Catena 152 (2017) 252–267

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Catena

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Soil-parent material relationship in a mountainous arid area of Kopet

Dagh basin, North East Iran
Hossein Tazikeh a, Farhad Khormali a,⁎, Arash Amini b, Mojtaba Barani Motlagh a, Shamsollah Ayoubi c
a
Department of Soil Sciences, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran
b
Department of Geology, Golestan University, Gorgan 49138-15759, Iran
c
Department of Soil Sciences, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effects of parent rock types on soil evolution in arid areas were studied in a sequence of soils, derived from
Received 21 July 2016 different lithologies in the Kopet Dagh basin (Northeastern Iran) using micromorphology, clay mineralogy, mag-
Received in revised form 27 December 2016 netic susceptibility and physico-chemical properties. The selected parent rocks and associated soils were shale
Accepted 13 January 2017
(Haplocalcids), claystone (Haplotorrerts), gypsiferous marl (Haplogypsids), limestones (Haplocalcids and
Available online 24 January 2017
Torriorthents), siltstone and sandstones (Torriorthents). The results showed that the properties and develop-
Keywords:
ment of soils were mainly affected by grain size and mineralogy of parent materials. Soil magnetic susceptibility
Parent material (χlf) variations were attributed to the types of parent material and pedogenic processes. Redistribution of calcite
Soils and gypsum in soil profiles and natural and pedogenic formation of ferrimagnetic minerals were responsible for
Arid χlf variations. The soils clay mineral origins were found to be mainly of inheritance from parent materials. Smec-
Kopet Dagh tite was the dominant clay mineral of the most soils.
Iran Based on the micromorphological index of soil evolution (MISECA), the soils studied were categorized into weak-
ly developed Orthents, weakly to moderately developed Aridisols (Gypsids and Calcids) and moderately devel-
oped soils including Calcids and Torrerts. The degree of microstructure development, alteration of weatherable
minerals and calcitic features were the most important criteria influencing assessment of soil development de-
gree by MISECA index. The vertic features were only observed in soils of claystone in which there were consid-
erable amounts of clay and smectite. High amounts of gypsum and low smectite content were mainly
responsible for the lack of vertic behavior in other fine grained soils derived from shale and marl.
© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The Kopet Dagh depositional basin, located in northeastern Iran and
southern Turkmenistan, is a mountainous area dominated by sedimen-
tary rocks and arid climate. The mean annual precipitation, temperature
and potential evapotranspiration are 255 mm, 13 °C and 764 mm, re-
spectively. The geomorphic surfaces of the area are young and have a
close relation with geological structure in which anticlines make moun-
tains and synclines form intermountain basins (Afshar-Harb, 1979).
Parent materials play a key role in soilscape diversity in arid and semi-
arid areas (Badía et al., 2013). Yousefifard et al. (2015) have observed
different pedogenetic paths related to types of parent material under
semi-arid condition in northwestern Iran. Soil parent material charac-
terization is of paramount importance in soil genesis studies in arid
and semi-arid conditions and soils on young surfaces (Schaetzl and
Anderson, 2005). Parent materials affect many soil properties that
may be critical for soil series separation and to develop soil mapping
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: khormali@yahoo.com, fkhormali@gau.ac.ir (F. Khormali).
models. Soil properties and landscape evolution could indicate the
type of underlying parent materials in arid regions as well.
It has been stated that the mineralogy of soils in arid area is largely
affected by parent material (Woodruff et al., 2009). Inheritance of clay
minerals from parent rocks is the most important factor influencing
the clay mineral composition of soils which is influenced by weathering
intensity and relief (Graham and O'Geen, 2010), climate (Ruffell et al.,
2002), vegetation, drainage (Abtahi and Khormali, 2001) and different
response of bedrocks to chemical weathering, can lead to different land-
scapes and weathering products (Dultz, 2000; Yousefifard et al., 2012).
Although the clay mineralogy of sedimentary rocks in the Kopet Dagh
basin has recently been investigated (Khormali and Amini, 2015), no
study has been made on the effects of mineralogy of parent rocks on
soil evolution.
The presence of different forms of Fe oxides in soils is highly affected
by the type of parent material under variable condition such as mois-
ture, temperature, pH, Eh, organic matter and iron release from iron
bearing minerals (Filho et al., 2015). Fed (free Fe oxides) indicates the
amount of fine-grained secondary Fe oxides released from Fe-bearing
minerals during pedogenic processes (Mehra and Jackson, 1960). Fed

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.01.020
0341-8162/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267 253

(a) (b)
Kopet Dagh
N
5 km Fault
Road
Study area Village
Sorkhezoo Neogene
Khangiran FM
Hamami Pesteligh FM
Ali khan Kalat FM
Sheikh Tuplanlu Abderaz FM
Aitamir FM
Sanganeh FM

(c)
37°° 31′ 55.1″ 37°° 38′ 10.32″
57°° 25′ 39.57″ 57°° 29′ 35.11″

P6
P1 P5 N

Sheikh P3 P4
Village
P7
P2

P8
37°° 34′ 11.11″ 37°° 35′ 3.49″
57°° 36′ 14.27″ 57°° 36′ 13.26″

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area, in Kopet Dagh basin, in northeastern Iran (a), simplified geological map of the study area as a part of Sheikh syncline (b), Google earth image of
Sheikh syncline showing locations of soil profiles formed on selected lithologies of different formations: P1: shale of Sanganeh formation, P2: glauconitic sandstone of Aitamir
formation, P3: limestone of Abderaz formation, P4: limestone of Kalat formation, P5: claystone of Pesteligh formation, P6: sandstone of Khangiran formation, P7: siltstone of Neogene
and P8: gypsiferous marl of Neogene (c).

