Advantages and Disadvantages

Carbon Fiber

Steel was traditionally the most frequent component used in the production of bicycle frames; however,
other materials have grown more popular throughout time. Steel was the most common component used in
the manufacture of bicycle frames. Carbon fibre, on the other hand, is quickly becoming one of the most
common materials used for the frame of bicycles. As a consequence of this, the use of carbon fibre as the
material for the frame of a bicycle has both advantages and disadvantages associated with it (Norman 2021).

Advantages

The extraordinary substance known as carbon fibre has a number of qualities that are very desired. It has a
high strength-to-weight ratio, which indicates that it is both strong and lightweight. As a result, it is suitable
for a wide range of applications because of its versatility. In addition to this, carbon fibre is very rigid,
having a rigidity that is much greater than that of other materials such as glass-reinforced plastic, wood,
and aluminum(StudyMoose 2016). It is also resistant to corrosion and chemically stable, despite the fact
that the epoxy used in carbon fibre composites may be sensitive to sunlight and that other matrices may be
reactive. Nevertheless, this does not affect the material's overall properties. Since carbon fibre is electrically
conductive, it has the potential to be useful in some applications; nevertheless, it also has the potential to
accelerate galvanic corrosion in fittings, which requires extra attention during the installation process (Bhatt
and Goe 2017).
In addition, carbon fibre has a high fatigue resistance, which makes it durable even when subjected to cyclic
stress; nonetheless, breakdowns may occur suddenly and without any prior warning (Composite
Construction UK 2021). Tensile strength is the greatest stress that a material can bear when it is stretched
or pulled, and this material exhibits exceptional tensile strength. Yet, owing to intrinsic faults, brittle
materials such as carbon fibre could not fracture at the same stress threshold as the other material.
In terms of its ability to survive exposure to corrosive substances that may be present during flames, carbon
fibre may be fashioned into protective garments for use by firefighters and can be used in fires (Bhatt and
Goe 2017).. Since the thermal conductivity of carbon fibre may vary based on the kind of carbon fibre, it
can be used in a variety of contexts where thermal performance is required. Since it has such a low
coefficient of thermal expansion, carbon fibre is well suited for use in applications where even the smallest
movements may have a significant impact, such as in optical gear and telescopes(Carbon Fiber Gear 2007).
Since carbon fibre is non-toxic, physiologically inert, and permeable to X-rays, it may be used in a variety
of medical applications, including prostheses, implants, and surgical equipment. Nonetheless, prolonged
contact to unprotected carbon fibres has the potential to cause irritation. Due to the possible toxicity of the
epoxy or polyester matrices used in carbon fibre composites, extreme care is required while working with
carbon fibres (Bhatt and Goe 2017).

Disadvantages

Carbon fibre, although delivering outstanding advantages like lighter weight, increased strength, and
increased stiffness, is somewhat costly, which might be a disincentive for many applications where the
weight advantage may not be as vitally necessary as it otherwise would be (Dexcraft, 2020). In addition,
since the layers of carbon fibres are held together by strong covalent connections, the fibres are brittle,
which makes them susceptible to cracking and breaking even at moderate amounts of pressure (Bhatt &
Goe, 2017). The disadvantages of using carbon fibre as a material are further compounded by the high
expense of maintenance. The aura of carbon fibre, despite its cool and fashionable reputation, may not
always justify the additional cost, and repairing the complex structure of the material can be difficult,
frequently rendering the entire piece unfit for use. Despite its cool and fashionable reputation, carbon fibre
may not always justify the additional cost (StudyMoose, 2016).

