmodium:
s
adsa Schizogony, Gamogony s
adsaand Sporogony adaadsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 28. Infective stage ww of Plasmodium: ww ww ww ww
Saliva of female Anapheles mosquito contains Sporozoites which is infective stage.
29. Signet eteRing
t stage: .entet etet t t etet
a l ail.ani.n a l ail.anigrows a l ail.ani.n is developed. The a l il.ani.ene
avacuole a l ail.ani.n
s
ada Trophozoite
s of Plasmodium s
ada s and central adasvacuole
s s s is pushing cytoplasm
s s
.wp.apda and nucleus onwone .wp.apda .wp.apdastructure aada
.wp.apdring .wp.apda
ada
w side and form a ringw like called Signet
w stage. w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
30. Schizonts:
Nucleus tet of Trophozoite (Signet tering
t stage) divides asexually tet and produce Schizonts. t t
i
ala
31. saslSchuffners . ni e
. n Granules: saslala i . ni .en
l a il.ani e
. n
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Large schizont shows .wp.
a
apdaadyellowish brown .w .apdaada granules called.wpSchuffners
pigmented
p .apdaada Granules. .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 32. What are ookinetes? ww ww ww ww ww
In the life cycle of Plasmodium, in the gut of the mosquito, the male and female gametes fertilized to
t t .entet t t t t t t
a
form
l a il.ani.enaediploid zygote called a l a il.aniOkinete. a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
asas ss
aada another person’s asas adsaslife cycle of Plasmodium? adsas
w .wp.apdad Which are injected
33.
w .wp.apdinto w .apdad by mosquito bite
.wpblood w .wpin
.apdathe w .wp.apda w
ww Sporozoids w w injected into humanwblood
are w when the mosquito wwbites. ww ww
34. Incubation period of Malaria:
12 .days t t t t t t t t t t
a l a ilani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
35. adsa Symptoms of Malaria: s s s s s s s s
.wp.apda Head ache, nausea, aada
.wp.apdand . p.apdaada . p .apdaada . p.apdaada
w w muscular pain. w w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
36. What is the result of Malarial paroxysms(sudden attack)?
Shivering chills, high fever followed by sweating.
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
37. saasTypes of Malaria & causative s as agents regarding sMalaria:
as s as s as
ad aa aa ada ada
w .wp.apda P.vivax – Tertian, w .apdad tertian or vivax
.wpbenign w .wp.apdad
mlaria w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww w
P.malariae –wQuarten malaria ww ww ww ww
P.ovale – Mild tertian Malaria
t t t t t
l a il.ani.ente
P.falsiparum – Malignant l a l.ani.ente or quarten Malaria
tertian
i l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas a
daadsains the prevention .of
a
daadsas sas sas
.38.
wp.apdaada Role of Gambusia .wp.afish
p wp.apMalaria: .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t ntet water stagnating t t