content of soils, which is strongly affected by parent material, could rep-
resent the degree of pedogenesis (Filho et al., 2015; Hu et al., 2004). Feo
reflects the concentration of poorly crystalline Fe oxides in soils
(Schwertmann, 1973). The ratio of Feo/Fed reflects Fe oxides crystallin-
ity in soils and has been used to evaluate genetic processes and for
assessing degree of profile development (Hu et al., 2009).
The magnetic susceptibility of soils, can be measured by fast, cheap
and nondestructive methods and has been used in different aspects of
pedogenic studies such as climate change records in loess-paleosol se-
quences, description and diagnosis of parent material uniformity and
chronosequence of soils (Jia et al., 2012; Fine et al., 1992; Maher,
1998; Singer et al., 1992; Williams and Cooper, 1990).
The magnetic enhancement of soils is mainly related to in situ ped-
ogenic formation of ferrimagnetic minerals and strongly affected by
soil-forming factors (Feng and Johnson, 1995; Fine et al., 1992; Singer
and Fine, 1989). Slight changes of ferrimagnetic mineral will significant-
ly influence low-field magnetic susceptibility (χ lf values) (Maher,
1998). The χlf/Fed ratio reflects the proportion of ferrimagnetic mineral
to total secondary Fe oxides and its correlation with Fed, Feo and Feo/Fed
are indicators to evaluate the relations between magnetic susceptibility,
Fe oxide crystallinity and pedogenesis (Hu et al., 2009).
The main objective of the present study is to investigate soil-parent
material relationship using free and active Fe oxide, clay mineralogy,
micromorphology as proxies for degree of soil development and soil-
parent material homogeneity.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Description of the study area
The Kopet Dagh Basin covers an area of approximately 500 km2 in
northeast Iran (Fig. 1a). The basin formed as a result of the enclosure
of the Paleotethys Ocean induced by convergence of the Iranian and Tu-
ranian plates during early Cimmerian orogeny. The final collision folded
the entire rocks that had been deposited in the basin from the Jurassic to
the Miocene and formed the Kopet Dagh Mountains. (Berberian and

Table 1
Selected parent rocks of studied formations in Sheikh Syncline.

Formations, Ages Sanganeh, Aitamir, Abderaz, Kalat, Pesteligh, lower Khangiran, Neogene, Neogene,
Albian Albian-cenomanian Turonian Maastrichtian paleocene Eocene Miocene Miocene

Gypsiferous
Selected lithologies Shale Glauconitic sandstone Limestone Limestone Claystone Sandstone Siltstone
Marl
Soil profile North: 37° 33′ 20.5″ 37° 33′ 41.7″ 37° 33′ 57.6″ 37° 34′ 4.2″ 37° 34′ 27.4″ 37° 34′ 36.9″ 37° 34′ 36.4″ 37° 34′ 17.6″
locations* East: 57° 31′ 53.2″ 57° 33′ 47.3″ 57° 33′ 37.8″ 57° 33′ 43.2″ 57° 33′ 11.8″ 57° 33′ 9.1″ 57° 34′ 57.4″ 57° 36′ 4.7″
Elevations
1110 1236 1230 1251 1300 1303 1318 1494
(m above sea level)
254 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267

Table 2
Some morphological and physico-chemical properties of the studied pedons.

Parent rocks Depth Color Stra CCE Clay Silt Sand OC pH Gyp CEC Fed Feo χlf
Horizons (cm) (moist) 1:5 g·kg−1 Cmol+·kg−1 (%) (%) 10−8 m3·kg−1
(%)

Shale: Fine, mixed, active, mesic, Typic Haplocalcids

A 0–20 10YR4.5/2 3,C,abk 6.5 53 30 17 1.9 7.2 – 25 0.88 0.05 28
AB 20–35 10YR4.5/2 3,C,abk 7 57 23 20 0.78 8.6 0.4 26 0.67 0.053 21
Bk1 35–60 10YR5/3 2,m,abk 8.5 56 29 15 0.39 8.7 1.2 25 0.68 0.052 22
Bk2 60–90 10YR5/3 2,m,abk 15 57 25 16 0.70 8.7 3.4 41 0.70 0.044 21
Bw 90–125 10YR5/4 2,m,abk 10 55 32 13 0.46 8.5 0.5 24 0.62 0.048 22
By1 125–150 10YR5/4 2,m,abk 9 54 32 14 0.39 7.7 1.0 23 0.66 0.053 23
By2 150–175 10YR5/4 2,m,abk 9.5 66 19 15 0.19 7.2 5.5 25 0.56 0.053 23
C N175 5Y4/2 m 11.5 – – – 0.55 7.2 16 24 0.45 0.050 12

Ab Limestone: Loamy-skeletal, carbonatic, mesic, Xeric Torriorthents

A 0–20 10YR 6/3 1,f,sbk 51 23 40 37 0.35 7.2 – 10 0.21 0.047 15
C1 20–70 10YR 6/3 m 50 15 22 60 0.06 7.5 – 9 0.14 0.014 7
C2 70–120 10YR 6/3 m 55 18 38 43 0.06 7.5 – 10 0.18 0.028 10

Gl Sandstone: Fine-loamy, smectitic, calcareous, mesic, Xeric Torriorthents

A 0–6 10YR5/6 1,f,sbk 9.5 20 34 46 2.08 7.1 – 12 0.5 0.074 10.9
AC 6–20 10YR5/6 1,f,sbk 8.5 18 25 57 1.56 7.4 – 10 0.6 0.062 11.2
C 20–60 10YR4/4 m 1.5 12 37 52 0.12 7.6 – 10 0.7 0.052 7.1

Ka Limestone: Fine-loamy, carbonatic, mesic, Typic Haplocalcids

A 0–20 10YR4/6 1,f,sbk 31 20 43 37 1.75 7.2 – 14 0.63 0.052 32.1
Bk 20–35 7.5YR4/6 1,f,sbk 41 24 40 36 1.44 7.3 – 14 0.65 0.032 27
Cr 35–60 7.5YR4/4 m 44.5 25 42 33 1.17 7.2 – 17 0.67 0.028 25.5

Claystone: Fine, smectitic, mesic, Chromic Haplotorrerts

Ap 0–35 2.5YR4/6 3,m,abk 13 47 30 23 0.78 7.3 0.9 25 0.76 0.034 18
Bss1 35–80 2.5YR5/6 2,m,abk 11 52 40 8 0.58 8.2 0.5 25 0.48 0.02 14
Bss2 80–120 2.5YR5/6 2,m,abk 7 52 33 15 0.35 8.5 0.6 24 0.6 0.019 12
Cy 120–150 2.5YR5/6 2,m,abk 11.5 40 33 27 0.2 7.3 25 19 0.52 0.013 13

Kh Sandstone: Fine-loamy, smectitic, calcareous, mesic, Xeric Torriorthents

A 0–13 10YR6/2 1,f,gr 5 30 19 51 1.10 7.4 – 19 0.049 0.011 10
Cr1 13–20 10YR6/2 m 6 23 13 64 0.81 8 – 17 0.044 0.018 10.6
Cr2 20–60 10YR6/1 m 4.5 34 26 40 0.39 8 – 17 0.045 0.019 10.3

