CH 6

Ch 6 Hardware Components
for Automation
Sections:
1. Sensors
2. Actuators
3. Analog-to-Digital Conversion
4. Digital-to-Analog Conversion
5. Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data
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Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.
Computer-Process Interface
To implement process/equipment control
(automation), the computer must collect data from
and transmit signals to the production process.
Components required to implement the interface:
Sensors to measure continuous and discrete
process variables,
Actuators to drive continuous and discrete
process parameters,
Devices (converters) for ADC and DAC
conversion,
I/O devices for discrete data.
1
Computer Process Control System
Sensors
A wide variety of measuring devices is available for

collecting data from the manufacturing process
for use in feedback control.
In general, a measuring device is composed of two
components: a sensor and a transducer.
Commonly, a sensor-transducer combination is

called as transducer.
2
Sensor - Transducer
The sensor detects the physical variable of interest
(such as temperature, force, or pressure) and a
property related to its characteristics changes;
(e.g. Strain gage - Resistance changes with
deformation.)
The transducer converts the physical variable into
an alternative form (commonly electrical
voltage), quantifying the variable in the
conversion, and enabling reading of the
variable.
Thus has electronic instrumentation (circuit).
The quantified signal can be interpreted as the
value of the measured variable.
Sensor - Transducer
Temperature sensor Strain

gage
3
Strain
Gage
As the wire grid is distorted by
elastic deformation, its length
increases, and its cross-
sectional area decreases.
These changes cause an
increase in the resistance of
the wire of the strain gage,
vice versa.
An electronic circuit detects
the resistance change and
converts it to strain; or to
weight if the dimensions of the
loaded member is known.
Sensors
In some cases, the sensor and transducer are the

same device; for example, a limit switch that
converts the mechanical movement of a lever to
close an electrical contact.
4
Sensors
Sensors can be classified in various ways, the most
relevant is by category of stimulus or physical
variable that is to be measured.
Sensors
Another classification is:

1. Analog sensors
2. Discrete sensors
Binary sensors
Digital sensors (e.g., pulse counter)
5
Sensors - Analog
An analog measuring device produces a
continuous analog signal such as electrical
voltage, whose value varies in an analogous
manner with the variable being measured.
Examples are thermocouples, strain gages, and
potentiometers.
The output signal from an analog measuring device
must be converted to digital data by an
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in order to be
used by a digital computer.
Sensors - Discrete
A discrete measuring device produces an output

that can have only certain values.
Discrete sensor devices are often divided into two
categories: binary and digital.
6
Sensors - Discrete - Binary
A binary measuring device produces an

on/off (1-0) signal.
The most common devices operate by closing an
electrical contact from a normally open position.
Limit switches operate in this manner.
Other binary sensors include photoelectric sensors
and proximity switches.
Sensors - Discrete - Digital

A digital measuring device produces a digital output
signal, either in the form of a set of parallel
status bits (e.g., a photoelectric sensor array) or
a series of pulses that can be counted (e.g., an
optical encoder).
In either case, the digital signal represents the
quantity to be measured.
Digital transducers are becoming increasingly
common because they are easy to read when
used as stand-alone measuring instruments and
because they are compatible with digital
computer systems.
7
Sensors - MEMS
A significant trend in sensor technology has been

the development of very small sensors.
The term microsensor refers to measuring devices
whose physical features have dimensions in the
micron (μm) range.
Microsensors are usually fabricated out of silicon
using processing techniques associated with
integrated circuit manufacture.
Sensors - MEMS
Accelerometers for airbags
Tire-pressure monitoring
MEMS chips for automatic switching

from portrait to landscape mode
8
Sensors - MEMS
Sensors - Active
Sensors can also be classified as
active or passive.
An active sensor responds to the
stimulus without the need for
any external power.
An example is a thermocouple,
which responds to an increase
in temperature by generating a
small voltage (microvolt range)
that is functionally related to
temperature (in the ideal, its
voltage is directly proportional
to temperature).
9
Sensors - Passive
A passive sensor requires an

