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Lecture 1 Speech and Speech Sounds Updated 7.2023
Lecture 1 Speech and Speech Sounds Updated 7.2023
Lecture 1
Speech and speech sounds
▪ Auditory phonetics: focuses on how the ear translates sound waves into electrical impulses to the brain and
how the brain perceives these as speech sounds.
Questions that phoneticians often ask:
Notable phoneticians (in alphabetical order): David Abercrombie (1909 – 1992), Gunnar Fant (1919 – 2009), A.
C. Gimson (1917 – 1985), Daniel Jones (1881 – 1967), Peter Ladefoged (1925 – 2006), Ian Maddieson (1942 –),
John Laver (1938 – 2020), and John Wells (1939 –).
1.2. Phonology
Phonology is the study of “the sound systems of languages” (Crystal, 2008, p. 365).
Segmental phonology deals with individual sounds (segments) and linear strings of sounds, while
suprasegmental phonology analyses features that extend over more than one segment.
▪ How are sounds combined into larger units such as syllables, feet, words, and phrases?
Notable phonologists (in alphabetical order): Noam Chomsky (1928 –), Jan Baudouin de Courtenay (1845 –
1929), John Goldsmith (1950 –), Morris Halle (1923 – 2018), Roman Jakobson (1896 – 1982), Edward Sapir
(1884 – 1939), and Nikolai Trubetzkoy (1890 – 1938).
2. The human speech production system
The human speech production system is made up of all the
body parts that are used for creating speech sounds.
Every body part used for speech has some other biological
function (breathing, biting, chewing, sniffing, etc.)
The main components of the human speech production system (Katz, 2013)
The human vocal tract may have developed its present form around 50,000 to 100,000 years ago (Zsiga, 2013).
One useful way to see different parts of the vocal tract and their actions is to use magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
MRI mid-sagittal cross-section of the head MRI mid-sagittal cross-section of the heads of four
during the pronunciation of ‘Kanupolo’ people saying [a e i o u].
(Niebergall et al., 2013) Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jaIquq_4560
The human speech production system can be divided into three
subsystems:
The sub-systems of the HSPS The sub-systems of the HSPS (Zsiga, 2013)
(Collins et al., 2019)
Illustrations from Seikel et al.(2021)
▪ Advantage: the human pharynx is wide, allowing greater freedom for movement of the tongue in sound
production.
Configurations of the larynx in human infants, chimpanzees, and adult humans (Lieberman, 2018)
At the end of the trachea and above the cricoid cartilage are the vocal folds, which are multiple layers of tissue
that can potentially cover the opening to the trachea.
The vocal folds are attached to the front of the larynx to the thyroid cartilage
and at the back to the arytenoid cartilages.
The space between the inner edges of the vocal folds is called the glottis.
Voiceless
http://australianlinguistics.com/phonation-
modes/voiceless-mode/
The vocal folds are brought lightly together and vibrate as the air passes over them.
.
Voiced
http://australianlinguistics.com/phonation-
modes/voiced-mode/
Phonation type Description
The vocal folds are brought close enough together to make the continuous airflow through them
turbulent, either through a gap left at the back or through a narrowed glottis.
Whisper
http://australianlinguistics.com/phonation-
modes/whisper-mode/
The front part of the glottis vibrates, at a much lower frequency than in normal voicing, while
the back part is pressed more tightly together.
Creaky voice
(Vocal fry)
http://australianlinguistics.com/phonation-
modes/creak-mode/
Phonation type Description
A combination of whisper and voiced mechanisms.
Breathy voice
http://australianlinguistics.com/phonation-
modes/breathy-voice/
The vocal folds make a complete obstruction to the airstream.
Glottal
stop/closure
Broad transcription uses the simplest possible set of symbols, while narrow
transcription provides more phonetic details.
E.g. /hiːt/ is narrower than /hit/; [kʰæˀt̚ ] is narrower than [kæt]. The IPA revised to 2020. Source:
https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org
4. The phoneme and the allophone
4.1. The phoneme
4.1.1. Contrastiveness
Phonemes are contrastive units in the sound system of a language.
E.g. [p] and [d] help to distinguish [pɒt] – pot from [dɒt] – dot.
→ [pɒt] and [dɒt] are a minimal pair – a pair of words that differ in only a single sound in the same position
within a word.
[kæt] [kʰ]
[skɜːt] [k]
[kʰ], [k], [k̚ ], [k̟ʰ], and [kʰ] are non-contrastive and
occur in complementary distribution.
[pɪkt] [k̚ ] /k/
→ [kʰ], [k], [k̚ ], [k̟ʰ], and [kʰ] are positional variants
[kiː] [k̟ʰ] of /k/.
[kuːl] [kʰ]
4.2. The allophone
An allophone is a variant of a phoneme.
E.g. [t] and [tʰ] are contrastive in Vietnamese but non-contrastive in English.
E.g.
1. /ʊ/ – /ʌ/
/ʊ/ /ʌ/
Most varieties of English
book, cook, look love, bus, brush
/ʊ/
Northern English accent
book, cook, look, love, bus, brush
2. /w/
/w/
Most varieties of English
where, which, why, wear, witch, y
Most Scottish, many Irish /ʍ/ /w/
and some American speakers where, which, why wear, witch, y
4.3. Complicating factors
Certain speech sounds are classified as separate phonemes despite occurring in complementary distribution.
E.g. /h/ always occurs at the beginning of a syllable (hot, hi, hum, etc.), while /ŋ/ always occurs at the end of a
syllable (thing, sing, song, etc.), but they are two distinct phonemes in English because they are phonetically
different.
There are cases in which phonemes and allophones are in free variation, i.e. the replacement of one segment
with another causes no change in meaning of the word.
E.g.
Phonemic Allophonic
E.g. In General American, both /t/ and /d/ are realized as [ɾ] when they stand between two vowels and not at the
beginning of a stressed syllable.
kitty /ˈkɪti/
[ˈkɪɾi]
kiddie /ˈkɪdi/
writer /ˈraɪtɚ/
[ˈraɪɾɚ]
rider /ˈraɪdɚ/
Overview of phonemes and allophones
Phonemes Phonemes
Contrastive E.g. E.g.
/t/ in time and /d/ in dime /h/ in hi and /ŋ/ in sing
Phonemes or allophones Allophones
(Free variants) (Positional variants)
Non-contrastive E.g. E.g.
/iː/ and /ɛ/ in evolution [tʰ] in top and [t] in stop
[tʰ] and [t̚ ] in that
References
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(4th ed.). Routledge.
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speech-is-special--64351
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https://www.peterroach.net/uploads/3/6/5/8/3658625/english-phonetics-and-phonology4-glossary.pdf
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