Siltstone: Fine-loamy, smectitic, calcareous, mesic, Xeric Torriorthents

A 0–10 10YR5/4 1,f,gr 21.5 22 55 23 1.22 7.4 – 16 0.343 0.020 35
Cr1 10–35 10YR4.5/4 m 26 25 52 23 0.75 7.4 – 10 0.29 0.011 30
Cr2 35–70 10YR4/4 m 25.5 20 54 26 0.17 7.4 – 11 0.16 0.006 31

Marl: Very fine, smectitic, mesic, Typic Haplogypsids

Ap 0–35 10YR4.5/4 1,f,sbk 9.5 70 21 6 0.47 7.7 1 32 0.8 0.026 34
By1 35–80 2.5Y 6/2 2,m,abk 7 66 5 29 0.27 7.3 8 46 0.71 0.030 31
By2 80–120 2.5Y5/2 3,m,abk 7.5 66 20 14 0.19 7.3 8.1 33 0.85 0.034 28.9
Cssy 120–150 2.5Y4/3 m 5 70 18 12 0.08 7.4 10 35 0.78 0.042 24
a
Str = structure; abbreviation for structure are based on field book for describing and sampling soils (National Soil Survey Center, 2012), CCE = calcium carbonate equivalent,
OC = organic carbon, CEC = cation exchange capacity.

Table 3
The relative abundance of minerals in the clay fraction of studied soils.

Parent rocks, Pedons Horizons Mineralogical composition of clay fraction %a

Smectite Illite Chlorite Kaolinite Vermiculite Ch/I

Shale A ND +++ + + + 0.43

Typic Haplocalcids Bk2 ND +++ + + + 0.84
C ND +++ + + + 0.77

Ab Limestone A +++ + + + ND 0.61

Xeric Torriorthents C +++ + + + ND 0.63

Gl Sandstone A +++ + + + ND –
Xeric Torriorthents C +++ + + + ND –

Ka Limestone A +++ ++ + + ND 0.36

Typic Haplocalcids C +++ ++ + + ND 0.62

Claystone Bss1 +++ + + + ND 0.66

Chromic Haplotorrerts C +++ + + + ND 1.24

Kh Sandstone A ++++ ND ND ND ND –
Xeric Torriorthents C ++++ ND ND ND ND –

Siltstone A +++ + + + ND 1.08

Xeric Torriorthents C +++ + + + ND 1.06

Marl By1 +++ ++ + + ND 0.6

Typic Haplogypsids C +++ ++ + + ND 0.5
a
Relative abundance of clay minerals is shown by: + (b25%), ++ (25–50%), +++ (50–75%), ++++ (N75%), ND: not detected and Ch/I: Chlorite/Illite ratio.
 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267 255

King, 1981). The study area, located in North East of Bojnurd city, is a
part of Sheikh Syncline which is a unique area concerning various out-
croppings of Kopet Dagh formations. This site has rock outcrops of dif-
ferent formations from Cretaceous to Neogene (Fig. 1b).
Eight dominant lithologies of seven formations including Sanganeh
(shale), Aitamir (Gl Sandstone, glauconitic), Abderaz (Ab limestone),
Kalat (Ka limestone), Pesteligh (claystone), Khangiran (Kh sandstone)
and Neogene (siltstone and gypsiferous marl) were selected for soil
genesis studies (Fig. 1c). Table 1 shows the selected parent rocks and
ages of studied formations. Soil moisture and temperature regimes of
the study area calculated by Newhall simulation model (version 1.4.4–
20,110,329) are Aridic and Mesic, respectively (Soil Survey Staff,
2014). The natural vegetation is mainly ephemeral grasses and xero-
phytic shrubs.
2.2. Soil sampling
Eight soil profiles derived from selected parent rocks were described
using the Soil Survey Manual (Soil Survey Staff, 1993) and classified ac-
cording to Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2014). Soils were
mainly selected on the most stable landforms with minimum slope gra-
dient in order to reduce the effect of topography on soil formation and
highlight the soil-parent material relationship. The locations of soils
are shown in Table 1. Disturbed samples from genetic horizons and par-
ent materials were taken for physico-chemical and clay mineralogical
analysis. Undisturbed clods were also taken for micromorphological
studies. Except for pedon formed on Ab limestone which was sampled
at each horizon due to skeletal nature, other soil profiles were sampled
at 5–10 cm intervals for A horizons and 10 cm intervals for deeper parts

0 5 10 15 20
(a) 0 20
(b) 0
0 A Clay/10
Clay/10
20
Ap Gypsum
Gypsum(%)
(%)
20 AB 40
CCE
CCE(%)
(%)
Bk1 60 EC (dSm-1)
EC(dS/m)

Depth (cm)
40
Depth (cm)

Bss1 80
60 Bk2
Clay/10
Clay/10
100
80 Gypsum
Gypsum (%)
(%) Bw 120
Bss2 CCE
CCE (%)
(%)
140
100 EC
EC (dSm-1)
(dS/m) By1
160
Cy By2
120
C 180
(c) 0 5 10
0

A (d) 0
0 20 40
20
A
40 Clay/10
Clay/10 10
Depth (cm)

Gypsum
Gypsum (%)
(%) Clay /10
Depth (cm)

By1
60 CCE
CCE(%)(%) 20 Gypsum (%)
ECEC
(dS/m)
(dSm-1) Bk CCE (%)
80 30 (dSm-1)
EC(dS/m)
EC
By2
100 Cr 40
Cssy
120 50
(e) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
(f) 0 5 10
A 0
5 A 5
C1 10
Deoth (cm)

AC
Depth (cm)

10 15
20
15
C2 Clay/10
Clay/10 Cr 25
Clay/10
Gypsum(%)
Gypsum (%) 30 Gypsum (%)
20
CCE(%)
CCE (%) 35 CCE (%)
(dSm-1)
EC(dS/m)
EC 40 (dSm-1)
EC(dS/m)
EC
25

(g) 0 20 40 60 (h) 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 0
A 10 A 5
20 10 Clay/10
Clay/10
Clay/10
Depth (cm)
Depth (cm)

30 15 Gypsum (%)
Gypsum
Gypsum(%)
(%)
Cr1
40 20 CCE (%)
C1 50 CCE
CCE(%)
(%) EC (dSm-1)
EC(dS/m)
25
60 EC
EC(dS/m)
(dSm-1)
Cr2 30
70
35
80
C2
90 40