a l il.ani.ene fish feed on mosquito
Gambusia
a a l a il.ani.ene larvae found inalponds, a il.ani.enedrainage ditchesaland a il.ani.eother a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda bodies. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 39. ww
What is dermatomycosis? ww ww ww ww
It is a cutaneous infection caused by parasitic fungi.
40. Mention etet the genera of parasitic etetfungi: etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s a sl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Trichophyton, Microsporum ada and Epidermophyton ada ada ada
ww 41. Symptoms of wwringworms: ww ww ww ww
Dry, scaly lesion on the skin, nails and scalp
42. Athelete’s t foot and causative agent:
t t t t
sasRingworms of the feet daadsas
isa known as athelete’sadfoot. sas It is caused by Tinea sapedis
s sas
. p.
43.
w apdaada From where do we .wp.apget ringworm? .wp.apda a .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
We generally acquire ringworm from the soil or by using the clothes, towels and comb used by the
affectedt person.
t t t t t t t t t
l il.ani.ene
44. asHelminthiasis:
adsa adsas ss
aada and gut and cause adsas adsas
w .wp.apda Helminthes arewmostly .wp.apda endoparasitic inwthe .wp.apdblood w .wp.apdathe diseases calledwHelminthiasis.
.wp.apda w
ww 45. The most prevalent ww helminthic diseases: ww ww ww ww
Ascariasis and Filariasis
t t t t t t t t t t
46.
a l il.ani.ene
Ascariasis:
s
adsa It is a disease caused s
sa the intestinal endoparasite,
adby adsa s Ascaris lumbricoides s
adsa commonly calledadaadsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.p w
ww roundworm. ww ww ww ww ww
47. Symptoms of Ascariasis:
Abdominal etet pain, vomiting,i.aheadache etet , anaemia, irritability etet and diarrhoea. IT may
etet also cause enteritis etet
s a l ail.ani.n and bronchitis.
hepatitis
s s a sl al ni.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
w .wp.apdad Causative factor
48. w .wp.apFilariasis:
of w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Filariasis is caused by Wuchereria bancrofti, commonly called filarial worms.
49. Microfilarial tet Larvae: t t t t
i
Female
l a l.ani e
.n filarial worm gives l a il.ani.enteto juveniles calledlaMicrofilarial
rise il.ani.ente Larvae l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.50.
wp.apdaada How is elephantiasis .wp.apdaad/ afilariasis caused? .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w ww ww w w w
ww It is caused w by the accumulation andwobstruction of lymph vessels ww by filarial worms.ww ww
51. Where do filarial worm obstructions take place?
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.enescrotum and mammary
Limbs,
a a l a il.ani.eneglands. a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad Hygiene:
52.
ww According to ww WHO, It is “conditionswand w practices that help w towmaintain health and prevent ww the spread ww
of diseases”.
53. Personal t t hygiene: t t t t t t t t
s
adsa Maintaining one’s abody s
adsa clean by bathing, washing s
adsa hands, trimminganails, s
adsa wearing clean clothes, adsa s
w .wp.apda keeping toiletswhomes .wp.pda work place cleanwetc., .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
54. Mention the infectious diseases transmitted through contaminated food and water:
Typhoid, amoebiasis and ascariasis
l a il.ani.entet lail.ani.
entet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
55. saasDiseases controlled bysaavaccines: s s as s as s as
ad a aa ada ada
w .wp.apda Small pox., Polio, w .apdad
.wpdiphtheria , pneumonia w .apdadtetanus
.wpand w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 56. Immunology: ww ww ww ww ww
Study of immunity and immune system.
t t .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
57. aImmunity:
ss sas a
daadsas causing pathogens. sas sas
.wp.apdaada Over all ability of.wpbody .apdaadato fight against the .wp.adisease
p .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
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.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
. pda adad
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w.w.apda
w
t
nteimmunity t t t t t t t
58. aLack l a il.ani.eof is called l a .ani.ente
i-----------
l l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsaas adsa as adsaas adsaas
w .wp.apda Susceptibility w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 59. Fundamental wwfeatures of immmne system: ww ww ww ww
Ability to distinguish foreign molecules from self molecules.
60. Autoimmune etet disease: etet etet etet etet
ada Sometimes our immune ada system fails to make a distinction and reacts
adits a
addestructively againstadthe adahost’s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w
ww own molecules. ww ww ww ww ww
61. Antigen (Antibody generator)
Any substance t capable of eliciting t immune responsen.eisntecalled t an antigen. t t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ai l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
62. adsaasTwo broad categoriesadsof asimmunity: sas sas sas
.wp.apda Innate / Natural .w p apda a and Acquired .w
.
immunity p.apdaada
immunity. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
63. Innate immunity:
Individuals possess innate immunity right from the birth.t It is also called natural tor non-specific
i .
immunity.
ani entet
. i .ani entet
. t
il.ani.ene
t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad Acquired Immunity:
ww Individuals w w
acquire immunity after the ww birth. It is also calledwspecific w immunity. ww ww
65. Unique features of acquired immunity:
t t t t tet t t t t
a l il.ani.ene specificity, diversity,
Antigenic
a a l a il.ani.enerecognition of self a l il.ani.ennon-self
and
a and immunological
a l a il.ani.ene memory. a l a il.ani.ene
s
66. adsa Components of acquired s
adsa immunity: adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww a. Cell Mediated ww Immunity (CMI) ww ww ww ww
b. Antibody Mediated Immunity(AMI) or Humoral Immunity
67. CellnMediated
etet Immunity (CMI): t t t t etet etet
a l ail.ai.n Macrophages and a l il.ani.ene
anatural a l il.ani.ene
adestroy a l ail.ani.nproducing antibody. a l ail.ani.n
aas T-cells,
s s s killer cells. They
s s pathogens without
s s s s
.wp.apdad Antibody Mediated aada
.wp.apdImmunity(AMI): .wp.apda
ada
.wp.apda
ada
.wp.apda
ada
w 68. w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Pathogens are destroyed by producing specific antibodies.
69. Role oft T-cells and B-cells:
i . ni e
. n et i ntet
.ani.eT-helper i ntet antigen and thenailstimulate
.ani.ethe .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
l a l
Antigen a presenting cells and
l a l cells recognize l a l l the B-cells which
l a l
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada produce suitable.wpantibody. apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 70. Types of acquired ww Immunity: ww ww ww ww
Active acquired Immunity and passive acquired Immunity
t t t t t t t t t t
71.
a l il.ani.eneacquired Immunity:
Active
adsas adsas developed by the adsas ss
aada adsas
w .wp.apda ImmunologicalwResistance .wp.apda w .wp.apdaorganisms throughwthe .wp.apdproduction of antibodies
w .wp.apda w
ww 72. What are the wwcauses of active acquired ww immunity? ww ww ww
Active acquired immunity results from an infection or an immunization.
73. Passive t tAcquired Immunity:.ni.entet t t t t t t
s
adsa Readymade antibodies s
adsaare introduced intoaan s
adsindividual
a from outside. s
adsaThere is no activation adsa
of s
w .wp.apda immune response. w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
74. Primary Immune Response:
It occurs when a pathogen comes in contact with theeimmune system for theefirst time.
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.ntet l a il.ani.ntet l ail.ani.n
etet
75. saasWhat happens during sprimary as immune response? s as s as s as
ad ada aa ada ada
w .wp.apda Immune system w .wp.apdato
has learn to recognizew .apdadantigen, production
.wpthe w .apdaantibody
.wpof and .wp.apdaproduce
eventually
w w
ww memory lymphocytes. ww The process w
w
is slow and short lived. w
w ww ww
76. Secondary Immune Response:
t entet t t t
It
l a il.ani.ente when the person
occurs l a il.ani.exposed
is to the same l a l.ani.ente again. Immunological
antigen
i l a il.ani.ente memory is established l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada and the antibody.wpis.apdproduced aada immediately. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
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w.w
a
. pda adad
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
77. aBooster l a il.ani.ene Response: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsa s s
asa a new army of plasma s
adsa cells
w .wp.apda In secondary Immune w .wp.apda Response, withinwhours .wp.apda after recognitionwof .apdad
.wpantigen, w .wp.apda w
ww are generated. ww This leads to the increased ww concentration of w w
antibodies in higher level wwin two or three ww
days. This is called booster response.
78. Lymphoid etet organs: etet etet etet etet
s as l ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s as l ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Organs involved inathe adaorigin, maturation and a
adproliferation of lymphocytes ada are called lymphoid adaorgans.
ww 79. Primary Lymphoid ww Organs: ww ww ww ww
These organs provide appropriate environment for the maturation of lymphocytes.
80. Secondary t Lymphoid Organs: t t t t
sasThese organs trap antigens sas and make them davailable sas for matured lymphocytes sas that can fight aagainst
sas
.wp.apdaada the antigens. .wp.apdaada .wp .apaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
81. Examples of Primary Lymphoid organs:
Bursa oft Fabricious of birds, bone marrow and thymus gland.
82. asExamples i .ani ente of Secondary Lymphoid
. i .ani entet organs
. il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
adsa adsas s
daadsagut, adsas adsas
w .wp.apda Lymph nodes, appendix, w .wp.apda Payer’s patches w .wpin.apthe .wp.apda spleen and MALTw(GALT
tonsils, adenoids,
w .wp.apda & BALT) w
ww 83. Immuno Competent ww cells: ww ww ww ww
Lymphocytes that are matured in the primary lymphoid organs are called Immuno Competent cells.
t t t t t t t t t t
84.
a l il.ani.ene Specificity: alail.ani.ene
Antigenic
s
adsa Lymphocytes matured s
adsain primary organs are dsa s
aspecific to a particular adsa s
antigen. Such property ofadsa s
ww lymphocytes wwis called antigen specificity. ww ww ww ww
85. Which secretion of thymus makes T-cells to become immunopotent?
Thymosin entet etet etet etet etet
86.dadsaasWhenlail.ani. does the thymus s a l ail.ani.nactive?
more
s s asl ail.ani.n s as l ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa aa ada ada
w .wp.apa It is more active w .wp.apdad neo natal and pre
during w .apdad
.wpadolescence periods.w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
87. Haemopoietic cells.
Stem cells tet present in the bone temarrow
t are called haemopoietic tet cells. They multiply tet by cell division..ni.entet
i . ni e
. n i . ni e
. n i . ni e
. n i . ni e
. n
ad
lala group remains asshaematopoietic
saasOne ad aaslala cells and
ad
lalaothers differentiate
saasthe ad
lala different kinds of sblood
saasinto ad aaslaila
d
a a cells. .p.apad .p.apa d .p.apad .p.apad
w.wp.p ww w ww w ww w ww w w
ww 88. w
Which are the cells tightly packed in the lymph glands? w w w ww
Lymphocytes and macrophages.
t t t t t t t t t t
89.
a l il.ani.ene
Lymph:
adsas adsas s
daadsaextra asas adsas
w .wp.apda It is a clear transparent, w .wp.apda colourless, mobile w .wp.apand w w .apdad
cellular fluid.pconnective tissue.
w .wp.apda w
ww 90. Three regions wwof lymph nodes and types ww of cells located in them: ww ww ww
a. Cortex – B-cells, macrophages and follicular dendric cells
b. Paracortex t t – T-cells and .interdigitating t t dendric cells t t t t t t
s
s c. Medulla – looselydarranged s s lymphocytes such s
s as plasma cells thatdsecrete s s antibody. s s
.wp.apdaada .wp.apaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 91. Where do we wwfind enlarged lymph nodes ww due to severe infection? ww ww ww
In the neck, under the chin, in the armpits and in the groin.
92. Whatetisetthe role of other white blood cells?
l a il.ani.n l a il.ani.entet l
etet
ail.ani.nand cytokine production. l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
s asNon specific immune response,
s as antigen presentations as s as s as
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad How do B-cellswproduce
93, .wp.apda antibodies? w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Once the receptors ww on B-cell bind with ww the antigen, the B-cell wwis activated and divides wwrapidly to ww
produce plasma cells which produce specific antibody.
94. aHow a ntet memory cells produced?
il.ani.eare a il.ani.ente
t
a il.ani.ente
t
a il.ani.ente
t
a il.ani.ente
t
ss l sas l sas l sas l sas l
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t ntet .entet t t
a When
l a il.ani.enethe receptors bind a l a il.ani.enethe antigen, the B-cell
with a l a il.ani.emultiplies. Most ofalthe a il.aniB-cells(Plasma cells)a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s
daadsasome B-cells do not daadsa s s
daadsa are called memory adsa s
w .wp.apda produce antibody. w .wp.apBut w .wp.approduce antibody. Such
w .wp.apB-cells w .wp.apda cells. w
ww 95. Two types of wwT-cells: ww ww ww ww
Helper T- cells and Killer T-cells
96. Role t
eofteHelper and Killer T-cells: etet etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s a sl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Helper T-cells release a
adcytokine which activates adaB-cells to produce antibody. ada ada
ww Killer T-cellswmove w around the bodywand w destroy damaged orwinfected w cells. ww ww
97. Which WBCs do phagocytosis?
Neutrophils t and Monocytes(Macrophages) t do phagocytosis. t t t
l a il .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
98. adsaasAntigen(Ag) means: adsaas sas sas sas
.wp.apda a. a molecule which .wp.apdagenerates immune response .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
b. a molecule which reacts with the antibody
99. Immunogen:
t t t t t t t t t t
aAl a il.ani.ene
substance capable of a l il.ani.ene immune response.
initiating
w .wp.apdad Adjuvants:
ww Substanceswthat w can enhance the immune ww response to an antigen ww are called Adjuvants. ww ww
101. Epitope:
t
.enteactive t t t t t t t t
a
Itais
l il.anian part of an antigen.
a l a il.ani.ene It is an antigenic a l a il.ani.ene
determinant.
s
102.adsa Paratope: adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww It is a part of wwantibody. It is an antigen wwbinding site. ww ww ww
103. Two types of antigens:
Exogenous etet antigen and endogenous etet antigen. etet etet etet
104. s a l ail.ani.n
Exogenous
s antigen: a l
Examples:
s s ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aada ada daada ada
w .wp.apda Antigen that enters w .wp.apdinto our body from w .wp.apda is called exogenous
outside w .wp.apantigen. Examples: .wp.apda
Microbes,
w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
pollens, drugs, pollutants etc.
105. Endogenous tet antigen: Examples:
l a il
Antigen .ani .en formed within ourl a il ni.entet is called endogenous
.abody l a il
et
.ani.entantigen. Examples: l il
Blood
a
t
.ani.entegroup antigens. lail.ani.ente
t
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Antibodies(Ig): .wp.apdaada
106. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w ww w w
ww ww
They are immunoglobulin(Ig) protein wwmolecules synthesizedwby our blood on exposure wwto antigen. ww
107. Five types of antibodies:
Ig
l a .entet
ilG.ani(Gamma), IgM (Mu),laIgA il.ani.en
tet
(Alpha), IgD (Delta) land a ntet (Epsilon)
il.ani.eIgE l a
t t
il.ani.ene l a
t t
il.ani.ene
asasa asasa a
adsas as a
adsas
.wp.apdad Who revealed the
108. pdad structure of Immunoglobulin
.wp.abasic .wp.apda molecule? .p.apdaadsa .wp.apda
w w w w w w w
ww Porter and Edelman ww in 1950s ww ww ww ww
109. How many amino acid molecules are found in the L chain and H chain of Ig?
Each t
Lt chain has approximately t t214 amino acid molecules. t t t t t t
s
s Each H chain has approximately s s 450 amino acid s
s molecules. s s s s
w w w w w w
ww 110. Molecular weight ww of L and H chains:ww ww ww ww
L-chain – 25000 Da and H chain – 50,000 Da.
111. Terminals of L chain and H chains:
l a il .ani.entet l ail.ani.n
etet
l aAmino
t t
il.ani.ene terminal (N) terminals. l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
s aEach
s L and H chain has s C-Terminal(Carboxyl)
a s and
s as s as s as
w .wp.apdad Regions of L and
112. w .wp
H.apchains: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww They have variable ww regions(V) on one wwend and Constant (C) region ww at the other end. ww ww
113. Functions of Ig:
t entet t t t
l a il .ani.ente
Agglutination, Precipitation, l a il.ani.Opsonization and l a l.ani.ente
Neutralization.
i l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Three stages of Antigen
114. .wp.apdaada and Antibody reaction: .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
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w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene - Terminatiuon aoflaantigen
Stage-I
a il.ani.ene – antibody complex a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s asa s asa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda Stage-II - Visible w .wp.apdad like precipitation
events
w .apdadagglutination
.wpand w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Stage-III Destruction ww of antigen or its wwneutralization. ww ww ww
115. Three factors of binding forces for antigen and antibody reaction:
a. iclosenessetet between antigen et antibody
etand etet etet etet
s asl al.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada b. Non covalent bonds adaor intra molecular force ada ada ada
ww c. affinity ofwantibody w on antigen. ww ww ww ww
116. Non covalent bonds:
Bonds int the combining sitesethat t bind antigen to antibody t are all non covalent in
t nature. They are H- t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.nte l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasbonds, electrostatic bonds, adsaas Van der Waals aforces a and hydrophobic bonds.
daadsas adsaas a
daadsas
. p.apdaada Antibody affinity:.wp.aItpdais
117.
w the strength of the.wp . p
reaction between a . p
single
w .apdaantigenic determinant .wp.apand a single
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
combining site on the antibody.
118. Precipitation reaction: Reaction tbetween the soluble antigen and antibody whicht leads to precipitate t
i . n
formation.
a i .entet i .ani ente
. i .ani entet
. t
il.ani.ene
t
il.ani.ene
asas sas
apdaadthe asas adsas asas
w .wp.apdad Precipitins: These
119. w .wp.are antibodies that w .apdadto precipitate formation
.wplead w .wp.apda while reacting with w pdadantigen.
.wp.athe w
ww 120. Agglutination wwreaction: When particulate ww antigen reacts with wwantibody, clumping or w w
agglutination of the ww
particulate antigens occurs. This is called agglutination reaction.
t t It is an antibody.nithat t t t t i.ente
t antigens. ail.ani.entet
121. Agglutinin:
l a il.ani.ene l a ila .ene results in agglutination l a il.ani.ene after reacting with l a il.anparticulate
122. as
daadsa Opsonization: It .isp.aalso
as
daadsacalled enhanced attachment. daadsa
as It is the process as
dsawhich pathogenspare
daaby daadsaasl
coated
. p.ap p . p .ap . p.ap . .ap
ww ww w w are destroyed by ww ww w
ww with opsonin. wwThe opsonin coated pathogens ww ww phagocytosis by phagocytes ww ww
123. Neutralization: It is the elimination of harmful effects of bacterial toxins or viruses by special
antibodies. etet Such antibodies are
etetcalled antitoxin. i.ani.entet ni.entet etet
124. s a l ail.ani.n Biological preparations
Vaccines:
s s asl ail.ani.n that provide sactive asl al acquired immunity s a l
to
s ail.aspecific disease causing
s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda organisms. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
125. Types of I generation Vaccines:
a. Livet attenuated vaccine (weakened, live, aged, less virulent viruses)
. ntet
i . ni e
. ntet
i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
l a l a eg. MMR vaccine l and
a l a varicella (chickenpox) l a l avaccine l a l l a l
sas saas dsaas or inactivate by a
daadsasor other methods. sas
.wp.apdaada b. Killed (inactivated) .wp.apdaadvaccine: Pathogens .wp .apdaakilled
are .wp.apheat .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww Eg. Salk’s polio ww vaccine. ww ww ww ww
Toxoid Vacine: contains toxins produced by pathogens. Toxins stimulate our immune system rather
than
a ntet
il.ani.einfection itself. a il.ani.ene
t t
a il.ani.ene
t t
a
t t
il.ani.ene a
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l
w .wp.apda Eg: DPT Vaccine. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 126. II generation wwvaccine: ww ww ww ww
It contains the pure surface antigen of pathogens. Eg. HB Vaccine
127. III generation t t vaccine: t t t t t t t t
s
adsa It contains purest and s
adshighest
a potency vaccine s
adsawhich is synthetic inadgeneration. adsa s Eg. DNA vaccine s
adsa /
w .wp.apda recombinant vaccine. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
128. Vaccination:
Administering / Introducing the vaccine into the bodyetof an individual to produce immunity for a
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.net l a il.ani.entet l ail.ani.n
etet
s aspecific
s disease. s as s as s as s as
aa aa ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Immunization: w.wp.apdad
ww It is a process wwof building up of immunity ww in our body for a particular ww disease. ww ww
130. Alergy:
It
l ais
il .entetexaggerated response
.anithe l a il
t
.ani.enteof our immune system l a il
tet
.ani.ento certain antigens l present
a il
t
.ani.ente in the environment. l a il.ani.ente
t
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Alergens:
131. .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
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w.w.apda
w
t t tet .entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene
Substances that cause allergy
a l a il.ani.en(exaggerated immunea l a il.aniresponse ) are called a l a il.ani.ene
allergens. a l a il.ani.ene
asa s sa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
p.apdad Common examples
132.
.w aadallergens:
.wp.apdof .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww Mites in thewdust, w pollens and somewproteins w in the insect venom. ww ww ww
133. Common examples of allergy:
Hay etet & asthma
fever etet etet etet etet
134.ada Symptoms of allergy: ada ada ada ada
ww Running nose, ww sneezing, watery eyes wwand difficulties in breathing ww ww ww
135. Which factors in our body mediate allergy?
IgE, mast t cells and also the chemicals t like histamines,enserotonin t secreted by mast t cells. t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani. te l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
136.adsaasAnaphylaxis: sas sas sas adsaas
.wp.apda It is a sudden, systematic, .wp.apdaada severe and immediate .wp.apdaada hyper sensitive .w p.apdaada that occurs due.wpto
reaction .apdamast cells
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
degranulation.
137. How is immune deficiency caused?
It i
is .ani .entet due to the failure
caused
t t
il.ani.enofe one or more components
t t
il.ani.ene of immune system.
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad How is primarywimmune
138. .wp.apda deficiency caused? w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww It is caused w w to the genetic developmental
due ww defects. ww ww ww
139. How is secondary immune deficiency caused?
Itais
l .entet due to radiations,
il.anicaused l a
tet
il.ani.enusage of cytolytic and
l a .entet
il.aniimmune suppressive adrugs
l
t t
il.ani.eneand infections. alail.ani.ene
t t
as
140.adsa Name the genus p as
adsa HIV belongs to? adaadsa
to which as adsaas adsa s
w .wp.apda w .w.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Genus Lentivirus ww ww ww ww ww
141. Where do we find gp41 and gp120 in HIV?
Gp41 etand
et gp120 are glycoprotein etet molecules embedded etetin the lipid bilayer.i.ani.entet etet
142. s as l ail.ani.n and size of HIV:saslail.ani.n
Shape s asl ail.ani.n s asl al s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada daada ada ada
w .wp.apda It is a sphericalwvirus. .wp.apdaIts diameter is 100 w wp.ap120nm
.to w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
143. What is the duration of life of HIV in and out of macrophages?
HIV can tetsurvive 1.5 days inside teand
t just 6 hours outside tethe
t macrophages. n.entet t
144. sasMode l i . ni .en
ala of transmission sof l il
HIV:
a .ani e
. n
l a il.ani .en
l a il.ai l a il.ani.ente
as sas sas saas
.wp.apdaada Unsafe sexual contact, .wp.apdaadablood contaminated .wp. aada
apdneedles, organ .w .apdaada
transplantation,
p blood transfusion
.wp.apdaadand
w w w w w w
ww infected mother ww to foetus. ww ww ww ww
145. Expansion of ELISA and its use:
t t t t t
i.ente the presence of
t
ni.enteantibody. t t
a l a il.ani.ene Linked ImmunoaSorbant
Enzyme l a il.ani.ene Assay. It is used a l toil.andetect
a a l a il.aHIV a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad Importance of w
146. western
.wp.apda blot: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww It is a confirmatory ww test. It is used towdetect w the presence of wantibody w for viral code protein. ww ww
147. Expansion for NACO, NGO and WHO:
NACO t–tNational AIDS Control t
tOrganization t t t t t t
s
adsa NGO – Non Government s
adsa Organization adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda WHO – World Health w .wp.apda Organization w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
148. Auto Immune Disorder:
It is an abnormal immune response in which immuneesystem fails to distinguish self and non-self, andetet
i . ni.entet i . ni.entet i . ni.ntet i . ni.entet .ni.n
adsa l a l a
asattack our own body atissues dsa l a l a
as / organs. adsaasl a l a
adsaasl a l a
adsaaslaila
p.apda Factors destroying
149. .p.apda ada
w.wp.pimmune diseases: ww.wp.p
ada .p.apda
ww
w.w
w ww w our own tissues in w wauto w w ww w ww
w
Auto antibodies and Cytotoxic T cells
150. Two broad categories of Autoimmune diseases:
t et t t t
Organ
l a il.ani.entespecific and non-organ l a il.ani.entspecific diseases. l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.w apdaada Organ specific auto
151.
p. .wp. aada
apdimmune diseases: .p.apdaada
w .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
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w.w.apda
w
tet t t ni.entet or may block the i.ente