Advantage of steel
Numerous industries make extensive use of structural steel due to its numerous benefits. Steel is utilized in
structures such as buildings, bridges, high-rise buildings, and warehouses. Steel is also used in
manufacturing equipment and completed goods. The use of structural steel in building construction comes
with a multitude of benefits(Northern Weldarc 2018).
Since steel has a high strength-to-weight ratio compared to other building materials, buildings made of steel
may be relatively tiny and lightweight despite the total size of the structure. This is a significant advantage
over other construction materials. It is simple to create steel sections and make them in large quantities off-
site on shop floors, which saves time and increases the construction industry's overall
efficiency(Constroquick 2021).
Steel is advantageous for a number of reasons, one of which is that it can be formed into any shape without
compromising its inherent characteristics. Because of this, architects may unleash their creative ideas in the
design of both residential and commercial buildings, making it an appealing alternative for architects who
are looking for a way to ensure that their structures are strong and safe(Monalisa Patel 2019).
Steel is not only long-lasting but also resilient, since they are unaffected by natural disasters such as
earthquakes, thunderstorms, and cyclones. If they are properly maintained, well-built steel buildings have
the potential to survive for up to 30 years(Advincula Jericson 2015). Steel is an option that is long-lasting
since it does not rust and is not susceptible to damage from termites, mildew, bugs, mould, or fungus
contamination(Monalisa Patel 2019).
Steel is superior to those made of wood and concrete when it comes to their ability to withstand fire. Steel
already has a great degree of fire resistance, but this quality may be further improved with specific coatings
that are flame-retardant (Monalisa Patel 2019). In contrast to concrete, which can virtually never be recycled,
and wood, which can only be partially recycled, steel is an ecologically preferable alternative due to its
ability to be recycled and its high efficiency in terms of energy use(Neelmani 2014).
Steel is much lighter in weight, which helps to reduce both transportation expenses and the amount of time
needed to complete a project. Steel is also very cost-effective. In addition, steel may be adapted to carry
certain loads in a variety of building configurations and sizes (Advincula Jericson 2015).
Lastly, steel have ductility, which indicates that they can bend without collapsing when subjected to
enormous pressures(Neelmani 2014). This enables them to provide warning indications far in advance of
any possible breaking danger. Steel is made safer in regions that are prone to earthquakes as a result of this,
particularly bridges and tall skyscrapers.

Disadvantage of steel
The presence of iron in steel makes it susceptible to corrosion since iron is a corrosive element. On the
other hand, the implementation of anti-corrosion applications makes it possible to mitigate at least some of
the detrimental impacts brought about by this problem (Steel Structure 2020). In addition, the fact that steel
has to be coated to prevent it from rusting results in considerable additional costs related with its
maintenance. Buildings built of steel suffer much greater costs for fireproofing in comparison to structures
made of other materials. This is due to the fact that steel is not inherently fireproof and that its properties
change when it is subjected to high temperatures (Monalisa Patel 2019). Buckling is another issue that may
arise with steel structures if they are not properly maintained. It is essential that you keep this in mind since
the possibility of the steel column buckling grows proportionately with the length of the column. In addition,
steel has a high expansion rate, which, depending on the temperature, may either be advantageous or
detrimental to the structure as a whole when it comes to the overall construction (Constroquick 2021).