Fig. 2. Depth trends of selected physico-chemical parameters in pedons studied; Torrerts over claystone (a), Calcids over shale (b), Gypsids over gypsiferous marl (c), Calcids over Ka
limestone (d), Torriorthents over Kh sandstone (e), Torriorthents over Gl sandstone (f), Torriorthents over Ab limestone (g) and Torriorthents over siltstone (h).
256 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267

(a) (b)
Cps Cps

2-Theta-Scale 2-Theta-Scale

(c) (d)

Cps Cps

2-Theta-Scale 2-Theta-Scale

Fig. 3. X-ray diffraction patterns of the clay fraction of studied pedons and associated parent materials (EG treatments).
 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267 257

(e) (f)

Cps Cps

2-Theta-Scale 2-Theta-Scale

(g) (h)

Cps Cps

2-Theta-Scale 2-Theta-Scale
Fig. 3 (continued).
258 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267

of the soil profiles. The collected samples were packed for free Fe oxide
(Fed), active iron (Feo) and magnetic susceptibility measurements.
2.3. Laboratory analysis
Particle size distribution was determined by hydrometer method
(Gee and Bauder, 1986).The dispersion of bulk soils was conducted by
chemical treatment with sodium hexametaphosphate followed by me-
chanical methods. Organic carbon was measured by wet oxidation with
chromic acid (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) and
calcium carbonate equivalent (CCE) were determined by precipitation
with acetone and acid neutralization (Nelson, 1982), respectively. Soil
pH was measured in water using a 1:5 soil/solution ratio (McLean,
1982) and electrical conductivity (total soluble salts) was determined
in a saturation extract (Rhoades, 1982). Cation exchange capacity
(CEC) was measured using sodium acetate (NaOAc) at pH 8.2
(Chapman, 1965), free iron oxide (Fed) by the citrate–bicarbonate–
dithionite (CBD) method (Mehra and Jackson, 1960) and active iron
(Feo) by the acid ammonium oxalate method (Schwertmann, 1973).
The mass specific low field magnetic susceptibility (χlf) of the air-
dried samples was measured by Bartington magnetic susceptibility
meter with MS2B dual frequency sensor (χlf at 0.47 kHz). The specific

q A B

o
c

C D

Spt Cyt
n
Cry
Sp

E F

Fe Cl
Gyp

G H

Gyp Gyp

Spt Cry
Fig. 4. Represantative photomicrographs of pedons studied: close porphyric c/f related distribution pattern in Torriorthents derived from Kh sandstone (q = quartz and o = organic
material) (A); single grain microstructure of Torriorthents frormed on Ab limestone (c = calcite) (B); orthic calcite nodule embedded in speckled and strited b-fabric (spt) in Calcids
developed from shale (C); cytomorphic calcite infillings of channel surrounded by decalcified zone (speckled b-fabric) in Bk horizon of Calcids over Ka limestone (D); C horizon (E)
and Bss horizon (F) derived from claystone showing presence of gypsum, calcitic crystallitic b-fabric and local concentration of Fe oxide (Fe) and weakly oriented impure clay
pedofeature (Cl) in Bss horizon; C horizon (G) and By horizon of Gypsids developed from marl (H) showing presence of gypsum in soil and parent material and partly calcitic
crystallitic b-fabric with clayey matrix. All images are presented in cross polarized light except for image A which is in plane polarized light.
 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267
or mass susceptibility χ, measured in units of m3 kg−1, is defined as the
ratio of the material magnetization, σ (per unit mass), to the weak ex-
ternal magnetic field H:
χ ¼ σ=H
For clay mineral studies, clay fractions were separated by conven-
tional Stoke's settling velocity principle after removing of cementing
agent according to Mehra and Jackson (1960) and Kittrick and Hope
(1963). The clay oriented samples of Mg saturated, ethylene glycol
(EG) solvated, K saturated in 25, 330 and 550 °C were analyzed by X-
ray diffraction (XRD) using a D8 ADVANCE diffractometer with CuKα
radiation (40 kV, 40 mA). The peak area of the 001 reflections of the
main clay minerals (smectite = 17 Å, illite = 10 Å, and kaolinite/chlo-
rite = 7 Å) on EG treated sample were used to semiquantitative estima-
tion of clay minerals (Moore and Reynolds, 1997). To discriminate
kaolinite from trioctahedral chlorite, samples were treated with 1 N
HCl at 80 °C overnight.
For micromorphological studies, thin sections were prepared from
undisturbed, oriented and dry clods by standard methods (Murphy,
1986) and described under a polarizing optical microscope according
to Bullock et al. (1985). The micromorphological index of soil develop-
ment (MISECA), suggested by Khormali et al. (2003), was calculated
for parent materials and most developed genetic horizons of the soils.
These representative horizons are A horizons of Orthents (formed on
siltstone, Kh sandstone, Gl sandstone and Ab limestone), By of Gypsids,
Bss of Torrerts and Bk of Calcids. The MISECA index was proposed for
assessing the degree of soil development in calcareous deposits in arid
to semi-arid environments and range from 0 to 24. Its calculation is
based on microstructure, b-fabric and the presence of clay coatings,
decalcified zones, and Fe/Mn hydroxide pedofeatures as well on the al-
teration degree of mineral grains. Each feature was quantified by the ap-
plication of a simple rating that expresses the degree of pedogenic
evolution. With increasing degree of soil development, structure pro-
ceeds from massive to blocky/prismatic, fabric evolves from undifferen-
tiated to striated, coatings of clay or Fe/Mn oxide increase by
neoformation from primary minerals, and the area of the calcite deple-
tion pedofeatures increases in calcareous soils. The sum of the ratings
gives the value for the MISECA index.
3. Results
3.1. Morphological and physico-chemical properties
The selected physico-chemical, morphological characteristics and
classifications of the pedons studied are presented in Table 2. The
Ka limestone
40
35
30
lf (10-8 m3. kg-1)
25
Kh sandstone
Claystone
20
Ab limestone
Shale
15
10
5
0
Fig. 5. Bar diagram comparing mean magnetic susceptibility of soil sola with their parent materials.
259
weakly developed soils formed on sandstones, siltstone and Ab lime-
stone are classified as Entisols using the Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey
Staff, 2014). No genetic B horizon is developed in these soils and accu-
mulation of organic matter and formation of structure led to the devel-
opment of A horizons directly on parent materials. These soils are
similar to their parent materials and are coarse texture (those formed
on sandstones and Ab limestone) and medium texture (those formed
on siltstone).
The more developed soils formed on shale, marl and Ka limestone
are classified as Aridisols. Organic matter addition, calcium carbonate
transformation and development of calcic horizon are the main features
of Calcids formed on Ka limestone. These are shallow soils having loamy
texture and reddish brown color (7.5YR4/6). Gypsum dissolution from
the surface horizon and its recrystallization in gypsic horizons are the
main pedogenic processes in Gypsids derived from marl. The soils
formed on shale are classified as Calcids and have clayey texture, well
developed structure, distinct difference in color between the soil and
parent material (10YR in surface horizon vs. 5Y in parent material).
The development of calcic and gypsic subsurface horizons reflects ap-
propriate weathering environments resulting in calcite depletion from
the surface horizons and gypsum dissolution from upper meter of the
solum. Secondary calcite and gypsum are concentrated in the forms of
soft powdery pockets and mycelium in calcic and gypsic horizons,
respectively.
Soil formation on claystone resulted in the development of Vertisols.
Presence of the features such as slickensides, wedge shaped peds and
diffuse horizon boundaries implies shrink–swell cycles. The parent ma-
terial is gypsiferous (25% gypsum). Although gypsum can originate from
surrounding geological materials (Khademi et al., 1997), but the source
of gypsum is claystone parent rocks as evidenced by Moussavi-Harami
(1993). The soil solum shows gypsum dissolution and there is no dis-
tinction between red color (2.5YR Hue) of soil and underlying parent
material.
All the studied soils are nonsaline (EC b 4 dS/m), pH values ranging
from neutral (7.2) to alkaline (8.7) and all effervesce with HCl 10%. Cal-
cium carbonate equivalent (CCE) varying from highly calcareous (N 40%
in soils derived from limestones) and moderately calcareous (nearly
20% in soils derived from siltstone) to slightly or non-calcareous (b 15%).
3.2. Clay mineralogy
X-ray diffraction patterns and clay mineral abundance of the clay
fraction for parent materials and representative horizons from each
pedon studied are shown in Fig. 3 and Table 3. Illite, chlorite, kaolinite
and vermiculite were found in the clay fraction of soils formed on
shale. Smectite is the only clay mineral detected in clay fraction of Kh
Siltstone
Marl
Gl sandstone
Parent materials
Soils
260 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267