t t t
a Auto
l a il.ani.enimmune process isaldirectly
a il.ani.ene acting against the a l a il.a
organs a l a il.an
functions of the organs. a l a il.ani.ene
asa s s
daadsa autoimmune.diseases: asa s adsa s adsa s
w p.apdad Examples of Organ
152.
.w w .wp.apspecific w wp.apdad w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Hashimoto’s ww thyroiditis, Grave’s disease ww and Addison’s disease. ww ww ww
153. Non organ specific auto immune diseases:
Autoimmune etet activity is spread t
etethroughout the body. etet etet etet
154.ada Examples of non organ adaspecific auto immune a
addiseases: ada ada
ww Rheumatoidwarthritis w and Multiple scleirosis. ww ww ww ww
155. What is tumour or Neoplasm?
It is aengroup t of cells whose growth t is unchecked/uncontrolled. t t t
156.adsaasCancer: sas sas sas sas
.wp.apda When a tumour .continues wp .apdaada to grow and invades .wp .apdaadainto nearby healthy .wp. aada
apdtissues, it is called . p.
Cancer.
w apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
157. Metastasis:
Neoplastic cells from the tumourt spread to other parts of the body and give risetto secondary tumour. t
This i .ani .entet
process is called i
Metastasis..ani ente
. i .ani entet
. t
il.ani.ene
t
il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad Benign tumour:w.wp.apdad
ww Benign or non wwcancerous tissues arewcapable w of indefinite growth ww but do not invade w inwto the nearby ww
tissues.
t t t t t t t t t t
159. Malignent
a l a il.ani.ene tumour: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa In malignant tumour, s
sa cells grow indefinitely,
adthe s
adsa detach and migrate s
adsato the healthy surrounding
in adsa s
ww tissues. ww ww ww ww ww
160. Immunotherapy:
It isna.enbiological
tet therapy. It uses t tthe substance produced etet by our body or in a laboratory(monoclonal
etet etet
a l ail.ai a l il.ani.ene
aresist a l ail.ani.n functions. saslail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n
aas antibodies)
s to improve s
ada or
s immunological s system’s
s s s
.wp.apdad Mention the treatments .wp.apda followed in cancer aada
.wp.apdtreatment: .wp.apda
ada
.wp.apda
ada
w 161. w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
combining surgery, Radio therapy, Chemotherapy and immunotherapy
162. Adolescence: tet tet
i .ania.enperiod i ni.enmaturity.
.to i et
.ani.entfrom i .entet period, rapid physical
.anithis i .ani.ente
t
It
l aisl from puberty l a l a That is thel a l
age 12 to 19. During
l a l l a l
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada and sexual development .wp .apdaada take place. .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 163. What kind of wwchanges observed during ww adolescence? ww ww ww
Highly dynamic period of psychological and social changes.
tet t t t t t t t t
164. Drug
a l a il.ani.enabuse: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas asas asas physiological and adsas sas
daadcalled
w .wp.apda Intake of certain w .apdad that impairs one’s
.wpdrugs w .apdad
.wpphysical, w .wp.apdapsychological function w .wp.apis w
ww drug abuse ww ww ww ww ww
165. Commonly abused drugs:
Opioids, t t cannabinoids, coca.nialkaloids, t t barbitrates, amphetamines t t and LSD. .ni.entet t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila .ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a ila a l a il.ani.ene
s
166.adsa Properties of Heroin: adsa s asa s s s s s
.wp.apda It is chemicallywdiacetyl .wp.apda morphine which .is
w pdad
p.awhite, .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w odourless w andw
w bitter crystalline compound. w w
ww ww ww ww ww
167. How is heroine obtained?
It is obtained by the acetylation of morphine extracted from flowers of poppyetplant.
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l ail.ani.n
et
l ail.ani.n
etet
168. saasMedicinal use of morphine: s as s as s as s as
ad ada aa ada ada
w .wp.apda It is one of the w .wp.apda pain killer used
strongest w p.apdad surgery.
during
.w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 169. Where do we wwget cannabinoids from? ww ww ww ww
Cannabinoids are obtained from Cannabin sativa, the Indian hemp plant.
t t ntet .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
170. alWhich a il.ani.eneare all obtainedafrom l a il.ani.enatural cannabinoids? a l a il l a il l a il
ss daadsas and Charas .p.apdaadsas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Marijuana, Ganja, .wp .aHashish
p w .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
tet t t t t t t t t
171. aFrom l a il.ani.enwhere do we get a l il.ani.ene
cocaine?
adsa s adsa s adsa s s
adsa coca. adsa s
w .wp.apda It is a white powder w .wp.apdaobtained from thewleaves .wp.apda of coca plant, erythroxylumw .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 172. Plants with w w
hallucination property: ww ww ww ww
Erythroxylum coca, Atropa bella donna and Datura
173. Which etearet the medicines used etetot cure depression and et
etinsomnia? etet etet
ada Methamphetamine, ada
Amphetamines, ada tranquilizers andadLSD
barbitrates, ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w .wp.apda w
ww 174. Chemicals found ww in tobacco: ww ww ww ww
Tobacco contains nicotine, CO and tar.
175. Whatentisetmeant by withdrawalentsymptoms? t t t t
l a il.ani. l a il.ani. e l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasSymptoms developed sby
as an addict when abruptly sas stop the drugs or dalcohol. sas sas
. p.apdaada What are the common
176.
w .wp.apdaadawithdrawal symptoms? .wp.apdaada .wp.apaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Mild tremors to convulsion, fits, depressed mood, anxiety, nervousness, restlessness, irritability,
insomnia, dryness of throat etc.,
177. asWhat i .ani entisetliver cirrhosis? i.ani.entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
adsa
.wp.apda The scarring ofwthe daadsasdue to over fat accumulation
.wp.apliver .wp.apda
adsas and over w .wp.apda
adsas of alcohol. adaadsas
consumption
w w w.wp.p w
ww 178. What is Korsakoff ww syndrome? ww ww ww ww
It is a chronic memory disorder caused by alcoholic abuse.
t t t t t t t t t t
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww Chapter 8 – Microbes ww in Human Welfare: ww ww ww
1. Example etet of Lactic Acid Bacteria t (LAB)