Advantage of aluminum
Aluminum, which was discovered more than 200 years ago, is the metal that is utilised in the greatest
quantity in construction. Because of its resistance to corrosion and its low weight, it is often considered in
the building industry for beam design and brace columns. Moreover, it can be recycled, has a low cost, and
is good for the environment(Martin Perry Associates 2022).
When aluminium is exposed to air, a protective coating of aluminium oxide forms on its surface. This layer
makes aluminium resistant to corrosion(Sakshee Gaikwad 2022). Aluminum is a material that is perfect for
use in the construction business because of its longevity, strength, and light weight. It can be processed in
a variety of methods, including as melting, machining, forming, extruding, and casting, and it is a great
material for use in this sector(Martin Perry Associates 2022). It can be bent, extruded, and cut into a variety
of forms because to its flexibility, and since it is resistant to corrosion, it does not need protection for the
edges that have been trimmed.
Cladding systems are often used to improve the exteriors of buildings, such as the external facades, roofs,
stairs, railings, walls, shelves, windows, and doors. Aluminum is a popular material for usage in cladding
systems(Martin Perry Associates 2022). Its adaptability allows it to be used in a wide variety of different
contexts as well. In addition, because to the reflective characteristics of aluminium, buildings are able to
maintain a lower temperature during the year's warmer months. This helps to cut down on the amount of
money spent on energy and contributes to the development of more environmentally friendly building
designs(Sahana 2022).
Aluminum is capable of sustaining thick glass panes in structures without causing an excessive amount of
weight to be added to the structure due to the material's strength and durability despite its low weight(Weerg
2021). Because of this, it is quickly becoming one of the most popular construction materials on a global
scale and is making an even bigger contribution to the development of environmentally friendly building
designs.(Martin Perry Associates 2022)
Disadvantage of aluminium
Aluminium has numerous downsides. To begin, the cost is much higher than that of other materials such as
steel. Since aluminium has a lower stress tolerance in comparison to steel, it is possible that a greater amount
of aluminium will be required to assure the structural strength of some designs, which will result in higher
prices in the long run(Sahana 2022). Second, the technique of welding aluminium presents a number of
unique challenges. Since it has a lower melting point in comparison to other metals, the material will often
burn before it really melts. Moreover, because it has a high thermal expansion coefficient, welding it might
be challenging. In addition to this, while molten, aluminium absorbs hydrogen, which leads to the formation
of a porous solid (Sakshee Gaikwad 2022). Moreover, since aluminium has a strong affinity for oxygen, it
must be well cleaned of oxides before welding. Aluminum is notoriously difficult to manipulate in the
welding process due to all of the aforementioned reasons(Steel Structure 2020). Last but not least, despite
the fact that aluminium has a strong strength-to-weight ratio, steel outperforms it in terms of pure strength.
As a consequence of this, steel is favoured over aluminium in construction projects in which weight is not
a primary consideration. In addition, aluminium is ductile and has a high degree of malleability; these
properties make constructions built of aluminium prone to dents and scratches (harsh jain 2020).
Advantage of titanium
Titanium is a refractory metal that is in great demand and finds several uses across a variety of sectors.
These industries include the industrial processes industry, aerospace and military industry, and the medical
business(SMF n.d.). Since a thin coating of oxide develops on its surface when it is exposed to air, it has
exceptional resistance to corrosion. This makes it very durable even in demanding settings like as maritime
applications, where it is often used (Mikalor 2021). Titanium has a strength-to-density ratio that is higher
than that of any other metallic element on the periodic table, making it one of the strongest metals on the
planet and competing with steel for the title of one of the strongest metals on the world(One Monroe 2016).
Titanium is a common option in the aerospace sector and for the creation of structural frames because
despite its strength, it is lightweight owing to its low density. This makes titanium an attractive material
(SMF n.d.).
Titanium is advantageous for a number of reasons, one of which is that it is non-toxic due to the fact that it
is biocompatible and does not trigger any unfavourable responses in the human body (One Monroe 2016).
Because of this, it is an excellent material for use in medical applications, such as implants and dental
implants. Titanium also has a low coefficient of thermal expansion, which indicates that it expands and
shrinks at severe temperatures far less than the majority of other materials, hence offering better structural
stability (Energy Titanium 2022). Due to the fact that it is both robust and lightweight, it is well suited for
use in architectural applications where fire safety is of the utmost importance, such as in the construction
of skyscrapers (Energy Titanium 2022)
Titanium is advantageous for use in high-temperature applications such as foundries, turbine jet engines,
and satellites because it has a high melting point (Delaram et al. 2023). Titanium, despite its strength, is
comparatively soft and ductile, which makes it an excellent material for the creation of metal parts and
components due to its ease of machining. Since it is resistant to oxidation, it may also be seam welded and
welded in open air without the need of flux agents (SMF n.d.).
Disadvantage of titanium
Titanium could have a relatively high cost when compared to the cost of other metals. Titanium may be
difficult to get in some places because of its limited availability and high demand. As a result, it can be
challenging to acquire titanium fast or in big quantities at a price that is affordable(Energy Titanium 2022).
Titanium is notoriously difficult to work with owing to its extraordinarily high level of hardness as well as
its resistance to corrosion. As a result, it is challenging to shape titanium into the desired shape. As a direct
consequence of this, the total cost of manufacturing may rise, both in terms of the amount of time and the
amount of money (harsh jain 2022).
Titanium is notoriously difficult to weld owing to the material's high melting temperature as well as its
reactivity with air, which results in oxidation(Jordan layne 2019). Because of this, welding titanium requires
a specific talent that is not always easy to come by. This is especially true for bigger products or more
intricate designs, both of which call for welders with a high level of expertise. Titanium has a number of
drawbacks, one of which being its price, which is much more than the average price of steel (Coalition
Brewing n.d.). This may add considerable expenditures to a product, particularly when big quantities are
needed. In addition, the manufacturing process for items made of titanium is more complicated than that of
steel, which results in greater expenses associated with manufacture(One Monroe 2016).

In addition, welding titanium is complex and needs both specialised equipment and a high level of
competence(harsh jain 2022). Welding errors may greatly weaken the material, making it difficult to utilise
on bigger pieces where the likelihood of weld problems increases. Any mistakes made during welding are
difficult to repair, and weld mistakes can severely weaken the material. Titanium's restricted formability
stems from the fact that, in order to be shaped, the material must first be brought to very high temperatures
and then quickly cooled. Titanium, on the other hand, does not compare well to the strength of certain other
metals, such as steel, and it is comparatively lightweight (Delaram et al. 2023).

