CHAPTER 4 THE GAS LOOP SYSTEM

The chapter discusses the procedures and equipment needed for air conditioning in
combustion, the disposal and regulation of gas emissions, and the use of fluidized bed
technologies. These technologies use low-quality coal, leading to harmful gas emissions, which
necessitates a gas loop system for reduction. It further delves into the circulation of hot gases
within the system, and the analysis of combustion and air pollutants.

4.1. Gas Loop

The “gas loop” system consists of gas-conveying procedures which involve supplying the
air and fuel for combustion in proper proportions and disposing of the products of combustion in
the atmosphere. Also, it constitutes the equipment and passages. It is in the gas loop system that
the dynamic, high-temperature heat energy is produced. Then, it is transferred from the gas to the
working medium, after which the spent product must be dispatched safely to the atmosphere,
sometimes cleaned of objectionable impurities (Morse, 1953).

Its main function is to transfer heat from the combustion zone to the solid particles and
the heat exchanger. This system is a closed loop that includes several components, such as the
combustor, cyclone, heat exchanger, and gas cleaning system. A blower or fan is used to
circulate the hot gases through the system, and the circulating gas is cleaned to eliminate
impurities such as tar, dust, and alkali metals that can damage the equipment through corrosion
and erosion (Widyan and Zahra, 2019). Figure 4.1 shows the schematic diagram of gas loop
system for the proposed CFB power plant.

Figure 4.1 Schematic Diagram of Gas Loop

4.2. Combustion Analysis

Combustion analysis is the process of measuring and analyzing the concentrations of

various gases and other products of combustion in the flue gas stream of a combustion process.
In fluidized bed combustion, combustion analysis is important for ensuring optimal efficiency,
identifying and diagnosing problems with the combustion process, and monitoring and
maintaining the gas loop system. Regular analysis of the flue gas stream allows operators to
detect changes in the combustion process that may indicate problems with the gas loop system
and take corrective action (Oka, 2013).

Designing the plant’s gas loop system requires the computation of the required
percentage of these elements for combustion, and the amount of flue gas released after
combustion. The combustion analysis of the selected coal (Coal B), together with the
computation for the air fuel ratio (Raf) and gas fuel ratio (Rgf) will be computed in this chapter.
The volume of air and flue gas will also be computed in order to select and design the
appropriate gas loop system.

Table 4.1 shows the ultimate analysis of the selected coal from Chapter 2.

Table 4.1 Ultimate Analysis of the Selected Coal

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
Hydrogen (%) 4.1
Carbon (%) 57.47
Nitrogen (%) 1.3
Sulfur (%) 0.37
Oxygen (%) 13.1
Ash (%) 4.3
Total Moisture (%) 19.36
Total (%) 100
Source: USGS, 1985

The table shows the ultimate analysis of a selected coal. The ultimate analysis provides
the elemental composition of the coal, which includes hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur,
oxygen, ash, and moisture. The table shows that the coal contains 4.1% hydrogen, 57.47%
carbon, 1.3% nitrogen, 0.37% sulfur, 13.1% oxygen, 4.3% ash, and 19.36% moisture. The
ultimate analysis provides the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen in
the fuel, which are necessary in calculating the theoretical air required for combustion (Saidur,
2007).

4.2.1. Required Amount of Theoretical Air for Combustion

Knowledge of the required air quantity for combustion is very important for the design
and operation of fluidized bed combustion systems, particularly for avoiding partial combustion,
which leads to environmental pollution and low efficiency (Basu, 2016). When oxygen and the
combustible elements or compounds are mixed in definite proportions at an elevated temperature
under ideal conditions, they will combine completely. This shows that a given combustible
element requires a definite amount of oxygen to complete combustion (Woodruff et.al., 2005).

Stoichiometric air or theoretical air is the exact amount of air required to provide the right
amount of oxygen for complete combustion (Leite, 2012). Practically, the theoretical air is the
minimum amount of air required for combustion, as anything below the calculated value would
result in incomplete combustion. The following calculations will identify the required value of
certain parameters needed in the plant’s gas loop system. Both “by weight and “by volume”
analysis will be used for the computations. The table below shows the properties of the chemical
that are present in the combustion process.

Table 4.2 Properties of Substances in the Combustion Process

Source: Woodruff et. al, 2005

 The table above shows the properties of substances in the combustion process. The table
is used in identifying the ratio of the substances to the required oxygen in order to have a
complete combustion.