t t t etet etet
a l ail.ani.n a l il.ani.ene
aLactobacillus a l il.ani.ene
astreptomyces a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n
aas Lactobacillus
s acidophiles, s s lactis and
s s lactis s s s s
.w p.apdad What is meantwby apdaada
.wp.probiotics? .wp.apda
ada
.wp.apda
ada
.wp.apda
ada
w 2. w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
These are bacteria that can check the growth of pathogenic microbes in the stomach and other parts of
digestive tet tract. t t t t
3. sasWhat l i . ni .en
ala is meant by prebiotic? l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a i l.ani.ente
sas as
daadsainduce sas sas
.wp.apdaada These are the compounds .wp apdaada in the food that
. .wp.acan
p growth and.wp.apdaada of beneficial .organisms
activities wp.apdaada in
w w w w w w
ww the digestive wwtract. ww ww ww ww
4. How is yogurt produced?
Itlais .entet
il.aniproduced by the bacteriall a
tet
il.ani.enfermentation of milk.l a .entet this process, lLactic
il.aniDuring a
t t
il.ani.eneacid is produced aas l a
t t
ial.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas adsasa a
adsas adsas
w .wp.apda byproduct. w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 5. Which giveswflavor w to yogurt? ww ww ww ww
Acetaldehyde
6. Which t the organisms invoved
t are t t in yogurt production? t t t t t t
s
s Streptomyces thermophiles s s and Lactobacillus s s
bulgaricus s s s s
w w w w w w
ww 7. How is cheese ww manufactured? ww ww ww ww
It is manufactured by the coagulation of milk protein called casein with the help of an enzyme rennet.
8. Microorganisms involved in cheese production:
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l
etet
ail.ani.n such as Lactococcus, l
etet
ail.ani.nLactobacillus or saslail.ani.n
etet
s aCheese
s is manufactured s aswith the help of starter s abacteria
s s as
ada ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Streptococcus w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 9. w
What is thewcomposition of Paneer?w
w ww ww ww
Curdling milk with lemon juice, vinegar and other edible acids.
t t t t t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a i l.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
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t t ntet in the Swiss cheese? t t t t t t