Titanium has a lower resistance to corrosion in comparison to other metals, which implies that areas that
need to be protected from the environment can be better served by using a different metal(Energy Titanium
2022).

Comparison between candidate material for bicycle frame

At the moment, there is a vast selection of materials that may be utilised in the manufacturing of bicycle
frames for a range of specialised purposes. According to the findings of the study, the year 1817 marked
the beginning of a revolution of sorts in the production and use of new materials for building frames. Cast
iron or even wood was used to construct the frames of bicycles not that long ago (HDRISCOLL 2012). The
frames of bicycles manufactured nowadays are often crafted from unusual materials such as carbon fibre,
titanium, aluminium, and steel. As a result, the cost, comfort, weight, stiffness, strength, and durability of
a bicycle will all be affected by the material that the frame is made of, which presents a list of a variety of
attributes (THE BIKEEXCHANGE TEAM, 2017).

Steel

In the field of engineering, the first and most significant material to be used is steel. Despite the fact that it
is highly stiff, it is not difficult to deal with, and the production of it does not require a significant amount
of money (Colin Levitch 2020). The malleability of steel is likely a contributing factor in the growing
appeal of the material among smaller construction companies. Steel, on the other hand, has a lower density
than aluminium and titanium; as a result, steel frames are often heavier than their equivalents made of
aluminium or titanium. Steel will rust if it is not properly maintained; however, steel frames may be treated,
and certain manufacturers, like Reynolds, produce stainless tubing that considerably reduces the severity
of the problem. Steel is a material that is both sturdy and long-lasting, in addition to being relatively simple
to work with. If your frame were to break, a welder in the region should be able to help you fix it since steel
is such an easy material to work with (Rei 2023). Steel, on the other hand, is somewhat heavy in contrast
to other materials that might be used for frame construction, and it is also prone to corrosion. The weight
of steel, which is three times that of aluminium and twice that of titanium, is the most significant drawback
of this material, which has a density of 7.85 grammes per cubic centimetre. Steel's density is measured in
grammes per cubic centimetre. The density of steel is expressed as a number of grammes per cubic
centimetre. On the other hand, if weight were the only factor that needed to be taken into account before
making a decision, then steel frames would not be used nearly as often as they are at the present time. The
stiffness of steel, which has a Young's modulus of around 200 GPa, is almost three times as great as the
stiffness of aluminium and approximately twice as great as the stiffness of titanium, which results in
stiffness-to-weight ratios that are comparable to one another (Relja Novović 2023). In addition, the Young's
modulus of steel is greater than that of aluminium. Aluminium frames, on the other hand, are typically
around 30 percent lighter than steel frames. They may also have a more rigid sensation as a result of their
design, which makes use of the exponential rise in rigidity that comes with increasing diameter. Steel frames,
on the other hand, are typically more durable than aluminium frames. On the other hand, frames made of
steel are often more durable than frames made of aluminium. Steel's elongation, also known as its ductility,
may range anywhere from 9 to 15%, depending on the alloy, although it often falls somewhere in that range.
There are several steel alloys that are much more robust than the standard CrMo (chromoly) steel alloy that
is used in the fabrication of bicycle frames (THE BIKEEXCHANGE TEAM 2017). These steel alloys may
be found in select countries. Despite the fact that the tensile strength of steel alloys is often close to twice
as great as that of aluminium alloys, this is still the case today. The tensile strength of aluminium alloys is
greater than that of pure aluminium. Since steel is produced to adhere to certain load limitations during the
manufacturing process, it has a fatigue limit, which contributes to the material's durability. In order for this
to be the case, the fatigue limit must be taken into consideration at every stage of the building process. In
addition, steel is well-known for its ability to be repaired, and there are a huge number of businesses situated
in a variety of countries all over the globe that are professionals in welding steel (Benedict Pfender 2020).
Steel is not only inexpensive but also very long-lasting, extremely resistant to wear and tear, uncomplicated
to repair, and easy to operate. Steel also has a low environmental impact. On the other hand, unlike carbon
fibre and aluminium, it is often not too difficult to restore damage to a steel frame once it has been damaged.
Steel, despite its strength, has exceptional levels of compliance because of the elastic features that it
possesses. This is due to the fact that steel has elastic properties. This does come as somewhat of a surprise
to me. The fact that steel is more susceptible to oxidation, or rust, than other materials, as well as having a
larger overall weight, are both considered to be among its primary drawbacks (Jason Sumner and Molly
Hurford 2022).