4.2.1.1. Required amount of theoretical air for combustion – By Weight

 Computation for the required O2

For C: ( )32 O2
12C
0.5747 C = 1.53 O2

For H: ( )
16 O2
2 H2
0.041 H = 0.33 O2

For O: To be subtracted = - 0.131 O2

For N: Inert Gas = 0 O2

For S: ( )32 O2
32S
0.0037 S = 0.0037 O2

lb O2
TOTAL = 1.73
lb coal

 Computation of Product of Combustion

For C: (12C
44CO
) 0.5747 C
2
= 2.11 CO2

For H: ( 18 H2 O
2 H2 )
0.041 H = 0.37 H2O

For N: Inert Gas = 0.013 N2

For S: ( 64 SO 2
32S )
0.0037 S = 0.0074 SO2

lb flue gas
TOTAL = 2.50
lb coal

 Computation of air-fuel (Raf) and gas-fuel ratios (Rgf)

 According to Hewitt and Lyon (2018), the atmosphere is composed of approximately
79% nitrogen (by weight) and 21% oxygen (by weight). The computation below shows the
theoretical fuel and air ratio (Raf) and the gas fuel ratio (Rgf).

For N2 in air: ( 0.79 N 2

0.21 O2 )
1.7332 O2 = 6.5203 N2

For air-fuel ratio: Raf = N2 in air + Required O2

= 6.52 + 1.73
lb air
Raf = 8.25
lb coal
For gas-fuel ratio: Rgf = N2 in air + Product of Combustion
= 6.52 + 2.50
lb flue gas
Rgf = 9.02
lb coal
4.2.1.2. Required amount of theoretical air for combustion – By Volume

According to Maleev (1945), 1 mol of any gas has an equivalent of 379 ft3.

 Weight-Volume Equivalence (by volume)

 For Carbon (C)

C + O2  CO2
1 mol C + 1 mol O2 + 3.76 mol N2 = 1 mol CO2 + 3.76 mol N2
1 lb C + ( )
379 3
12
ft O2 + 3.76 ( )
379 3
12
ft N2 =
379 3
12 ( )
ft CO2 + 3.76
379 3
12 ( )
ft N2
1 lb C + 31.58 ft3 O2 + 118.75 ft3 N2 = 31.58 ft3 CO2 + 118.75 ft3 N2
1 lb C requires 150.33 ft3 of air (31.58 ft3 O2, 118.75 ft3 N2) at standard conditions

 For Hydrogen (H)

1
H+ O2  H2O
2
1
1 mol H + mol O2 + 1.88 mol N2 = 1 mol H2O + 1.88 mol N2
2
1 lb H + ( )
379 3
2(2)
ft O2 + 1.88
2( )
379 3
ft N2 =
379 3
2 ( )
ft H2O + 1.88
2 ( )
379 3
ft N2
1 lb H + 94.75 ft3 O2 + 356.26 ft3 N2 = 189.5 ft3 H2O + 356.26 ft3 N2
1 lb H requires 451.01 ft3 of air (94.75 ft3 O2, 356.26 ft3 N2) at standard conditions
  For Sulfur (S)

S + O2  SO2
1 mol S + 1 mol O2 + 3.76 mol N2 = 1 mol SO2 + 3.76 mol N2
1 lb C + ( )
379 3
32
ft O2 + 3.76 ( )
379 3
32
ft N2 =
32( )
379 3
ft SO2 + 3.76 ( )
379 3
32
ft N2
1 lb C + 11.84 ft3 O2 + 44.53 ft3 N2 = 11.84 ft3 SO2 + 44.53 ft3 N2
1 lb C requires 56.37 ft3 of air (11.84 ft3 O2, 44.53 ft3 N2) at standard conditions
 Computation for the required oxygen (O2) for combustion (by volume)

( )
3
ft air
For C: 150.33 0.5747 C = 86.39 ft3 air
C

( 451.01 ftH air ) 0.041 H

3
For H: = 18.49 ft3 air

(56.37 ftS air ) 0.0037 S

3
For S: = 0.21 ft3 air
3
ft air
TOTAL = 105.09
lb coal

 Computation of product of combustion (by volume)

( )
3
379 ft air
For C: 0.5747 C = 18.15 ft3 CO2
12 C

(379 ) 0.041 H
3
ft air
For H: = 7.77 ft3 H2O
2 H

(379 ) 0.0037 S
3
ft air
For S: = 0.04 ft3 SO2
32 S
N in coal + N in air

(379 ) 0.013 N + (105.09 )( 0.79 N )

3
For N: ft air = 83.37 N2
14 N
109.34
3
TOTAL = ft flue gas
lb coal

4.2.2. Actual Values for Air-Fuel and Gas-Fuel Ratios

Stoichiometric combustion is theoretical perfect combustion where the quantity of fuel

and air is perfect. However, in practice, additional air needs to be added to the combustion
process for improved performance and safety reasons. The amount of air above the
stoichiometric requirement for complete combustion is called excess air (Cleaver-Brooks, n.d.).