10. alWhat a il.ani.eneis the reason for alarge l a il.ani.eholes a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s
adsa of large amountaof adsa s s s adsa s
.wp.apda It is due to the w .wp.apda
production .wp.pda CO2 by the bacterium aada Propionibacterium
.wp.apdcalled .wp.apda
w w w w w
ww shermanii. ww ww ww ww ww
11. What kind of bacteria that ferment dough for idlis and dosas and bread?
Leuconostoc etet mesenteroides et idli and dosa
–tfor
e etet etet etet
ada Saccharamyces cerevisiae ada (baker’s yeast) –afor adabread ada ada
ww 12. Which microorganisms ww are protein supplement ww suitable for w human
w consumption? ww ww
Spirulina , yeast, fungi or bacteria
13. Fermentor t : t t t t
sasAlso called bio reactor. saIts is a closed vessel with sagood
s arrangement foradsaeration,
as agitation, adsaas
apdaada temperature, pH.wpcontrol, apdaada and drain or overflow apdaadavent to remove the a a
apdwaste-biomass. ada
w w .wp.
w w .
w w .wp.
w w. wp.
w w.wp.p w
w w w w w ww
14. Antibiotics: (Against life)
These are the chemical substances produced by microorganisms which can kill ort retard the growth of t
i . ni . et
entdisease i . ni entet
. i . ni entet
. t
il.ani.ene
t
il.ani.ene
aother
l a l a causing organisms.
a l a l a a l a l a a l a a l a
w .wp.apdad Who discovered
15. w .wp.apdad
streptomycin? w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Selman Waksman ww discovered Streptomycin ww in 1943. He coined ww the term ‘Antibiotics’wfirst w time. ww
16. Who discovered Penicillin?
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene Fleming in 1926.
Alexander
s
17. adsa From which microorganism adsa s Penicillin is extracted? adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww Penicillium w w
notatum and Penicilliumwchrysogenum w ww ww ww
18. Which is called queen of drugs? Why?
Penicillin entet is called the queen eoftedrugs
t as it is an effective etet antibiotic with its ifull etpotential.
et etet
lail.ani.
19.dadsaasAntibiosis: s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl al.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa ada ada ada
w .wp.apa It is a propertywof.wpantibiotics .apdad to kill the .wp.apda
germs.
w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
20. Broad spectrum antibiotics:
They kill tet wide range of disease tecausing
t bacteria t t t
21. sasNarrowl i
ala . ni e
. n spectrum antibiotics: l a il.ani e
. n
sas a
daadsas sas sas
.wp.apdaada They are active against .wp.apdaadaa selected group .w of
p.apbacteria. . wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 22. Bacteriostatic wwantibiotics: ww ww ww ww
Antibiotics that limit the growth of bacteria and inhibit microbial protein production. Eg. Tetracycline
t t t t ni.entet t t t t
23.
a
Which
l a il.ani.eneantibiotic is acting a l a il.ani.ene both positive and
against
a l a il.anegative strains of bacteria?
w .wp.apda Streptomycin w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 24. Antibiotics and ww microbial sources: ww ww ww ww
Tetracycline - Streptomyces aurofaciens
t
Chlortetracycline
e t - t t
Streptomyces aurofaciens t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.en a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
s Streptomycin s- s Streptomyces dgriseus s s s s s s
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada . wp.apaada . wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 25. Antibiotics extracted ww from microbialwsources: w ww ww ww
Tetracycline, Chlortetracycline, Streptomycin, Erythromycin, Chloromycetin, Griseofulvin, Neomycin,
Kenamycin, Bacitracin etc etet
ni.entet n.n ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
etet
ail.ani.n
etet
26. saasAntibiotic Resistance: saaslail.ai
l a il.a
s asl s asl s asl
ad a aa aa ada
w .wp.apda It is the resistance w pdad
.wp.adeveloped by bacteria
w .apdad antibiotics. w.wp.apdad
.wpagainst w .wp.apda w
ww 27. “Super bug”: ww ww ww ww ww
Strains of bacteria that are resistant to majority of common antibiotics.
t t .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
28. aZymology:
ss sas a
daadsas process of fermentation sas saas
.wp.apdaada It is applied science .wp. aada deals with the bio
apdthat . wp.apchemical . wp.apdaada and its practical
.wp.apdaaduses.
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
w.wp.p
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w.w.apda
w
t t .entet .ani.ente
t t t t t
29. aWhich l a il.ani.enemicrobes are used a l a il.aniprepare
to the alcoholic a l a ilbeverages? a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s
adsa (Brewer’s yeast)adaadsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda Saccharamyceswcerevisiae .wp.apda w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 30. How are wines ww and beer manufactured? ww ww ww ww
They are manufactured by fermentation without distillation
31. How tet whisky, brandy and
eare tet manufactured? .ni.entet
erum etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl aila s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada They are manufactured ada by fermentation and da
adistillation. ada ada
ww 32. Oenology: ww ww ww ww ww
It is the study of wines and wine making by fermentation of grape juice.
33. Howeare t red and white wines prepared?
t t t t
l a il.ani.nte l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasRed wine is prepared from
sas black grapes withdaskin sas and stems. a
daadsas sas
.wp.apdaada White wine is prepared .wp apdaadafrom white or red
. .wp a
. p ada
grapes without skin .
andwp.astems.
p .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
34. How is beer manufactured?
Beer is manufactured from germinating barley malt by Saccharamyces carlsbergensis or Saccharamyces t
i . n
cerevisiae
a i entet
. i .ani entet
. i .ani entet
. i .ani entet
. t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l a l a l a l a l a
w .wp.apdad How is rum manufactured?
ww Rum is manufactured ww from the fermentation ww of sugarcane or wwMolasses or directly from ww sugarcane juice ww
by the action of Saccharamyces cerevisiae
t
ntewhisky t t t t t t t t
36.
a
How
l a il.ani.eis manufactured?
s
adsa It is a distilled alcoholic s
adsabeverage manufactured s
adsa from fermentationad s
ofadsgrain
a mash by Saccharamyces adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w .wp.apda w
ww cerevisiae ww ww ww ww ww
37. How is pathaneer manufactured?
Pathaneer entet is manufacturedi.anby etethe
t fermentation of sap eteoft palm and coconut.n.entet etet
lail.ani. is called industrial
38.dadsaasWhich s asl l i.n
aalcohol? Why? s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ai s asl ail.ani.n
aa ada ada ada
w .wp.apa Ethanol is called w .wp.apdad
industrial alcohol. It isw .wp.apdafor industrial, laboratory
used w .wp.apda and fuel purposes. w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
39. Microbes used in the preparation of industrial ethanol:
Zymomonas tet mobilis and Sarcina tet ventriculis t t t
l i
ala
40. sasPrincipal . ni e
. n substrates forsathe l a il.ani e
. n
production of industrial l a il i.ente
.anethanol: l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
s sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Molasses, corn, potatoes .wp apdaada and wood waste.
. .wp apdaada
w ww w w w w
ww 41. Bio fuel andwtheir uses: ww ww ww ww
Ethanol and bio diesel are the bio fuels. Ethanol is used as fuel and mainly as a biofuel additive for
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene
gasoline.
asas asas asas asas asas
w p.apdad World Bio FuelwDay:
42.
.w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w .wp.apdad w
ww 10th Augustww ww ww ww ww
43. Microorganisms and organic acid production:
Aspergillus t t niger -t t citric acid t t t t t t
s
adsa Acetobactor aceti adaadsa s - Acetic dacid s
s (Vinegar) s s s s
.wp.apda Rhizopus oryzae .wp.p .wp apaada
w w - w w w w
ww ww wFumeric
w acid ww ww ww
Clostridium butyricum - Butyric acid
Lactobacillus lacti - Lactic acid
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
44. saasWhat is clot buster? saas s as s as s as
ad a ada daada ada
w .wp.apda Streptococci are w .wp.apdadas clot buster forwremoving
used .wp.apda the clot from w .wp.apblood
the vessels of .wp.apdawho have
patients
w w
ww myocardial w
w
infarction. ww ww ww ww
45. Sources and uses of cyclosporin – A:
t ni.entet Trichoderma polysporum. t t t
l a il.ani.ente
cyclosporin – A is obtained l a il.afrom l a il.ani.ente It is used as immune l a il.ani.ente suppressant druglaused i l.ani.ente
sas sas saas sas sas
.wp.apdaada in organ transplantation. .wp apdaada It is also used as.wpanti
. apdaadinflammatory,
. .w .apdaadaand anti parasitic.
antifungal
p .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
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w.w.apda
w
tet ntet t t t t t t
46. aFrom l a il.ani.enwhich microorganisms a l a il.ani.ehuman insulin is manufactured?
w .wp.apda From E.coli andwSaccharamyces .wp.apda cerevisiae
ww 47. What is sewage? ww ww ww ww ww
Waste generated every day in the cities and towns containing human excreta is called sewage.
48. Components etet of sewage: i.ni.entet etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ala s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada 99% water and 1%aof a
adsuspended solids and ada organic and inorganic
other ada substances. ada
ww 49. Primary treatment ww of sewage: ww ww ww ww
Removal of solid and particulate organic matter and inorganic materials from sewage through filtration
and sedimentation.t t t t t
50. adsaasBacterial floc: a sas sas sas
. p.apda Masses of bacteria . p. daadsas
apassociated . p.apdaada . p. aada
apdlike . p.apdaada
w w w w with fungal
w w filaments to form a mesh
w w structure w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
51. Activated sludge:
Once the BOD sewage water is reduced, the effluent is passed into a settling tank where bacteria flocs t
are i .an i entet
.
allowed to settle. This i . ni .entet
sediment
a of bacterial flocsi .ani . t
enistecalled activated i
sludge. .ani entet
. t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a l a l a l a l a l a
asas ss
aada adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apdad Which are chlorine
52. w .wp.apd
resistant microorganisms?
ww Cryptosporidium ww and Giardia ww ww ww ww
53. Which project is maintaining the quality of rivers?
t t .entet (NRCP) in 1995 l,ais .entetproject of maintaining t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene River Conservation
National
a l a il.aniPlan a il.anithe a l a il.ani.enethe quality of rivers.a l a il.ani.ene
s
54. adsa River Protection Plans s
adsand
a years of launching: adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww The Ganga action ww Plan ww
- 14.1.1986 ww ww ww
The Yamuna action Plan - April 1993
55. Hown.eis teGobar
t gas generated? t etet etet etet
l ail.ai n gas is generatedsaby l .ani.ente
ailthe l ail.ani.n of cattle dung.saslail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
aas aGobar
s ada s anaerobic s
ada a
decomposition
s ada s
ada as
w .wp.apdad Components ofwGobar
56. .wp.apda gas: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Methane, CO2 with some Hydrogen, Nitrogen and other gases in trace amount.
57. Bio control: tet
It
l a i
isl.ania.enmethod of controlling l a il .entet by the use of microbes
.anipests l a il
t
.ani.ente such as bacteria, l a il
fungi,
t
.ani.ente viruses or by naturally
l a il.ani.ente
t
sas saas saas sas sas
.wp.apdaada occurring substances .wp.apdaadderived from plants .wp.apdaadanimals.
and .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 58. Biopesticides: ww ww ww ww ww
The use of microbes or other biological agents to control specific pest are called bio-pesticides.
t t t t t t t
Eg.
l a i.ente bird beetle is useful
il.anLady l a ntecontrol
il.ani.eto Aphids lail.ani.ente l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
a
adsas a
adsas a a a
.wp.apda Dragonflies arewuseful .wp.apda to control mosquito daadsas
.wp.aplarvae .wp.apda
adsas
.wp.apda
adsas
w w w w w
ww 59. Cry toxin: ww ww ww ww ww
It is the toxin found in B. thuringiensis
60. What t crygenes?
tare t t t t t t t t
s
s Delta-endotoxin is encoded s s by crygenes. daadsa s s s s s
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada . wp.ap .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 61. Which insects wware affected by delta w endotoxin?
w ww ww ww
Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera and Hymenoptera
62. Whatetare weedicides?
l a il.ani.net l
etet
ail.ani.n without harming l
etet
ail.ani.n They are secondary l i.ente
t
ail.anmetabolites l ail.ani.n
etet
s aSubstances
s that destroy s asweeds s as crops. s as derived s afrom
s
ada daada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda fungi, bacteria w .wp.approtozoa.
and w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 63. Mycoherbicides: ww ww ww ww ww
First Bio herbicides developed in 1981. Derived from Fungus phytopthora palmivora. It controls the
t .entet crops. t t t
growth
l a il.ani.enteof strangular vinelain il.anicitrus l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
64. aVirusesl a il.ani.ene involved in Bio control:
adsa s s s adsa s adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda Biculoviruses - w kill apdaada and other arthropods
.wp.insects .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w w w
ww Nucleopolyhedro ww viruses - w
winsecticidal applicationww ww ww
65. Bio fertilizers:
Formulation etet of living organisms etetthat enrich the nutrient etetquality of the soil i.ani.entet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl al s asl ail.ani.n
66. ada What are the physico a chemical properties
adand adaof soil? ada ada
ww Soil structure, wwtexture, water holding wwcapacity, cation exchange ww capacity, pH and organic ww nutrients. ww
67. Main sources of bio fertilizers:
Bacteria, t fungi and cyanobacteria t t t t
68. adsaasWhat bacteria are found sasin the root nodules? What
sas is their significance? sas sas
. p apda Rhizobium bacteria
. . p. aada
apdare . p.apdaada They are for nitrogen . p.apdaada fixation. . p.apdaada
w w w w found in the root
w wnodules. w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
69. Examples of nitrogen fixing bacteria:
Rhizobium, Azospirillum and Azotobacter
i
70. asMycorrhiza: .ani entet
. il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
l a l a l a a l a a l a a l a
adsa adsas asas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda A symbiotic association w .wp.apda between a fungus w pdadthe roots of leguminous
.wp.aand w .wp.apda plants is called Mycorrhizaw .wp.apda w
ww 71. Examples ofwnitrogen w fixing Cyanobacteria: ww ww ww ww
Oscilla, Nostoc, Anabaena, Tolypothrix etc.
t t t t t t t t t t
72.
a l il.ani.ene promoting substances
Growth
a a l a il.ani.enesecreted by Cyanobacteria:
s
adsa Indole – 3 – Aceticaacid, s
adsa Indole – 3 – Buteric s
adsa NAA, Aminoacids,adproteins
acid, adsa s and vitamins.papdaadsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w.w. w
ww 73. Organic farming: ww ww ww ww ww
It is a technique involved in the cultivation of plants and rearing of animals in the natural ways.
74. Bio nremediation:
etet t etet etet t t
l ail.ai.nnatural or genetically l i.ente
ail.anengineered l ail.ani.n to reduce or degrade l ail.ani.npollutants is called l il.ani.ene
abio
s
ada aUsing
s s
ada as s
ada a
microorganismss s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apda remediation. w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
75. Two types of Bio remediation:
In situt Bioremediation: Treatment tet of contaminated.nwater tet and soil in the site
i . ni e
. n et i . ni e
. n i i e
. n i .ani.entet i .ani.ente
t
Ex
l a l a
situ Bioremediation: l a l a
treatment of contaminated l a l awater and soil which lare
a l removed from the site
l a l
sas sas sas sas sas
. p
w apdaada and treated.
. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 76. Aerobic microbes ww in Bioremediation: ww ww ww ww
They degrade the pollutants like pesticides and hydrocarbon s in the presence of O2
t t t t t t t t t t
77.
a l il.ani.ene of microbes inalbioremediation:
Examples
a a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas - oil spills .p.apdaadsa
s adsas adsas
w .wp.apda Pseudomonas w putida
.wp.apda w w w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Nitrosomonas wweuropaea ww and Halogenated hydrocarbons
- Benzene ww ww ww
78. How is PET plastic is recycled?
PET.niplastic t t is recycled by a .kind t bacteria called Ideonella
t of t t sakaiensis. These t t
bacteria produce PETase t t
a l a ila .ene a l a ilani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
s and NHETase enzymes s
sto break down PET plastics s
s into Teraphthalicdacid s
s and ethylene glycol.dadsa s
apdaada apdaada apdaada apaada aa
w w.wp .
79. Anaerobic w .
microbes
w wp. in bioremediation: w w .wp.
w w .wp.
w w.wp.p w
w w w w w ww
They degrade the pollutants in the absence of oxygen [Dechloromonas aromatic bacteria degrade
benzene. Phanerochaete chrysosporum, anaerobic fungi degrade pesticide, Polyaromatic
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet lail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
s ahydrocarbons,
s dyes, Trinitrotoluene,
s as Cyanide, Carbon
s as tetrachloride etc.]
s as s as
aa ada aa ada ada
w p.apdad The gases produced
80.
.w w .wp.apdain anaerobic sludge w wp.apdad are
.digester w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww Methane, hydrogen ww sulphide and carbon ww di oxide. ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
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p
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.pda p.apdad
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
ww ww ww
Chapter 9 – Applications of Bio Technology ww ww ww
1. What etisetRecombinant DNA? etet etet etet etet