Aluminum
Aluminum is one of the lightest metals now accessible for commercial use. This is mostly due to the fact
that its density is around one third that of steel or copper. Aluminum is one of the metals that is regarded
as being one of the lightest because of this reason. Since it has a high strength-to-weight ratio, it is a material
that is highly sought after for use in the construction of structures (Dexcraft 2015). Moreover, when it is
used in the transportation industry, it may result in larger payloads or a decrease in fuel consumption. These
are two scenarios that would be to everyone's advantage. In spite of the fact that aluminium in its purest
form does not have an especially high tensile strength, the properties of the material can be improved
through the addition of alloying elements such as manganese, silicon, copper, and magnesium. These
elements are all known to contribute to the material's overall strength. Because of this, the resulting alloys
are more suited for certain applications than the element aluminium in its purest form. Since its tensile
strength improves while it preserves its toughness at lower temperatures, aluminium is a suitable material
to use in situations that are cold. Aluminum is an excellent material to use in conditions that are cold (Azo
2005). Because of this, aluminium is an excellent choice as a material for use in cold conditions. In contrast,
when steel is exposed to temperatures that are too low, it has a greater tendency to fracture readily. Since
an oxide layer of aluminium develops so rapidly on the surface of aluminium when it is exposed to air,
aluminium has exceptional resistance to corrosion. Aluminum is shielded from further oxidation by this
layer of protection. It is resistant to the great majority of acids as a result of this, but its resistance to alkalis
is substantially lower. Because it is non-toxic and has a thermal conductivity that is approximately three
times higher than that of steel, aluminium is an excellent material to use in heat exchangers and cooking
utensils. This is due to the fact that aluminium has a thermal conductivity that is approximately three times
higher than that of steel. Because of this, aluminium is an excellent choice as a material for certain purposes.
Aluminum's strong electrical conductivity, which is equivalent to that of copper, is another one of the
metal's many desirable properties. In spite of the fact that aluminium has a lower conductivity than copper
does, it is still possible for it to be used as an electrical conductor due to the fact that it has this feature. In
addition to this, aluminium is an excellent radiant radiation reflector over the whole spectrum, from the
ultraviolet to the infrared (THE BIKEEXCHANGE TEAM 2017). In light fixtures and as an insulating
material, which protects against solar radiation in the summer and heat loss in the winter, it is extensively
employed since it has a visible light reflectance of around 80% (Relja Novović 2023). In both of these
applications, it is used. One of the many reasons for its widespread use is that it has this property.

In conclusion, aluminium is a material that has a cheap unit cost, which makes it a good option for mass
production because of its ability to produce products in large quantities. Aluminum, because of its favorable
strength-to-weight ratio, may be used to create a framework that is both lightweight and robust. Aluminum
frames, on the other hand, have certain limitations, such as an inability to absorb vibrations and a rigid
nature, all of which may contribute to a riding experience that is less smooth when compared to that which
is created by other materials. This is because aluminium frames cannot be bent. Also, aluminium frames
are susceptible to rust in damp environments, and repairing them is not as straightforward as repairing
frames made of carbon or steel. Bicycle frames are often made of aluminium these days.