sandstone and associated soils. Dominance of smectite and absence of
other clay minerals is confirmed by presence of the sole strong peak in
17 Å in EG treatment (Fig. 3c). Clay mineral composition of other soils
and parent materials consists of smectite, illite, chlorite and kaolinite
and the compositions are also dominated by smectite as indicated by
observation of its strong peaks (16.5–18 Å in EG treatment). Glauconite
is the main mica type present in clay fraction of Gl sandstone and related
soils and its presence is confirmed by observation of intense 9.9 Å and
weak 5 Å peaks (Fig. 3b). Glauconite has also been recognized in thin
section of soil and parent materials. Comparison of types and abundance
of clay minerals between soils and underlying parent materials reveal
similarity in clay mineral types. Small differences in concentration of
chlorite and smectite can be recognized in soils developed from
claystone and Ka limestone (Fig. 3 and Table. 3). The clay mineralogical
findings are also in agreement with the results reported by Khormali
and Amini (2015) for Kopet Dagh.
3.3. Micromorphological observations
The thin section studies of parent materials and representative ge-
netic horizons are mainly based on soil type and features reflecting
soil development according to MISECA index. The degrees of the soil de-
velopment as indicated by MISECA index of genetic horizons are pre-
sented in Fig. 7. The calculated MISECA index ranged from 1 to 5 for
parent materials and from 2 to 11 for soils.

Fed (%) Feo (%)

lf (10-8m3kg-1)
0 10 20 0 0.1 0 0.05
0 0 0
5 5 5
10 10 10
15 15 15
Depth (cm)

20 20 20
25 25 25
30 30 30
35 35 35
40 40 40
45 45 45
50 50 50
(a) (b) (c)
lf (10-8m3kg-1) Feo (%)
lf / Fe
d 0 0.05 0.1
0 10 20 0 50 0
0 0 25
5
5 5 20 y = 124.79x + 3.2253
10 R² = 0.8866
10 10
/ Fed

15
15
Depth (cm)

15 15
10
20 20
lf

20
5
25 25 25
0
30 30 30 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
35 35 35 Feo/Fed
40 40 40
(d) (e) (f) (g)

lf (10-8m3kg-1) lf / Fe Feo (%)

d
20 30 40 50 150 0 0.02 0.04
0 0 0

5 5 5 120
Depth (cm)

10 10 10 100
lf / Fed

15 15 80
15
y = 668.24x + 63.757
20 20 R² = 0.864
20 60
25 25
25 40
30 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
30
30
(h) (i) (j) (k) Feo/Fed

Fig. 6. Depth trend variations of χlf, Fed, Feo in Torriorthents derived from Kh sandstone (a, b and c); depth trend variations of χlf, χlf/Fed, Feo and Feo/Fed correlation with χlf/Fed in Gl
sandstone (d, e, f and g) and siltstone (h, i, j and k).
 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267 261

12
Bk2
10
Bss1 Parent materials
8

MISECA
Soils

Shale

Ka limestone
6

Claystone
Bk By1

Kh sandstone

Gl sandstone
Ab limestone

Siltstone
A A
4

Marl
A A
2

Pedons

Fig. 7. Bar diagram comparing MISECA index of representative genetic horizons of soils with their parent materials.

The surface horizon of soils formed on siltstone have single to double with quartz and glauconite as major minerals. Low degrees of mineral
spaced porphyric c/f related distribution, crystallitic b-fabric, moderate- alteration can be recognized in soils having calcite and glauconite.
ly developed granular microstructure. Calcite and quartz are the domi- Micromorphological studies of Aridisols are focused on subsurface
nant minerals in the coarse fraction. The surface horizons of other diagnostic horizons. The most important feature of calcic horizon of
Entisols are characterized by crystallitic b-fabric and close porphyric c/ Calcids developed from Ka limestone is redistribution and reorientation
f related distributions. Soils derived from Kh sandstone and Ab lime- of calcite. Different forms of pedogenic calcium carbonate were identi-
stone have single grain to vughy microstructure and their coarse miner- fied as nodules, infillings of cytomorphic calcite in root channels
al components are dominated by quartz and calcite (Fig. 4a, b). Soils which is occasionally covered by acicular forms (Fig. 4d). Thin section
developed from Gl sandstone exhibit vughy to granular microstructure studies of gypsic horizon of Gypsids show infillings of secondary

lf/Fe Feo (%)

lf (10-8 m3 kg-1) d

30 50 70 0 0.05 0.1
10 30 50
0 0
0
60
10 10 10
50
20 20 20 40
lf / Fed
Depth (cm)