ada Extracting a gene from adaone organisms andatransferring ada it to the DNA adaanother organism of
of ada or
same
ww difference species. ww ww ww ww ww
2. Bio Technology:
Application t of science and engineering t principles for ethe t processing of biological t materials to provide t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.nte l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasgoods and services.dadsaas sas sas sas
. p
3.
w .apdaada Composition of human .wp .apa insulin: .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It is made up of 51 amino acids arranged in two polypeptide chains A and B. Chain A has 21 amino
acids and chain B has 30 amino acids.
tet t t t t t t t t
4. aUses
l a il.ani .enof insulin: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas adsas cellular uptake and adsas adsas
w .wp.apda It controls the w .wp.apda level in blood. Itwfacilitates
glucose .wp.apda w .wp.apdautilization of glucose w pdarelease
.wp.ato w
ww energy. ww ww ww ww ww
5. Dia Mellitus:
t
.entethe t t ntet glucose level and ntet complex ail.ani.entet
a
due
l a il.anito a l il.ani.ene
of insulin. It characterized
a by increasing
a l a il.ani.eblood a l a il.ani.e
produce
al
s
daadsa symptoms. daadsa s daadsa s daadsa s daadsas
. p.ap . p .ap . p.ap . p .ap . p.ap
ww ww ww ww ww w
ww 6. How is humulin ww (human insulin) manufactured? ww ww ww ww
Human insulin gene is inserted on plasmid of E.coli bacteria. The cytoplasm of E.coli bacteria synthesise
human enteinsulin.
t etet t t etet etet
lail.ani. was the approval l ail.ani.nto the recombinant l il.ani.ene
ainsulin l ail.ani.n l ail.ani.n
7. dadsaasWhen aas agiven
s aas as for usage? s
ada as s
ada as
w .wp.apa In 1982, with the w .apdad name Humulin.w.wp.apdad
.wptrade w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
8. When was it marketed as humulin?
1986. t t t t t t
9. sasWhich l
ee
ail.ani.n are called human l il.ani.ente harmones (hGH)?
growth
a l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
a dsaas sas sas
. p.apdaada Somatostatin and . p . pdaadsas
aSomatopropin secreted. p. daaanterior
aby
p pituitary. . p .apdaada . p.apdaada
w w ww w w w w w w w w
ww 10. How is hGHwsynthesised? ww ww ww ww
hGH gene is isolated and incorporated with the plasmid of E.coli. Now E.coli secretes hGH. This
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene is isolated andalpurified
hormone
a a il.ani.ene by fermentation a l a il.ani.ene
technology.
w .wp.apdad What is haemophilia?
11.
w .wp.apda What are its characters? w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Lack of or prolonged ww blood clotting w w
process is called haemophilia. ww It is characterizedwby w prolonged ww
clotting time and internal bleeding.
12. What t interferons?
tare t t t t t t t t
s
adsa Interferons are proteinaceous, adsa s antiviral, species s
adsa specific substancesadproduced adsa s dsa
by animal cellsdaawhen s
w .wp.apda infected with viruses. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pa w .wp.ap w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
13. Who discovered interferons?
AlickeIssacs and Jean Lindenann in 1957.
l a il.ani.ntet l a il.ani.entet l ail.ani.n
etet
lail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
14. saasTypes and role of interferons: s as s as s as s as
ad ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda Three types of w .wp.apda
interferons: α β ϒ. They .wp.apda the cellular DNA
stimulate
w w .apdaproduce
.wpto antiviral .wp.apda which
enzymes
w w
ww w
inhibit viralwreplication. ww ww ww ww
15. What are the therapeutic applications of interferons?
tet
.ani.enfor
t
.ani.ente AIDS, multiple lsclerosis,
t
.ani.ente hepatitis C andlaherpes
t
.ani.ente zoster .ani.ente
t
Used
l a il the treatment ofl a icancer,
l a i l i l l a il
sas sas sas sas sas
.16.
wp.apdaada Types of recombination .wp .apdaada vaccines: .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
Sub
l a .entet recombination vaccines,
il.aniunit l a
t t
il.ani.ene attenuated recombinant l a
t t
il.ani.ene vaccines andaDNA l a ntet
il.ani.evaccines. l a
t t
il.ani.ene
asaa s as
asa manufactured? adaadsa as adsa s adsaas
w .w p.apdad How are sub unit
17.
w .apdad
.wpvaccines w .wp.p w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Sub unit vaccines ww are manufactureswby w using the components wwof pathogenic organisms ww rather than ww
using the whole pathogens.
18. What et the pathogenic components
etare etet used in the manufacture etet of sub uniti.vaccines? etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl alani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Cellular components da proteins, polypeptides,
alike ada and DNAs ada ada
ww 19. What are the wwadvantages of sub unitww recombinant vaccines?ww ww ww
Their purity in preparation, stability and safe use.
20. Whatentisetattenuated vaccine? entet t t t
sasGenetically modifieddabacteria dsaas and viruses areadmade sas nonpathogenic d andsaused
s as live vaccine. adsaas
apdaada How is recombinant apahepatitis apda a apaada ada
w w .wp.
21. w w .wp . B vaccine
w w . p.
synthesised?
w w w .wp.
w w.wp.p w
w w w w w ww
It is a sub unit vaccine produced by cloning of hepatitis B surface antigen (Hbs Ag) gene in the yeast.
22. Two strategies involved in gene ttherapy:
a. i . n
Gene
a i entetaugmentation therapy
. il.ani.ene
t
b. Gene inhibition
t t
il.ani.enetherapy
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
w .wp.apdad Gene Augmentation
23. w .wp.apdaTherapy: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww It involves the wwinsertion of DNA w genome to replacewthe
winto w missing gene products. ww ww
24. Gene Inhibition Therapy:
t t .ani.ente
t t t .ani.ente
t t t
a l il.ani.ene the insertionaof
Itainvolves
l a ilantisense gene which inhibits
a l a il.ani.ene the expressionaof l a ildominant gene.
a l a il.ani.ene
s
25. adsa Two approaches pofapdgene s
adsa therapy: adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .w. a w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww a. Somatic cell ww gene therapy b. Germ wwline gene Therapy ww ww ww
26. Gene therapy:
It involves etet the isolation of a specific etet gene , making iits ecopies
tet and inserting them etetinto target cells to i.ani.entet
a l ail.ani.ndesired proteins.saslail.ani.n a l al.ani.n a l ail.ani.n lal
a da
s
ada make
s
a daada a da
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a daadsaas
w.w p.p
27. Somatic cell gene .p
w.wptherapy: w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It involves the insertion of a fully functional and expressible gene into a target somatic cell to correct a
genetic tetdisease permanently which
tet is non - heritable. t t t
28. sasGermline
l i
ala . ni e
. n cell gene therapy: l a il.ani e
. n
sas as
daadsathe saas sas
.wp.apdaada It involves the introduction .wp .apdaada of DNA (gene).wp.ainto
p germ cells which
.wp. aadcaused
apdis on to the .wp.apdaada
successive
w ww w w w w
ww generation.w ww ww ww ww
29. Stem cells:
tet are undifferentiated t t t t t t t t
a
Stem
l a il.ani.encells a l a il.ani.enecells found in the a l il.ani.ene of multi cellularalanimals.
tissues
a a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
asas daadsas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apdad Properties of stem
30.
w .wp.apcells: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Capable of cell ww renewal, exhibit cellular ww potency, can be differentiated ww into any other wwtypes of cells ww
derived into ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.
31. Types toft stem cells: t t t t t t t t
s
s a. embryonic stem cells s s b. Adult stem dcells s s s s s s
.wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 32. Properties of wwembryonic stem cells:ww ww ww ww
Pleuripotent - can develop into three primary germ layers like ectoderm, endoderm and
mesoderm.
l a il.ani.entet l aidevelop
etet
l.ani.n l
etet
ail.ani.n of cells l ail.ani.n
etet
l ail.ani.n
etet
s aMultipotent
s - scan
as into different s astypes s as s as
ada aa aa aa ada
w .wp.apda Undifferentiated w .apdad- when stimulated,
.wpcells w .apdad develop into more
.wpthey w .apdad two hundred types
.wpthan w pdacells.
.wp.aof w
ww Embryonic stem ww cells are immortal.ww ww ww ww
33. Properties of adult stem cells (Somatic stem cells)
tet
.ani.encreate
t
.ani.ente to them .ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
.ani.ente
t
-l can
a il another cells l asimilar
il l a il l a il l a il
sas sas dsaacells
s sas sas
.wp.apdaada - multipotent to .w p .apdaada into different types
develop .wp.apdaaof . .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
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w.w p
w.w
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w.w.apda
w
tet tet t t t t t t
a il.ani.enon
-laacts repair system a il.ani.enbody.
oflathe a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s s adsa s adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda - replenishing adult aada
.wp.apdtissues. .wp.apda .wp.apda .wp.apda
w w w w w w
ww 34. Stem cell bank: ww ww ww ww ww
It is the extraction, processing and storage of stem cells for future treatment
35 Amniotic etet stem cell bank: i.ani.entet etet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl al s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada It is a facility of storing adastem cells derived from adaamniotic fluid. ada ada
ww 36. Cord cell banking: ww ww ww ww ww
It is the extraction of stem cells from umbilical cord during child birth.
37. Molecular t Diagnosis: t t t t
sasRecombinant DNA technology, a
daadsas
Polymerase Chain sas Reaction(PCR) andda ELISA
sas are some of the techniques sas
.wp.apdaada used in molecular .wp .adiagnosis
p (early . p.
diagnosis).
w apdaada .wp.apada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
38. Conventional methods of diagnosis:
Microscopic examination, serumt analysis, urine analysistand other laboratory techniques
39. asTechniques i .ani .entet that are reliable .ente helpful in early diagnosis?
il.aniand
t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
l a l a l a a l a a l a a l a
adsa asas adsas adsas adsas
w .wp.apda rDNA technology, w pdad
.wp.apolymerase .wp.apda(PCR) and ELISA. w.wp.apda
chain reaction
w w .wp.apda w
ww 40. Who discovered ww ELISA test: ww ww ww ww
Eva Engvall and Peter Perlmanin in 1971.
t t of ELISA: t t t t t t t t
41.
a l il.ani.ene
Diagmnosis
s
adsa - A tool for determining s
adsa serum antibody concentrations adsa s for HIV papdaadsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .w. w .wp.apda w
ww - Detecting w w presence of specific wantigens
the w hormones like w w
human chorionic gonadotropins. ww ww
42. Types of ELISA:
Direct, .enteIndirect,
t Sand wich and etecompetitive
t methods. etet etet etet
43.dadsaasPCRlail.anitest: s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada aada ada ada
w .wp.apa It is an invitro amplification w .wp.apda technique w .wp.apdfor
used synthesizing .wp.apdacopies of DNA of interest.
multiple
w w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
44. Who developed the PCR technique first?
It wastfirst developed by Kary tMullin in 1983.
i . ni .en et i . ni .en et i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
i .ani.ente
t
45. sasSteps l ala involved in PCR test: sas l a l a
sas l a l l a l l a l
apdaada a. Denaturation .wpb..apdRenaturation aada apdaada and c. Synthesis.wpor adsaas
apdaPrimer
sas
apdaada
w .wp. w or purification
w .wp. w . extension. w .wp. w
ww 46. What is menat ww by denaturation of DNA? ww ww ww ww
The double strand DNA is denatured by high temp(95 degree C) and separating the two individual
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene
strands.
w .wp.apdad What is renaturation?
47.
ww Each single w w
strand obtained by denaturation ww is allowed to hybridize ww with a primer , that ww is, synthesis of ww
complementary strand.
48. What tis tmeant by Synthesis.nor t
t Primer extension? .ni.entet t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a ilai.ene a l a ila a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
s Primer template is used s
s to synthesize DNA by s
susing Taq-DNA polymerase. s s s s
w w w w w w
ww 49. What is RT-PCR? ww What is its role? ww ww ww ww
RT-PCR is Reverse Transcriptase PCR which is used for the amplification of RNA.
50. Useseof PCR in clinical diagnosis:
l a il.ani.ntet l agenetic
t t
il.ani.ene diseases, viraladiseases, l
etet
ail.ani.n bacterial diseases lail.an i.ente
t
l ail.ani.n
etet
s aUsed
s for the diagnosis sof
as s s s as etc. s as
aa aa ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Genetic diseases
51. w .apdad
.wpdetected by PCR: w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww Sickle cell anaemia, ww Beta Thalassamia wwand Phenylketonurea.ww ww ww
52. Transgenesis:
t .entetot the genome of lanimals t t t
l a il.ani.ente
Introduction of foreign DNA
l a il.aniin a i l.ani.ente to create stable,laheritable
i l.ani.ente characters. lail.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.53.
wp.apdaada Transgenic animals: .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
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w.w p
w.w
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. pda adad
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w.w.apda
w
t t t
.ani.ente DNA are calledlaTransgenic t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene which receive the
Animals
a a l a ilforeign a il.ani.ene animals. alail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
asa s asa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apdad Transgene: w.wp.apdad
54.
ww Foreign gene wwwhich is introduced into wwanother animal is called wwTransgene. ww ww
55. Which are the animals that are developed by transgenesis?
Mice, et Rabbit, Pig, Cow,i.nGoat,
etRat, etet Sheep and Fish. i.ani.entet etet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl alai.n s asl al s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
56. ada For which human diseases, ada transgenic models a available?
adare ada ada
ww Cancer, Alzeimer’s ww disease, Cystic fibrosis, ww Rheumatoid arthritis ww and sickle cell anaemia. ww ww
57. What are Biological Prioducts?
Substances t obtained from living t organisms that are nused t for the preventionnand ttreatment of diseases. t
l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ai.ente l a il.ai.ente l a il.ani.ente
58. adsaasMention some Biological dsaas products. saas saas sas
.wp.apda Anti toxins, Bacterial .wp.apdaaand viral vaccines, . p.
blood
w apdaadproducts and . p
hormonal
w .apdaadextracts. .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
59. Natural protein adhesives:
They aret non toxic bio degradable t proteins and rarely trigger an immune response. They are used to t
i . ni ente tendons, tissues, ifill
. . ni enintethe
. i . ni . et
entrepair i . ni entet
. t
il.ani.ene
areattach
l a l a a l a l a teeth cavities a l aand
l a broken bones.
a l a l a a l a
w .wp.apdad Cloning:
ww It is the process ww of producing genetically ww identical individuals ww naturally or artificially.ww ww
61. Which was the first cloned mammal? Who developed it? Which year?
t t ni.entet mammal. It was ni.entet ntet Campbell in 1997. t t
a
Sheep
l a il.ani.ene“Dolly” was the first a l a il.acloned a l a il.adeveloped by Ian Wilmut
a l a il.ani.e
and
a l a il.ani.ene
s
62. adsa Totipotency: adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww It refers to the ww potential of a cell to w w
develop different types w ofwcells, tissues, organs and ww finally an ww
Organism.
ada ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda Chapter: 10w .wp.apda
Organisms and w .wp.apda
Population w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
1. Define t
Ecology. t t t t
l ai l.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasIt is defined as the study sasof environmental house sas that includes all the sas
organisms in it and alldthe sas
.wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apaada
w functional processes w that make the w ww habitable.
house w w w
ww ww ww ww ww
2. What the Ecology is composed of?
Different levels of organisms, populations, communities Ecosystems etc.
i .ani.entet i .ani entet
. i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
3. sasDefine l al population. saslal a l a l a l a a l a
ada aa asas asas asas
w .wp.apda Population canwbe pdad
.wp.adefined p.apdad
as a group ofw.people/individuals
w of any
w .apdadkind of species inwa.wpparticular
.wpone .apdad w
ww Place and inter ww breed among themselves. ww ww ww ww
4. Community (Biotic Community):
t
ni.entepopulations t t t t t t t
All
l a il.athe occupying
l a il.ani.enaegiven area together l a i.ente as Community.
il.anknown l a il.ani.ene l a il.ani.ene
asaa s asaa s adsaas adsaas adsaas
w .wp.apdad Ecosystem: w.wp.apdad
5.
ww The Biotic community ww and the Non w w environment (Abiotic)
living ww together called Ecosystem. ww ww
6. Biome:
Large et
etregional or sub continental etet system characterized t a major vegetation
eteby tet is called Biome. .ni.entet
etype
a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ani.n laila
a
s s
7. daada Ecosphere:
a da
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a daadsaas
w.wp.p It includes all w.wp.p ww w
p.p
.earth w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww wwthe living organisms ofwthe interacting with ww the physical environment ww to regulate ww
their distribution, abundance, production and evolution.
8. Environment: t t t t t
l
It a il.ani.ente the different conditions
includes l a il.ani.ente in which the organisms l a il.ani.ente live. l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
9. a l il.ani.ene
Influencing