Titanium

Titanium was predominantly utilised in the aerospace industry; however, due to its exceptional properties,
it has recently made its way into the bicycle industry. Due to one of its main benefits, lightweight Ness,
titanium is a material that is highly appealing for use in the production of light bicycles. Due to its much
lower weight than steel, titanium is an attractive choice for use in the construction of bicycles. Titanium,
which has a very strong resistance to corrosion, is able to endure corrosion at such a high degree that it may
be utilised to create frames that are unaffected by extended use or exposure to unfavourable climatic
conditions (Rei 2023). Moreover, titanium has a fantastic stiffness-to-weight ratio that is comparable to
steel. Despite the fact that the material's stiffness index, or Young's modulus, is only around 100 GPa, or
about half that of steel, the reduction in weight makes up for this and gives the material a rigidity-to-weight
ratio that is comparable to steel. The potential for titanium frames to provide improved rigidity and power
transmission might lead to more efficient pedalling and faster control. Also, titanium frames are lighter than
other metals (Relja Novović 2023).
One of the many reasons titanium is exceptional is its ductility, sometimes referred as its elongation. This
characteristic describes the metal's ability to bend without disintegrating. The elongation of titanium may
reach up to 30%, which is over three times better than that of most aluminium alloys and more than twice
as good as most steel alloys. Tensile strength of titanium is also higher than that of the majority of steel
alloys. Since titanium frames can withstand greater impacts and weights without losing integrity, they are
accordingly more resistant to fractures and failures (THE BIKEEXCHANGE TEAM 2017). This improves
the suitability of titanium frames for(Norman 2021)use in aeronautical applications.
The ability of a material to withstand pressure from stretching or pulling without splitting or separating is
referred to as tensile strength, and titanium is very strong in this regard. With having an ultimate tensile
strength of 620 MPa, the titanium alloy 3AL-2.5V outperforms steel in terms of tensile strength. Because
of titanium's inherent strength and resistance to corrosion, titanium frames are very durable and can
withstand the rigours of extreme cycling activities including pedalling on off-road trails and through
challenging terrain (Petr Minarik 2022).
While having superior qualities, titanium frames are often more expensive to produce than aluminium and
carbon fibre frames. This is due to the fact that dealing with titanium requires a highly specific set of skills
and knowledge, and producing high-quality titanium bike frames is a laborious operation. As a consequence,
there is intense competition on the market for titanium bike frames. These two elements work together to
produce a situation where handling titanium is quite difficult. As compared to other metals, titanium is one
of the metals that is one of the most challenging to weld; hence, certain welding procedures are required
(Norman 2021) .
Titanium frames are often praised for the very comfortable riding qualities they provide. This is due to the
material's comparable to carbon fiber-like inherent conformance. As a consequence, titanium frames are
able to lessen the vibrations and impacts brought on by the road, creating a ride that is forgiving as well as
smooth. The corrosion resistance and durability of titanium frames are widely recognised, making them
ideal for long-term use and extending their lifespan in contrast to those constructed of other materials
(Benedict Pfender 2020). Moreover, titanium is a lightweight material, which contributes to the comfort of
titanium frames. Since titanium can be bent without losing its form, titanium frames may have completely
unique frame geometries and aesthetics. Without affecting its shape, titanium may be welded. Titanium's
exceptional strength, extended longevity, and corrosion resistance, a number of manufacturers of titanium
frames provide lifetime warranties on their goods. This provides additional proof that the long-term
endurance of titanium frames is something that manufacturers are confident in (The Editors of
Encyclopaedia 2023).
Titanium is the material of choice for the production of high-end bicycle frames due to its low weight as
well as its stiffness, ductility, and tensile strength. This is true despite the fact that titanium is more
expensive and requires a more involved manufacturing procedure. For cyclists who put a high importance
on performance, durability, and distinctive design aesthetics, titanium bicycle frames are a desirable
alternative. Titanium frames are a popular option because of its smooth pedalling, durability, and corrosion
resistance.

Carbon Fiber

Carbon fibre is utilised in a variety of sectors where there is a need for high levels of strength and stiffness
in proportion to weight (Dexcraft 2015). The use of this material gives the product a one-of-a-kind
distinction in the realm of luxury and elegance, giving it an advantage over other products on the market.
The average weight of carbon fibre is just around 1.55 grammes per cubic centimetre, which contributes to
its reputation for having a low density. Because of this, the weight of carbon fibre is about half that of
aluminium, which is the lightest metal used in the construction of bike frames. The Young's modulus of the
fibre in the longitudinal direction is close to 130 GPa, while in the other directions, it may drop to as low
as 10 GPa. The highest Young's modulus is found in the longitudinal direction. Nonetheless, the direction
in which the fibres run has a significant impact on the overall stiffness of the material. Carbon fibre has a
comparatively low elongation—below 2%—which makes it less ductile than other materials like aluminum
(Relja Novović 2023). This is because other materials, like aluminium, have a very high elongation. By
arranging the plies at an angle to one another, it is feasible to improve the material's ductility so that it may
be bent more easily. Carbon fibre has a high ultimate tensile strength of around 2,500 MPa when it is pulled
in a longitudinal direction. This is roughly five times stronger than the tensile strength of steel. Nevertheless,
its compressive strength is inferior to that of epoxy resin, which is necessary for joining the fibres and
providing compressive strength to the overall construction. In general, carbon fibre frames have to be
painstakingly manufactured so that these material attributes are taken into account, and so that the frames
are sturdy enough to absorb the pressures that are exerted on them while still preserving their low
weight(Dexcraft 2020).

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