30 30 30 30
y = 375.03x + 23.776
20 R² = 0.7811
40 40 40
10
50 50 50 0
60 60 60
0 0.05 0.1
Feo/Fed
70 70
70
(a) (b) (c) (d)

lf (10-8 m3 kg-1) lf/Fe Feo (%)

d
0 10 20 30 55 80 0 0.05
0 0 0

80
20 20 20 70
60
/ Fed
Depth (cm)

40 40 40 50
40
y = 180.1x + 32.92
lf

60 60 30
60 R² = 0.897
20
10
80 80 80
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
100 100 100 Feo/Fed
(e) (f) (g) (h)

Fig. 8. Depth trend variations of χlf, χlf/Fed, Feo and correlation of χlf/Fed with Feo/Fed in Calcids derived from Ka limestone (a, b, c and d) and Torriorthents derived from Ab limestone (e, f, g
and h).
262 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267

lenticular gypsum crystals in voids, open porphyric c/f related distribu-
tion, moderately developed angular blocky microstructure and
crystallitic b-fabric (Fig. 4h). The matrix of underlying parent material
is also clayey and gypsum is found in the form of coarse lenticular crys-
tals embedded in crystallitic and partly striated b-fabric (Fig. 4g).
Thin section description of surface and calcic horizons of Calcids
formed on shale show calcite depletion. Speckled to striated b-fabrics
occur in surface horizon and secondary calcite accumulation in calcic
horizon is evident in the calcic horizons. B-fabric of the calcic horizon
is both crystallitic and speckled (50%) and calcitic features can be recog-
nized as nodules in the matrix and hypocoatings around voids (Fig. 4c).
Calcite depletion zones decrease from the soil surface horizon toward
deeper horizons. Microstructure varies from vughy in the surface hori-
zon to moderately developed subangular blocky in the calcic horizon.
The parent material is characterized by abundant fine gypsum crystals
distributed in the clayey matrix.
The main micromorphological features of Vertisols developed from
claystone are well separated angular blocky microstructure associated
with planes, speckled to striated b-fabric and the presence of coarse cal-
cite nodules impregnated by Fe oxide. The coarse component is domi-
nated by calcite and quartz. The parent material shows accumulation
of many lenticular gypsum crystals in voids, calcitic crystallitic b-fabric
and local concentration of Fe oxide in matrix (Fig. 4e, f).
3.4. Magnetic susceptibility
The comparison of mean soil χlf and underlying parent materials is
shown in Fig.5. The mean soil χlf is the average of χlf values measured

lf (10-8 m3 kg-1) Fed (%) Feo (%)

20 40 0 1 0 0.05
0 0 0

20 20 60
20

50 y =-264.58x + 51.439

/ Fed
40 40 40
Depth (cm)

R² = 0.0718
40
60 60 60

lf
30
80 80 80
20
100 100 100 0.02 0.04 0.06
Feo/Fed
120 (a) 120 120
(b) (c) (d)
lf (10-8 m3 kg-1)
Fed (%) Feo (%)
10 15 20 0 1 0 0.05
0 0 0

20 20 20 35
y = 75.37x0.332

40 40 40 30 R² = 0.642
Depth (cm)

/ Fed

60 60 60 25
lf

80 20
80 80
15
100 100 100 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07

120 Feo/Fed
(e) 120 (f) 120 (g) (h)

lf (10-8 m3 kg-1) Fed (%)

10 15 20 25 30 35 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0 50
0
20 20 40
/ Fed

40 40 30
60
Depth (cm)

60 20
lf

80 y = 256.0x + 14.15
80
10 R² = 0.685
100 100
120 120 0
0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11
140 140
Feo/Fed
160 160
180 180
(i) (j) (k)
200 200

Fig. 9. Depth trend variations of χlf, Fed, Feo and correlation of χlf/Fed with Feo/Fed in Gypsids derived from marl (a, b, c and d) and Torrerts derived from Claystone (e, f, g and h), depth trend
variations of χlf, Fed and correlation of χlf/Fed with Feo/Fed in calcids derived from shale (i, j and k).
 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267 263

in soil solum. Except for soil formed on Kh sandstone, the χlf of soils is
enhanced as compared with underlying parent materials. The absolute
χlf values of parent materials are ranging from 40 to
b10 × 10−8 m3 kg−1. Ab limestone and siltstone have the lowest and
highest values of χlf, respectively. Figs. 6, 8 and 9 illustrate vertical distri-
bution of χlf for each pedon. The χlf–depth curve of Entisols formed on Gl
sandstone, siltstone and limestone show a decreasing trend downwards
then reaches constant level (Figs. 6d, h, 8e) but there is almost no vari-
ation in χlf curve of Entisols derived from Kh sandstone (Fig. 6a). The χlf-
values for Aridisols formed on shale, gypsiferous marl and limestone
gradually decrease downward while χlf–depth variation pattern trend
for Vertisols of claystone is irregular decrease from surface horizon to
base horizon (Figs. 8a, 9e, i, a).
4. Discussion
4.1. Soil formation in coarse-medium texture parent materials
Soils derived from residuum of sandstones and siltstone are textur-
ally like the clastic particles of rocks. Morphological comparison of
Entisols derived from sandstones and siltstone show that Kh sandstone
has weak horizon differentiation but soils of Gl sandstone and siltstone
show more distinct horizonation and soil development. These varia-
tions can be related to the difference in mineralogical composition of
their parent materials. Calculated MISECA index for their A horizon rep-
resent higher degree of soil development form Gl sandstone and silt-
stone because they show some degree of mineral alteration and more
developed microstructure (Fig. 7). Thin section study of Kh sandstone
show the dominance of quartz in coarse mineral composition and ab-
sence of any weatherable mineral (Fig. 4a). These soils have the lowest
concentration of Fed (Fig. 6b) and the depth curve of Fed and χlf show al-
most no variation from the soil surface to parent material reflecting no
pedogenic formation of Fe oxides and ferrimagnetic minerals (Fig. 6a,
b). It implies that inert parent material of Kh sandstone with low con-
centration of Fe oxide or iron bearing minerals is responsible for weak
pedogenic alteration. Lu (2000) also reported minor variation of χlf be-
tween Entisols and underlying sandstone parent rocks with low χlf and
Fe oxides in China.
Thin section studies of Gl sandstone and siltstone shows dominance
of quartz in their coarse mineral fractions while calcite with Fe oxides in
siltstone and glauconite beside Fe oxides in Gl sandstone are also major
components. Decomposition or transformation of these minerals results
in a more favorable condition for soil development and also more inten-
sive vegetation providing weathering environment for secondary ferri-
magnetic mineral formation. These processes are confirmed by
variation pattern of χlf and its correlation with Fed and Feo (Fig. 6). The
low χlf values of parent materials indicate low input of ferrimagnetic
minerals from rocks to soils (Fig. 5). Vertical distributions of χlf for
both soil profiles show elevated level of χlf in the A horizon and increas-
ing trend from parent materials to surface horizon reflecting formation
of ferrimagnetic minerals (Fig. 6d, h). The magnetic enhancement of
modern soils is related to the formation of nano-sized magnetite and/
or maghemite (Torrent et al., 2010). CBD treatment dissolve maghemite
grains of any size, maghemite coats on large magnetite grains and mag-
netite grains smaller than 1 μm. Coarse-grained magnetite grains
(N1 μm) are inherited from parent material to soils and are not affected