a factors of environment:
adsa s s s asa s adsa s adsa s
.wp.apda Light, temperature, aada
.wp.apdpressure, H2O, salinity pdad These are also called
.wp.aetc. .wp.apdaabiotic factors. w.wp.apda
w w w w w
ww 10. Role of environmental ww (abiotic) factors ww in the life of organisms: ww ww ww
Environmental factors influence in the growth, distribution, number, behavior and reproduction.
11. Habitat: etet etet etet etet etet
ada It is a dwelling place adaan organism.
of ada ada ada
ww 12. Geographical wwrange: ww ww ww ww
Collection of all habitats of a species constitute Geographical range.
13. Howeare t food chains or foodn.eweb t formed? t t t
l a il.ani.nte l a il.ai nte l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasOrganisms in an habitat sasinteract with each other sasat different tropic level sasform food chains and sfood
as
.wp.apdaada web. .wp apdaada
. .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
14. Ecological niche.
It is the tspace occupied by an organism. It is also the sum total of its environmental requirement.
15. asGuilds: i .ani .ente i .an i entet
. i .ani entet
. i .ani entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
l a l a l a l a l a l a l a l a l a
adsa asas adsas adsas asas
w .wp.apda Groups of species w pdad comparable rolewand
.wp.awith .wp.apdaniche dimensions within w .wp.apdathe community are w .apdad Guilds.
called
.wp w
ww 16. ww
Ecological equivalents: ww ww ww ww
Species that occupy the same niche in different geographical regions are termed as Ecological
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.ene
equivalents.
s
17. adsa How does the temperature adsa s influence in the s
adsa organisms?
living adsa s adsa s
ww Temperature wwinfluence in the metabolism, ww behavior, reproduction, ww development and wwdeath. ww
18. Bergmann’s rule.
According etet to this rule, birds and
etetmammals attain greater etet body size in colder region
etet than the warmer etet
s a l ail.ani.n
region.
s s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa aa ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Allen’s Rule: w.wp.apdad
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Warm blooded animals living in colderclimate tend to have shorter limbs, ears and other appendages
than those tet who live in warmer teclimate.
t t t t
20. sasJordon’s
l i
ala . ni .en rule: l a il.an i e
. n
a saas sas a
. p.apdaada In aquatic animals, . p . daadsas the temperature
aplower . p .apdaadwater,
of more the . p.apdaada (size of animals .w
vertebrae is
p . daadsas
aincreased).
p
w w ww w w w w w w w
ww 21. Eurytherms:w ww ww ww ww
Organisms that survive in wide range of temperature are referred to as Eurytherms.
t t t t t t t t t t
22.
a l il.ani.ene
Stenotherms:
adsas adsas asas asas adsas
w .wp.apda Organisms thatwtolerate .wp.apda narrow range of w .apdad
.wptemperature. w w .apdad frog, lizards andwsnakes.
Examples:.pFish, .wp.apda w
ww 23. Influence ofwlight w in animals: ww ww ww ww
Light influence in growth, pigmentation, migration, reproduction, metabolism, gene mutation, vision
etc..ni.entet t t t t t t t t
a l a ila a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
24. adsa Pedogenesis: asa s s s s s s s
.wp.apda It is the formation pdad
.wp.aof .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada
w w soil. w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
25. Pedosphere:
It is the soil zone where mixture of organic chemicals,etminerals, gases, liquidseand microorganisms that
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.net l a il.ani.ntet l ail.ani.n
etet
s atogether
s support life. s as s as s as s as
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Humidity:
ww It is the moisture ww in the form of invisible ww vapour in the atmosphere. ww ww ww
27. Absolute humidity:
It
l ais
il .entettotal mass of water
.anithe l a il.anvapour
t
i.ente present in a given l a il
tet
.ani.envolume or mass of air
l a il i.ente
.anwithout
t
considering the
l a il.ani.ente
t
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada temperature. .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp .apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
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a
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w.w
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t t t t t
28. aRelativel a il.ani.ene humidity: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s s
daadsa vapour present.pin.apdthe s s sa s asa s
.wp.apda It is the amount .of
p.apwater aadaair and is expressed aadpercentage
.wp.apdas p.apdad
of the.amount
w w w w w w w w w
ww needed for w w
saturation. ww ww ww ww
29. Acclimatization:
Animals etet modify their response etetot environmental changes etet in short time. i.ani.entet etet
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl al s asl ail.ani.n
30. ada Biomass: ada ada ada ada
ww They are large ww regions of earth thatwhave w similar or commonwvegetation w and climaticwconditions.
w ww
31. Aquatic biomes of the earth:
Freshentwater t - Lakes, Ponds,entRivers t etc. t t t
l a il.ani. e l a il.ani. e l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasBrackish water- Estuaries saas and wet lands saas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Marine - . p.apdaadreefs,
Coral
w pelagic zones .wp.apdaadabyssal
and zones. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
32. Major biomes of the earth:
Tundra,tTaiga, Grass land, Alpine, Forest and desert biome.
33. asWhich i .ani .enteis treeless plain biome? i .an i entet
. t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda Tundra in the Northern w .wp.apda parts of Asia, Europe w .wp.apdaand North America. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 34. Where are the ww tropical forests seen? ww ww ww ww
They occur in the Eastern North America, Northern Asia and Western and Central Asia.
t t t
.ani.ente seen? t t t t t t
35.
a
Where
l a il.ani.eneare the temperate a l a iforests
l a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
adsa They occur in eastern s
adsNorth
a America, Northern s
adsaAsia and Western and s
adsCentral
a Europe. papdaadsa s
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.w. w
ww 36. Conformers:ww ww ww ww ww
In animals like fish, the osmotic concentration of body fluids changes with that of surrounding water’s
osmotic entet concentration. Such eanimal
tet are called conformers. etet etet etet
lail.ani.
37.dadsaasHibernation and Aestivation:
s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apa Hibernation: w .wp.apda sleep – some lifewactivities
Winter .wp.apda are suspended w .wp.apda winter.
during w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Aestivation: Summer sleep - some life activities are suspended during summer.
38. Properties tet of population: .ni.entet t t t
il.an
Population
l a i .en density, Natality
l a il a (Birth rate), Mortality l a il.ani.ente rate), Age distribution,
(Death l a il.ani.ente Biotic potential,lail.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada Dispersion and Population .wp.apdaada growth. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w ww w w w w
ww 39. Population w density: ww ww ww ww
It refers to the total number of individuals of a species in relation to unit of space and time.
t t t t t t t t t t
40.
a l il.ani.ene
Natality:
adsas adsasproduction of new aada
ss adsas germination or fission. adsas
w .wp.apda It is an expression w .wp.aof
pdathe w .wp.apdindividuals by birth, hatching,
ww 41. Mortality: ww ww ww ww ww
It is the loss of individuals in unit time by death.
42. Population t t dispersion: t t t t t t t t
s
s It is the tendency ofdthe s
s individuals to spread s
s all directions by migration.
in s s s s
.wp.apdaada .wp.apaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww 43. Migration: ww ww ww ww ww
It is a peculiar and unique way of mass population movement from one place to another and returning
back.etet etet etet etet etet
n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n ail.ani.n
lail.ani.
44. saasEmigration: s asl s asl s asl s asl
ad ada aa ada ada
w .wp.apda It occurs whenwthere .wp.apdais overcrowding. Itwis pdadmovement of thewindividuals
.wp.athe .wp.apda from .wp.apda region
overcrowded
w w
ww to less populated ww region. It leads towpopulation w
decline in a place. ww ww ww
45. Immigration:
It
l ais
il .entetentry of individuals
.anithe l a il.anin
t
i.entaegiven area. It leads l a il.ato tet
ni.enraise in the population l a il ntet beyond carrying
.ani.elevel l a il.ani.ente
t
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada capacity. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
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a
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. pda adad
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w.w.apda
w
t t ni.entet t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.aCHAPTER: 11 BIODIVERSITY a l a il.ani.eneAND CONSERVATION a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
ww 1. Biodiversity:ww ww ww ww ww
It is the variability among the individuals within the space, between the species, habitat etc.
2. Who tet
eintroduce the term “Biodiversity”? etet etet etet etet
ada Walter Rosen (1986) ada ada ada ada
ww 3. Who popularized ww the term Biodiversity? ww ww ww ww
Edward Wilson.
4. Levels oft Biodiversity: t t t t
sasGenetic diversity, Species sas diversity and Community/Ecosystem sas diversity. sas sas
. p
5.
w .apdaada What is Genetic .diversity? wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It refers to the difference in the genetic make-up between the species and in the same species.
6. Examples of genetic diversity: t
In i . ni
India,
a entet 50,000 genetic variants
. t
il.ani.ene in paddy, 1000agenetic
t t
il.ani.enevariants in mango etc.
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
a l a l a l a l a a l a a l a
w .wp.apdad Species richness:
ww The numberwof w species per unit areawat w specific time is calledwSpecies w richness. ww ww
8. Three indices of diversity:
t t t t t t t t t t
a l il.ani.eneBeta and Gamma.
Alpha,
s
9. adsa Alpha diversity: papdaadsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
w .wp.apda w .w. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww It is measured wwby counting the number ww of species in a particular ww area, community orwecosystem. w ww
10. Beta diversity:
It isnspecies
etet diversity between etadjacent
et ecosystems nby etecomparing
t the number etof
et species in each i.ni.entet
a l ail.ai.n a l ail.ani.n a l ail.ai.n a l ail.ani.n lala
a da
s
ada ecosystem.
s
a da
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a da
s
ada s
a daadsaas
w.w p.p
11. Gamma diversity: w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w.wp.p w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It refers to the diversity to the habitats over the total landscape or geographical area.
12. Taxonomic tet impediments(hindrance): t
i . ni e
. n i .ani.entespecies on the earth i .aniis et
.entaround i i.ente
t
.anspecies. i .ani.ente
t
l a l
Current a estimation of different
l a l l a l of 8-9 million
l a l But we do not
l a l
sas sas sas sas sas
.wp.apdaada know the exact magnitude .wp.apdaada of our normal.wpwealth. .apdaada This is called Taxonomic .wp.apdaada impediments. .wp.apdaada
w w ww w w w
ww 13. How many species ww are described sowfar? ww ww ww
About 1.5 million species of microorganisms, animals and plants have been described.
t t t t t t t t t t
14.
a l il.ani.ene determining Biodiversity
Factors
a a l a il.ani.ene distribution pattern: a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsas adsas distance fromaequator(latitude) adsas asas ss
aada of
w .wp.apda Temperature, Precipitation, w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w wp.apdad from sea levelware
and.altitude .wp.apdsome w
ww the factors.ww ww ww ww ww
15. Which region harbor more biodiversity?
Tropical t t region is hoboring .more t t biodiversity than temperate t t or polar regions. t t t t
s
16. adsa Which regions provide s
scongenital habitats for s
sliving organisms? s s s s
.wp.apda Warm tropical w .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada . wp.apdaada
w w w w w
ww ww regions between thewtropic w of cancer and Capricorn ww on either side ofwequator. w ww
17. What are the factors that are more or less stable in tropical region?
Climate, Seasons, temperature, humidity and photoperiods.
l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.entet l
etet
l.ani.n
aireservoirs l il.ani.ene
aregion?
t t
l ail.ani.n
etet
18. saasWhich are all the biological s as resources that are sthe
as in Biodivese s as s as
ad ada ada ada ada
ww ww ww ww ww ww
19. What are the factors that make threats to Biodiversity?
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
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w.w
a
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w.w.apda
w
t t t t t t .ani.ente
t t t
a l il.ani.ene hazards, humanalactivities,
Natural
a a il.ani.ene fragmentations,and a l a il.ani.enedegradation dueato l a ilagricultural practices,alail.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s asa s
w .wp.apda extractions(mining,fishing,logging,harvesting)
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda and developments(settlements,
w .wp.apda w w .apdad
industries,.pand
w
ww associated infra ww structures) ww ww ww ww
20. What is meant by co extinction?
etet
Coi.extinction of a species isi.nthe etetloss of a species asi.athe t
eteconsequences of extinction etet of another species. etet
s asl alani.n s asl alai.n s asl al ni.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada Example: Forest trees a
adextinct as there wasano a
adagents ada
for pollinationadbecause of the extinction adofa Orchid
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.pda w .wp.pa w .wp.apda w
ww bees. ww ww ww ww ww
21. Forestry:
Thereentis ta tendency to growneconomically t important etrees t like teak, sandal, noak,sal t in the forest t
l a il.ani. e l a il .ai.ente l a il.ani.nte l a il.ai.ente l a il.ani.ente
sasresulting in loss of other sasforest trees. sas sas sas
. p.
22.
w apdaada What are the characters .wp.apdaada of hot spots? .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
Hot spots are the areas characterized with high concentration of endemic species experiencing unusual
habitat modification
t loss.
i . ni .entehot il.ato et
ni.entNorman t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
t t
il.ani.ene
23. asDefine l a l a spots according a l a Mayers. a l a a l a a l a
adsa adsas adsas asas adsas
w .wp.apda Regions that harbor w .wp.apdaa great diversity ofwendemic .wp.apda species that have w pdad significantly impacted
.wp.abeen w .wp.apda and w
ww altered by human ww activities. ww ww ww ww
24. Endangered species:
t t t t t
.ani.ente endangered species. t t t t
a l il.ani.ene that is likely to
Aaspecies
a l il.ani.ene extinct shortlyais
become
a l a ilcalled a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
s
25. adsa Extinction: adsa s adsa s adsa s adsa s
ww Species is considered ww extinction when wwnon of its members are wwalive anywhere in thewuniverse. w ww
26. Natural extinction:
It isna.enslow tet process of replacement etet of existing species ewith
tet better adapted species etet due to etet
s a l ail.ai
environmental
s changes, s asl ail.ani.n
predators and diseases. s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Mass extinction:
ww ww ww ww ww ww
It is due to environmental catastrophes. During Permian period (225 million years ago) 90% of the
shallow tetwater marine invertebrates tet disappeared. t t t
l i
ala .
28. sasAnthropogenic ni .en extinction: l a il .a ni .en
sas dsaas destruction, over adsaas sas
.wp.apdaada This is done by human .wp.apdaadaactivities like hunting, .wp.apdaahabit .wp.apdaexploitation, .wp.apdaadaand
urbanization
w w w w w w
ww industrialization. ww ww ww ww ww
29. Red Data book:
Red .entet book or Red List
il.aniData
tet
ilis.ania.encatalogue of Taxa (lagroups t t
il.ani.ene of organisms) facing
tet risk of extinction..ni.entet
il.ani.enthe ia
30. d ad a l a
sasWho maintains the dRed ad a l a
sasData book? d ad a
sas d ad a
sas l a
d adsaaslal
aa aa .wp.apa aa aa
w.wp.p w.wp.p wwNature w.wp.p (IUCN) which is w w.wp.p w
ww International wwUnion of Conservationwof and Natural resources ww w renamed as ww
World Conservation Union (WCU) maintains the Red Data book.
31. In-situ t
t conservation: t t t t t t t t
s
adsa It is the conservation s
sa genetic resources within
adof s
adsa the Natural or man-made s
adsa ecosystem in which s
adsathey
w .wp.apda live. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
32. National Park:
It is the Natural habitat notified by the state government due to its ecologicalefaunal, floral,
l a il.ani.entet l a il .a ni.entet l a il.ani.entet l a il.ani.ntet l ail.ani.n
etet
s ageomorphological
s or zoological
s as association. s as s as s as
aa ada ada ada ada
w .wp.apdad Wild life sanctuaries:
ww Any area (other ww than the reserve forests) ww or the terrestrial waters ww that are noticed by wwthe state ww
government to constitute as a sanctuary if the area is of adequate ecological, faunal, geomorphological
t t t t t
,l a .ani.ente or zoological significance.
natural
il l a il .ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente l a il.ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.34.
wp.apdaada Biosphere reserve: .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
t t t t t t t t t t
l l l l l
p
w.w
a
.pda p.apdad
www.Padasalai.Net
w.w p
w.w
a
. pda adad
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w.w.apda
w
tet tet t t ntet area of terrestrial entet