external source of power in order
to operate.
A thermistor illustrates this case.
It also measures temperature, but
its operation requires an electric
current to be passed through it.
As the temperature increases, the
thermistor’s electrical resistance
changes.
The resistance can be determined,
and related back to temperature.
Sensor Transfer Function
The relationship between the value of the physical

stimulus and the value of the signal produced by the
sensor in response to the stimulus is:
S = f (s)
S - output signal,
s - stimulus, and
f (s) is the functional relationship between them.
10
Sensor Transfer Function
Ideal functional form is simple proportional relationship:
S = C + ms
C - output value at a stimulus value at zero, and
m - constant of proportionality between s and S.
The constant m can be thought of as the sensitivity of
the sensor.
It is a measure of how much the output or response of
the sensor is affected by the stimulus.
For example, a standard Chromel/Alumel thermocouple
generates 40.6 microvolts (μV) per degree Celsius
(°C). (Sensitivity)
Sensors - Calibration
To use any measuring device, a calibration

procedure is required to establish the
relationship between the physical variable to be
measured and the converted output signal (such
as voltage).
The ease with which the calibration procedure can
be accomplished is one criterion by which a
measuring device can be evaluated.
11
Common Measuring Devices
12
13
Features for Measuring Devices
CIM Laboratory Work:

Proximity Sensors
T
14
CIM Laboratory Work:
Proximity Sensors
Proximity sensors are the most basic data acquisition

devices in automation.
Can make use of mechanical, magnetic, inductive,
capacitive, optical, and ultrasonic principles.
They are able to detect the presence of nearby objects
without any physical contact.
The aim of the study is to practice the
characteristics of different types
of proximity sensors and their
properties; and to compare them.
Proximity Sensors:
Typical Applications
Detecting whether an object is at a defined position
Positioning of an object
Counting
15
Proximity Sensors:
Typical Applications
Measuring rotational speed
Measuring speed
Actuators
Hardware devices that convert a controller command

signal into a change in a physical parameter.
The change is usually mechanical (e.g., position or
velocity).
An actuator can also be considered as a transducer
because it changes one type of physical quantity into
some alternative form.
An actuator is usually activated by a low-level
command signal, so an amplifier may be required to
provide sufficient power to drive the actuator.
16
Types of Actuators
1. Electrical actuators
Electric motors
DC servomotors
AC motors
Stepper motors
Solenoids
2. Hydraulic actuators
Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller
command signal
3. Pneumatic actuators
Use compressed air as the driving force
Actuators - Hydraulic
Hydraulic actuators use hydraulic fluid to amplify the

controller command signal.
The available devices provide either linear or rotational
motion.
Hydraulic actuators are often specified when large
forces are required.
17
Actuators - Hydraulic
Pneumatic actuators use compressed air (typically

“shop air” in the factory) as the driving power.
Again, both linear and rotational pneumatic actuators
are available.
Because of the relatively low air pressures involved,
these actuators are usually limited to relatively low
force applications compared with hydraulic actuators.
Actuators - Hydraulic, Pneumatic
18
Actuators - Hydraulic, Pneumatic
Hydraulic Cylinders
Pneumatic Cylinders
Hydraulic Motor
Actuators -
Electric Motors
The motor consists of two
basic components, a stator
and a rotor.
The stator is the ring-shaped stationary component, and
the rotor is the cylindrical part that rotates inside the
stator.
The rotor is assembled around a shaft that is supported
by bearings, and the shaft can be coupled to
machinery components such as gears, pulleys, lead
screws, or spindles.
19
Actuators -
Electric Motors
Electric current supplied to the motor generates a

continuously switching magnetic field that causes the
rotor to rotate in its attempt to always align its poles
with the opposite poles of the stator.
Actuators - DC Motors
DC motors are powered by

constant voltage.
The continuously switching magnetic field is achieved by
means of a rotary switching device, called a
commutator, which rotates with the rotor and
picks up current from a set of carbon brushes
that are components of the stator assembly.
Its function is to continually change the relative polarity
between the rotor and the stator, so that the magnetic
field produces a torque to continuously turn the rotor.
The use of a commutator represents the traditional
construction of a DC motor.
20
The use of a commutator is a

disadvantage because it results
in arcing, worn brushes, and maintenance problems.
A special type of DC motor avoids the use of the
commutator and brushes, called a brushless DC
motor, it uses solid-state circuitry to replace the
brushes and commutator components.
Elimination of these parts has the added benefit of
reducing the inertia of the rotor assembly, allowing
higher speed operation.
21
DC motors are widely used for two reasons.