40 (a) 20 (b)
35 18 y = 8.775x + 10.05
χlf (10-8 m3. kg-1)

y = 7.948x + 20.08
χlf (10-8 m3. kg-1)

30 R² = 0.843 16
R² = 0.738

25 14

20 12

15 10

10 8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
OC % OC%
18 35
16 (c) (d)
14 30
χlf (10-8 m3. kg-1)
χlf (10-8 m3. kg-1)

12
10 25
y = 8.773x + 16.01
8
20 R² = 0.708
6 y = 22.85x + 7.575
4 R² = 0.867 15
2
0 10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
OC% OC %

14
40
12
(e) (f)
χlf (10-8 m3. kg-1)

10 35
χlf 10-8 m3. kg-1)

8 y = 2.143x + 7.004
6 R² = 0.928 30

4 y = 9.765x + 26.2
25 R² = 0.773
2
0 20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
OC %
OC %

Fig. 10. The correlations of organic carbon with χlf of soils derived from shale (a), claystone (b), Ab limestone (c), Ka limestone (d), Gl sandstone (e) and siltstone (f).
264 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267
by CBD treatment (Hunt et al., 1995). Since pedogenic species of Fe ox-
ides are removed by CBD treatment, the comparison of Fed in soils with
their parent materials help to evaluate weathering intensity. Higher re-
lease of Fe from Fe bearing minerals and its conversion to Fe oxides
points to a higher degree of pedogenesis (Hu et al., 2004). The χlf/Fed
ratio represents the proportion of ferrimagnetic mineral to total second-
ary Fe oxides. The variation pattern of χlf/Fed for soils developed from Gl
sandstone and siltstone show increasing trend from parent materials to
the soil surface indicating ferrimagnetic mineral formation (Fig. 6e, i).
The first possible explanation regarding these processes is the transfor-
mation of Fe oxide in parent materials in to forms with higher magnetic
susceptibility. The formation of microcrystalline maghemite or magne-
tite from weakly magnetic Fe oxide and hydroxides via oxidation–re-
duction cycles has been reported (Mullins, 1977; Longworth et al.,
1979). This process occurs during normal pedogenic conditions and
can change upper soil mineralogy (Lu, 2000).
The second mechanism could be neoformation of ferrimagnetic min-
erals. According to Singer et al. (1996) the weathering of iron-bearing
minerals is a major process in magnetic enhancement of eluvial and
illuvial horizons through formation of magnetite and maghemite. Glau-
conite is a susceptible mineral that easily weatherable in soil environ-
ment (El-Amamy et al., 1982; Skiba et al., 2014). The release of Fe via
glauconite weathering and its oxidation to magnetite or maghemite in
soils formed on Gl sandstone could be responsible for increasing χlf of
the soil. Feo/Fed index is used to evaluate Fe oxide crystallinity and the
similarity of depth variations trends of Feo/Fed with χlf/Fed and also
their positive significant correlation coefficient indicate that ferrimag-
netic minerals are concentrated more in poorly crystalline portion of
free Fe oxide (Fig. 6g, k). This result is consistent with Hu (2004) and
Hu et al. (2009) who reported strong correlation between χlf and Feo/
Fed in studies of loess-paleosol sequences in China.
Although many soil genesis studies over a wide range of lithologies
and climate regimes have indicated that the magnetic susceptibility of
surface soil was often higher than that of the parent materials (Maher,
1986; Mullins, 1977; Singer and Fine, 1989; Thompson and Oldfield,
1986), the vertical distribution of χlf for soils derived from Kh sandstone
shows that magnetite enhancement of topsoil in arid environment did
not occur on parent materials with low concentration of iron-bearing
minerals. Dearing et al. (1996) evidenced that Fe supply, via ferrihydrite
formation that crystallize to magnetite and maghemite, is a major factor
controlling the concentration of pedogenic ferrimagnetic minerals.
The similarity in clay mineral composition of soils and underlying
parent materials indicate close genetic relations between them. In addi-
tion, this similarity implies that weathering intensity is not high enough
to change relative abundance of clay minerals to the detectable extent of
x-ray diffraction (Fig. 3, Table.3).
4.2. Soil formation from limestone
The soils developed on Ab and Ka limestone have loamy texture and
are highly calcareous. Orthents formed on Ab limestone are in early
stage of pedogenesis showing initial development of A horizon with sin-
gle grain microstructure over a massive C horizon (Fig. 4b). In contrast,
Calcids of Ka limestone formed on more stable landscape and denser
vegetation show higher degree of development as reflected by higher
MISECA index. Higher degree of development is confirmed by formation
of the A horizon with well separated granular microstructure over calcic
horizon with high concentration of secondary calcite. Precipitation of
secondary calcite can be recognized by formation of nodules, infillings
of cytomorphic calcite crystals in channels covered with needle shaped
calcite surrounded by decalcified zones indicating dissolution and re-
crystallization of calcite induced by chemical and biological processes
(Fig. 4d). These types of calcitic features are frequently reported in
semi-arid calcareous soils (Jaillard et al., 1991; Herrero et al., 1992;
Khormali et al., 2006) and the origin of needle fiber calcite has been
interpreted as fungal biomineralisation (Verrecchia and Verrecchia,
1994; Loisy et al., 1999; Milliere et al., 2011).
The χlf of these soils are very low and their χlf–depth curve show
gradual decrease by depth (Fig. 8a, e). These results are in accordance
with the findings of Lu (2000) and Yu and Lu (1991) who reported sim-
ilar χlf–depth curve and low χlf values for soils derived from limestone in
China. Decrease in χlf/Fed by depth indicates the higher production of
ferrimagnetic mineral at the surface horizons due to more intensive
weathering environment resulted from biological processes (Fig. 8b,
f). Feo has also displayed similar variation (Fig. 8c, g) and significant cor-
relation present between Feo/Fed with χlf/Fed indicates that poorly crys-
talline Fe oxide could retain higher ferrimagnetic mineral (Fig. 8d, h).
Clay minerals distributions of both parent materials are the same (Fig.