a il.ania.enrepresentative
Itlais parts
a l a .ani.enNatural
ilof and cultural a l a il.ani.ene
landscapes extendingaover l a il.ani.elarge a l a il.ani.or
w .wp.apda costal ecosystems. w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww 35. Sacred groves: ww ww ww ww ww
Sacred groves or Sacred woods are any groves of trees that are of special religious importance to a
particular etet culture. etet etet etet etet
36. ada Ex-situ conservation: ada ada ada ada
ww Conservation wwof selected rare plants/animals ww in places outside wwtheir natural habitatswlike w offsite ww
collection and gene bank.
37. Offsite collection:
t t t t t
sasThey are live collections sasof wild and domestic species
sas in Botanical garden, sas Zoological parks, Wild saslife
.wp.apdaada safari etc. .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
38. Gene Bank:
They aret a type of Bio-repositoryt which preserve genetict materials.
t t t t t t t
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda
**************************** w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
a l ail.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsa s adsas adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww

ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l ail.ani.ente l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
wp.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada .wp.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a la il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene a l a il.ani.ene
adsa s adsas adsa s adsa s adsa s
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww

s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n s aslail.ani.n s asl ail.ani.n
ada ada ada ada ada
w.wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w .wp.apda w.wp.apda w
ww ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t
l a i
l.ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente l a i
l .ani.ente
sas sas sas sas sas
.
w p.apdaada .
wp.apdaada .
w papdaada
. .
w p.apdaada .
w p.apdaada
w w w w w w
ww ww ww ww ww
t t t t t t t t t t
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l l l l l

adsaasa asaasa adsaasa asaasa adsaasa

t t tet tet tet tet

1. What tare t the basic featuresn(Life activities) of the Organisms?

61. Mention etet two characters that eare

tet tet entet t t t t

tet ntet Operon? t t t t t t

t t t t t t ntet water stagnating t t

tet t t ni.entet or may block the i.ente

1. Example etet of Lactic Acid Bacteria t (LAB)

t t ntet in the Swiss cheese? t t t t t t

1. What etisetRecombinant DNA? etet etet etet etet

tet tet t t ntet area of terrestrial entet

etet etet etet etet etet

etet etet etet etet etet

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