The first is the convenience of using direct current as
the power source.
For example, the small electric motors in automobiles
are DC because the car’s battery supplies direct
current.
The second reason for the traditional popularity of DC
motors is that their torque-speed relationships are
attractive in many applications compared to AC
motors.
Actuators - DC Servomotors
DC servomotors are a common type of DC motor used
in mechanized and automated systems, and we will
use it to represent this class of electric motors.
The term servomotor simply means that a feedback loop
is used to achieve speed -position- control.
In a DC servomotor, the stator typically consists of two
permanent magnets on opposite sides of the rotor.
The rotor, called the armature in a DC motor, consists of
three sets of copper wire windings around a ferrous
metal core.
Input current is provided to the windings through the
commutator and interacts with the magnetic field of
the stator to produce the torque that drives the rotor.
22
The magnitude of the rotor torque is a function of the

current passing through the windings, and the
relationship can be modeled by the following
equation:
T = Kt Ia (6.4)
T - motor torque (N.m),
Ia - net current flowing through the armature, (A); and
Kt - the torque constant of the motor, N.m/A.
23
The reason for defining I as the net current is:
Rotating the armature in the magnetic field of the stator

produces a voltage across the armature terminals,
called the back-emf.
In effect, the motor acts like a generator, and the back-
emf increases with rotational speed as follows:
Eb = Kv ω (6.5)
Eb - back-emf (V);
ω - angular velocity (rad/sec); and
Kv - the voltage constant of the motor, V/(rad/sec).
The effect of the back-emf is to reduce the current

flowing through the armature windings.
Note that, the angular velocity, ω in rad/sec can be

converted to the more familiar rotational speed,
N (rpm) as follows:
and the relationship between horsepower, HP and

Watts is (T - N.m, ω - rad/sec):
24
Given the resistance of the armature Ra and an input
voltage Vin supplied to the motor terminals, the
resulting armature current will be, Ia = Vin / Ra.
This is the starting current and it produces a starting
torque as given by Eq. (6.4).
But as the armature begins to rotate, it generates the
back-emf Eb, which reduces the available voltage.
Thus, the actual armature current depends on the
rotational speed of the rotor.
Combining Eqs. (6.4) and (6.7), the torque produced by
the DC servomotor at a speed ω is
The mechanical power delivered by the motor is the

product of torque and velocity:
P=Tω (6.9)
P - power in N.m/sec (Watts);
T - motor torque, N.m; and
ω - angular velocity, rad/sec.
25
The servomotor is connected either directly or through a

gear reduction to a piece of machinery (fan, pump,
spindle, table drive,...), which is basically a load that is
driven by the servomotor.
The load requires a certain torque to operate, and the
torque is usually related to rotational speed in some
way.
In general, the torque increases with speed.
In the simplest case, the relationship is proportional:
T L = KL ω (6.11)
TL - load torque, N.m; and
KL - the constant of proportionality between torque
and angular velocity, N.m/(rad/sec).
The functionality between KL and TL may be other than
proportional, such that KL itself depends on the
angular velocity.
For example, the torque required to drive a fan increases
approximately as the square of the rotational speed,
that is, TL ∝ ω 2.
26
The torque developed by the motor and the torque
required by the load must be balanced.
That is, T = TL in steady state operation and this amount
of torque is called the operating point.
The motor torque relationship with angular velocity can
be plotted as shown in Figure 6.3, called the torque-
speed curve.
Also shown in the figure is the load torque relationship.
The intersection of the two plots is the operating point,
which is defined by the values of torque and angular
velocity.
Torque-Speed Curve of a
DC Servomotor and Load Torque Plot
27
DC Servomotor
Operation
DC Servomotor
Operation
T=0
28
Actuators - AC Induction Motors
AC motors can be classified
into two broad categories:
(1) induction motors, and
(2) synchronous motors.
AC induction motors are probably the most widely used
motors in the world, due to their relatively simple
construction and low manufacturing cost.
In the operation of this motor type, a magnetic field is
induced by the rotation of the rotor through the
magnetic field of the stator.
Because of this feature, the rotor in most induction motors
does not need an external source of electrical power.
Actuators - AC Synchronous Motors
AC synchronous motors operate by energizing the rotor