Actual measurements of the fuel-air and gas fuel ratios are necessary for proper control of
the fluidized bed combustion process. The air-to-fuel ratio determines the combustion efficiency,
and the gas fuel ratio has a significant impact on the combustion and flue gas emissions in
fluidized bed boilers (Yin et al., 2019).

In practice, it is necessary and economical to supply more air than the theoretical amount
in order to obtain complete combustion. The air supplied to a combustion process in an amount
above that theoretically required is known as excess air (Woodruff et.al., 2005). Table 4.X shows
the excess air requirements for different types of combustion method.

Table 4.3 Ranges of Excess Air Requirements for Various Fuels and Methods of Firing

Source: Woodruff et. al, 2005 (from Babcock & Wilcox)

As noted previously, fuel and air mixing to ensure complete combustion is not perfect,
and therefore excess air is required. However, because the excess air that is not used for
combustion leaves the unit as part of the flue gas at stack exit temperatures, the amount of excess
air should be minimized. The energy required to heat the air from ambient to stack temperature is
lost heat. Each design of combustion equipment has its excess air requirements, and Table 4.3
shows typical ranges for various fuels and methods of firing. As shown above, the fluidized bed
combustion requires 15-20% by weight of excess air. Therefore, an average of 17.5% will
be used by the designers to identify the amount of excess air required for complete
combustion.

 For the actual air-fuel ratio (Raf' by weight):

Raf' = Raf (1 + % excess air)

lb air
= 8.25 (1 + 0.175)
lb coal
lb air
Raf' = 9.70
lb coal

 For the actual gas-fuel ratio (Rgf' by weight):

Rgf' = Rgf (1 + % excess air)

lb flue gas
= 9.02 (1 + 0.175)
lb coal
lb flue gas
Rgf' = 10.59
lb coal

Since the percentage of excess air considered was by weight, the required actual
proportion for the volumes of air, gas, and fuel can be determined by conversion of ratios using
equality property of moles and volume, where 1 mole of any gas is equal to 379 cubic meters,
then adding the theoretical value. Note that, 1 mol of air = 29 lb air (see Table 4.2 for molecular
weight of air).

 For the actual air-fuel ratio (Raf' by volume)

( )( )
3 3
lb air 1 mol air 379 ft air ft air
Raf' = 8.25 ( 0.175 ) + 105.09
lb coal 29 lb air 1 mol air lb coal
3
ft air
Raf' = 123.97
lb coal
  For the actual gas-fuel ratio (Rgf' by volume)

( )( )
3 3
lb flue gas 1 mol air 379 ft air ft air
Rgf' = 9.02 ( 0.175 ) + 109.34
lb coal 29 lb air 1 mol air lb coal
3
ft flue gas
Rgf' = 129.96
lb coal

4.2.3. Summary of Combustion Analysis

Table 4.X summarizes the required proportions of air, gas, and fuel for combustion,
obtained from the calculations above. Furthermore, these values will be considered in designing
other components of the gas loop system.

Table 4.4 Summary of Combustion Analysis

Air-Fuel Ratio Gas-Fuel Ratio

By weight By volume By weight By volume

3 3
lb air ft air lb flue gas ft flue gas
Theoretical 8.25 105.09 9.02 109.34
lb coal lb coal lb coal lb coal
3 3
lb air ft air lb flue gas ft flue gas
Actual 9.70 123.97 10.59 129.96
lb coal lb coal lb coal lb coal

The table above shows the results the combustion analysis. In terms of air – fuel ratio, the
theoretical requirement for air is 8.25 lb air/lb coal (105.09 ft 3 air/lb coal) while the actual value
is 9.70 lb air/lb coal (123.97 ft3 air/lb coal). In terms of gas – fuel ratio, the theoretical air
requirement is 9.02 lb air/lb fuel (109.34 ft 3 flue gas/lb coal) while the actual value is 10.59 lb
air/lb fuel (129.96 ft3 flue gas/lb coal).

4.3. Air Pollutant Concentration

Coal is the most polluting fossil fuel to burn. Emissions from fossil fuels are the
dominant cause of global warming, as it constitutes approximately a third of the world’s total
carbon emissions (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2018). During combustion, coal
releases huge amounts of carbon, accompanied by sulfur dioxide (SO x), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
and other gaseous pollutants. The products of combustion typically released in the atmosphere
are Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). A separate facility is needed in a plant for
the purpose of reducing the pollutants before releasing it to the atmosphere.