with alternating current, which generates a magnetic
field in the gap separating the rotor and the stator.
This magnetic field creates a torque that turns the rotor
at the same rotational speed as the magnetic forces
in the stator.
29
Actuators - AC Synchronous Motors
Synchronous motors are somewhat more complex than

induction motors because they require a device called
an exciter to initiate rotation of the rotor when power
is first supplied to the motor.
The exciter accelerates the rotational speed of the rotor
to synchronize with that of the stator’s rotating
magnetic field, which is a required condition for an AC
synchronous motor to function.
Actuators - AC Motors
Both AC induction motors and synchronous motors

operate at a constant speed that depends on the
frequency of the incoming electrical power.
Their applications are usually those in which running at
a fixed speed is a requirement.
This is a disadvantage in many automation applications
because frequent speed changes are often necessary
with much starting and stopping.
30
Actuators - AC Motors
The speed issue is sometimes
addressed by using adjustable-
frequency drives (called
inverters) that control the cycle
rate of the AC power to the
motor.
Motor speed is proportional to
frequency, so changing
frequency changes motor speed.
Advances in solid-state electronics
have also improved speed
control for AC motors, and they
are now competitive in some
applications traditionally
reserved for DC motors.
Stepper Motors
Stepper Motors (also called

step motors and stepping
motors), provide rotation
in the form of discrete
angular displacements,
called step angles.
Each angular step is
actuated by a discrete
electrical pulse.
31
Stepper Motors
Each angular step is actuated by a discrete electrical
pulse, and the total angular rotation is controlled by
the number of pulses received by the motor, and
rotational speed is controlled by the frequency of the
pulses.
The step angle is related to the number of steps for the
motor according to the relationship:
α - the step angle, degrees (°); and,

ns - the number of steps (per revolution) for the
stepper motor, which must be an integer value.
Stepper Motors
Typical values for the step angle in commercially

available stepper motors are 7.5°, 3.6°, and 1.8°,
corresponding to 48, 100, and 200 steps (pulses) per
revolution of the motor.
The total angle through which the motor rotates Am is
given by:
Am - angle measured in degrees (°),

np - the number of pulses received by the motor, and
α - the step angle, degrees (°).
32
Stepper Motors
The angular velocity ω, and rotational speed N are given
by the expressions:
ω - angular velocity, rad/sec;

N - rotational speed, rpm;
fp - pulse frequency, pulses/sec or Hz; and
ns- the number of steps in the motor, steps/rev or
pulses/rev.
Operation Modes of a Stepper Motor

There are two operating modes, locked-step and slewing.
In the locked-step mode, each pulse received by the
motor causes a discrete angular step to be taken; the
motor starts and stops (at least approximately) with
each pulse.
In this mode the motor can be started and stopped, and
its direction of rotation can be reversed.
In the slewing mode, usually associated with higher
speeds, the motor’s rotation is more or less continuous
and does not allow for stopping or reversing with each
subsequent step.
Nevertheless, the rotor does respond to each individual
pulse; that is, the relationship between rotating speed
and pulse frequency is retained in the slewing mode.
33
Stepper Motors
Stepper motors are used in open

loop control systems for
applications in which torque
and power requirements are
low to modest.
They are widely used in machine tools and other
production machines, industrial robots, x-y plotters,
medical and scientific instruments, and computer
peripherals.
Probably the most common application is to drive the
hands of analog quartz watches.
Solenoids
34
Cylinder and Piston: (a) Single-Acting
and (b) Double-Acting
(a) (b)
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
An ADC converts a continuous analog signal from
transducer into digital code for use by computer
ADC consists of three phases:
1. Sampling - converts the continuous signal into a
series of discrete analog signals at periodic
intervals,
2. Quantization - each discrete analog is converted
into one of a finite number of (previously defined)
discrete amplitude levels,
3. Encoding - discrete amplitude levels are
converted into digital code.
35
Hardware Devices in
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Features of an ADC
Sampling rate - rate at which continuous analog

signal is polled.
Conversion time - how long it takes to convert the
sampled signal to digital code.
Resolution - depends on number of quantization
levels.
Conversion method - means by which analog signal is
encoded into digital equivalent.
Example - Successive approximation method
36
Analog Signal Converted into a Series
of Discrete Data by A-to-D Converter
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Converts the digital output of the computer into a

continuous analog signal to drive an analog
actuator (or other analog device)
DAC consists of two steps:
1. Decoding - digital output of computer is
converted into a series of analog values at
discrete moments in time,
2. Data holding - each successive value is
changed into a continuous signal that lasts
until the next sampling interval.
37
Data Holding Step in DAC: (a) Zero-
Order Hold and (b) First-Order Hold
(a) (b)
Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data

Binary data (1 or 0):
Contact input interface - input data to computer
Contact output interface - output data from
computer
Discrete data other than binary:
Contact input interface - input data to computer
Contact output interface - output data from
computer
Pulse data:
Pulse counters - input data to computer
Pulse generators - output data from computer
38
Contact Input/Output Interfaces
Contact input interface - series of contacts that are open or
closed to indicate the status of individual binary devices
such as limit switches and valves
The computer periodically scans the contacts
to update values in memory
Can also be used for discrete
data other than binary
(e.g., a photoelectric sensor
array used to determine the edge,
shape, ... of irregular parts. )
Contact output interface - communicates on/off signals
from the computer to the process
Values are maintained until changed by the computer
Pulse Counters and Generators

Pulse counter - converts a series of pulses (pulse train)
into a digital value
Digital value is then entered into the computer
through its input channel
Most common - counting electrical pulses
Used for both counting
and measurement applications
(e.g. Speed measurement)
Pulse generator - a device that produces a series of
electrical signals
The number of pulses or frequency of the pulse
train is specified by the computer
39

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CH 6

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Ch 6 Hardware Components

A wide variety of measuring devices is available for

Commonly, a sensor-transducer combination is

Temperature sensor Strain

In some cases, the sensor and transducer are the

 Another classification is:

A discrete measuring device produces an output

A binary measuring device produces an

Sensors - Discrete - Digital

A significant trend in sensor technology has been

Accelerometers for airbags

MEMS chips for automatic switching

A passive sensor requires an

Sensor Transfer Function

The relationship between the value of the physical

To use any measuring device, a calibration

Common Measuring Devices

Common Measuring Devices

CIM Laboratory Work:

Proximity sensors are the most basic data acquisition

Measuring rotational speed

Hardware devices that convert a controller command

Hydraulic actuators use hydraulic fluid to amplify the

Pneumatic actuators use compressed air (typically

Actuators - Hydraulic, Pneumatic

Electric current supplied to the motor generates a

DC motors are powered by

The use of a commutator is a

DC motors are widely used for two reasons.

The magnitude of the rotor torque is a function of the

Rotating the armature in the magnetic field of the stator

The effect of the back-emf is to reduce the current

Note that, the angular velocity, ω in rad/sec can be

and the relationship between horsepower, HP and

The mechanical power delivered by the motor is the

The servomotor is connected either directly or through a

Actuators - AC Synchronous Motors

AC synchronous motors operate by energizing the rotor

Synchronous motors are somewhat more complex than

Both AC induction motors and synchronous motors

Stepper Motors (also called

α - the step angle, degrees (°); and,

Typical values for the step angle in commercially

Am - angle measured in degrees (°),

ω - angular velocity, rad/sec;

Operation Modes of a Stepper Motor

Stepper motors are used in open

 Sampling rate - rate at which continuous analog

Converts the digital output of the computer into a

Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data

Pulse Counters and Generators

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Another classification is:

Sampling rate - rate at which continuous analog