Accurate monitoring and analysis of air pollutant emissions is critical for both
environmental and economic reasons. Excessive emissions of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter can lead to environmental damage and health problems
and can also result in regulatory fines and increased operational costs. To optimize combustion
performance and reduce emissions, advanced monitoring and control technologies, such as
online gas analyzers and neural network models, should be utilized (Zhou, 2001).

The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 (R.A. 8749) stated that the standard emission
allowed for fuel burning equipment for SO 2 is 1500 mg/Ncm, while for inorganic ash is 150
mg/Ncm. The law states that if the power plant has reached these standard values, it must have
its own air pollution control facility.

Having said that, scientists and environmentalists are endorsing cleaner alternative
sources of electricity such as wind, wave, and solar. However, for most countries, the majority of
the energy used to generate electricity comes from burning coal. Thus, coal-fired power plants
cannot be simply replaced. For the proposed project, the designers would vastly consider the
concentration of air pollutants to minimize the effects of coal combustion on air pollution.

4.3.1. Particulate Matter Concentration

After combustion, most fossil fuels yield residual particulate. The primary particulate
constituents are ash and unburned carbon. The ash consists of silica, alumina, and other non-
combustible compounds. The amount of ash varies widely, sometimes exceeding 50 weight
percent (wt %). Particulate pollution is a mixture of soot, smoke, and tiny particles formed in the
atmosphere from sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ammonia (NH3). Fine
particles are a mixture of a variety of different compounds and pollutants that originate primarily
from combustion sources such as power plants, but also diesel trucks and buses, cars, etc.
(EcoMall, 2010).
 These particulates leave the boiler as bottom ash, economizer ash, or fly ash. Bottom ash
falls to the bottom of the boiler and is removed periodically. Economizer ash generally has larger
particle size, separates from the flue gas, and drops into hoppers for removal in the economizer
area. Fly ash is relatively small and leaves the boiler entrained with the flue gas (Black and
Veatch, 1996).

Particulate matter (PM) is a term used to describe a mixture of microscopic solid particles
and liquid droplets found in the air (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2021). These
particles are dangerous to inhale since they can cause serious respiratory complications. Coals,
like most fossil fuels, yield residual particulates after combustion in the form of ash and
unburned carbon. Coal ash refers to leftover particulates after combustion, and it consists of non-
combustible compounds such as arsenic, mercury, silica, lead, etc. Coal ash is commonly divided
into categories based on particle size – economizer ash, fly ash, bottom ash, and boiler slag.
These categories will be thoroughly discussed in the next chapter. Below are the calculations for
the particulate matter concentration from the combustion process of the power plant. The actual
gas-fuel ratio of 129.96 ft3 flue gas/lb coal will be considered in solving the concentration of
sulfur and particulate matter.

 Considering the actual gas-fuel ratio (Rgf')

3
ft flue gas
' 129.96  from Section
R gf = lb coal
4.2.2

 Computation of the Particulate Matter (PM) Concentration

PM (grains
= ( Ash Content ) 7000 lb coal )(1R ) gf
'

(
(
) 1129.96 ft
)
grains
( 0.043 ) 7000
= lb coal 3
flue gas
lb coal

( )( )
3
grains grains 3.28 ft
= 2.32 3 64.8
ft flue gas lb coal 1 m
mg
PM = 5296.08
NCM
The computed value of the particulate matter concentration is 5296.08 milligrams per
normal cubic meters (mg/NCM). Ash distribution should be done first in order to regulate the
PM emission of the power plant. Table 4.X below lists the typical ash distribution for various
boiler types.
4.3.2. Sulfur Dioxide Concentration

4.4. Air Pre-Heater

4.4.1. Recuperative Air Heater

4.4.2. Regenerative Air Heater

4.4.3. Air Heater Selection

4.5. Particulate Control Equipment

4.5.1. Electrostatic Precipitators

4.5.2. Fabric Filters

4.5.3. Cyclone Separators

4.5.4. Particulate Control Equipment Selection

4.5.5. Particulate Matter Emission

4.6. Stack

4.7. Fans

4.7.1. Forced Draft Fans

4.7.2. Induced Draft Fans

4.7.3. Draft Fan Design

4.7.4. Draft Fan Design Selection

4.7.5. Induced Draft Fan Computation

4.7.6. Induced Draft Fan Selection

4.8. Dispersion of Exhaust Gas

4.8.1. Particulate Matter (PM) Dispersion

4.8.2. Sulfur Dioxide (SOx) Dispersion

4.9. Summary of Gas Loop System