3a, e and Table. 3). Comparison of clay mineral abundance of soils
with their parent material show no variation for soils of Ab limestone
while a little decrease in amount of chlorite can be detected in soils of
Ka limestone as revealed by increase of illite/chlorite in soil relative to
parent material (Table. 3).
Chlorite is more susceptible to weathering than illite (Biscaye, 1965)
and their ratio can reflect weathering intensity. Zhao et al. (2005) used
this index to record weathering intensity related to paleoclimate varia-
tion in loess-paleosol sequences in China. Minor decrease in chlorite
content in soils derived from Ka limestone is attributed to more favorite
weathering condition in these soils. Chlorite weathering results in the
release of iron and in production of Fe oxides and also ferrimagnetic
minerals, leading to enhancement of magnetite susceptibility (Guo et
al., 2000; Maher, 1998; Ji et al., 2002). Trace amounts of ferrimagnetic
mineral in soils dominate magnetic signals and slight change in ferri-
magnetic mineral can significantly affect χlf (Maher, 1998).
4.3. Soil formation in fine textured parent materials
The properties of soils derived from claystone, gypsiferous marl and
shale, are affected mainly by their clayey texture and mineralogy. Thin
section studies of residuum of claystone show many gypsum crystals
and formation of calcitic crystallitic b-fabric with local concentration
of Fe oxides (Fig. 4e). Absence of gypsum in micromorphological obser-
vations of soil solum could be due to dissolution of gypsum as compared
with gypsum rich parent material. In addition, the low calcite and very
high clay contents caused the appearance of speckled and striated b-
fabric (Fig. 4f). The formation of oriented clay domains, planes as dom-
inant type of void, wedge-shaped structural elements and cracks during
dry seasons in field observation imply the strong shrink-swell process-
es. The clayey texture and dominance of smectitic clay minerals favors
the condition for argillipedoturbation.
The MISECA index is higher for Torrerts of claystone relative to
Gypsids of marl indicating a higher degree of soil development (Fig.
7). Decalcified fabric and higher degree of mineral alteration (gypsum
and calcite) in Torrerts are responsible factors to increase this index.
The main pedogenic process in Gypsids of marl is gypsum dissolution
from surface horizon and its accumulation in gypsic horizons. The
main features of gypsic horizon are infillings of gypsum crystals in
voids with calcitic crystallitic b-fabric (Fig. 4h).
In comparison with Torrerts of claystone, vertic behavior of Gypsids
was not enough to qualify it as a Vertisols in spite of having clayey tex-
ture and high proportion of smectite in clay mineral composition. It has
been shown that shrink-swell potential of soils is negatively correlated
with the abundance of carbonate, gypsum, Fe/Mn oxides, low activity
clays and with electrolyte concentration (Mermut et al., 1991). The re-
sults of some studies show that application of gypsum can reduce vertic
behaviors of Vertisols for instance Wild et al. (1992) reported that appli-
cation of gypsum as an amendment reduced shrink-swell properties
and modified physical characteristics of sodic Vertisols in Australia. On
the other hand, sometimes swelling restriction of clays is related to
the presence of calcite as documented by Rimmer and Greenland
(1976). Substantial amount of gypsum in the soils developed from
 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267
marl can reduce soil extensibility. Dissolving of gypsum crystals in wet
seasons can modify soil swelling while its crystallization in dry season
leads to modification of soil shrinkage.
The Calcids formed on shale display more advanced degree of devel-
opment as reflected by their highest value of MISECA index (Fig. 7). Cal-
cic, cambic and gypsic are subsurface diagnostic horizons. Gypsum has
been dissolved from the upper meter of the solum and formation of cal-
cic horizon with calcite depletion pedofeatures implies probably to a
more appropriate paleo-environment in a geomorphologically stable
landscape (Fig. 4c). In spite of other studied soils, smectite is not present
in clay mineral composition, therefore, they do not show any sign of
vertic behavior (Fig. 3h, Table. 3). Bhattacharyya et al. (1997) showed
that soil vertic behavior is a function of smectite content. Shirsath et
al. (2000) reported a strong relation between shrink–swell properties
and smectite content in the clay fraction (b 2 μm). However, shrink-
swell magnitude is restricted in soils of dry climate as compared to sub-
humid environment (Pal et al., 2009).
The χlf curve of Gypsids, presented in Fig. 9a, shows a decline with
depth. The absence of meaningful variation and correlation for Fed, Feo
and χlf/Fed indicate no considerable formation of pedogenic Fe oxides
(Fig. 9b, c, d). The data suggest that higher values of χlf can not be
interpreted to higher concentration of secondary Fe oxide or ferrimag-
netic minerals. The declining trend of χlf from soil surface to parent ma-
terial could be attributed to increase of gypsum content (Fig. 2c).
Gypsum and carbonates are diamagnetic and mobile minerals that can
mask soil magnetic properties due to their pronounced dilution effect
(Karimi et al., 2013).
The variation patterns of χlf for Calcids over shale show increasing
trend from parent material to gypsic horizon and reach a nearly con-
stant level in gypsic, cambic and calcic horizons followed by a sharp in-
crease toward the soil surface (Fig. 9i). The variation pattern of χlf is
strongly consistent with the Fed curve (Fig. 9j). In contrast, the χlf–
depth curve of Torrerts over claystone show a gradual decrease down-
ward and its variation is also consistent with the Fed curve (Fig. 9e, f).
The minor variations observed in depth trend of χlf and Fed in Torrerts
might be attributed to pedoturbation and homogenization processes.
Magnetic susceptibility enhancement of surface horizons is interpreted
to more intensive weathering environment evident from higher con-
centration of free Fe oxide and also depletion of calcite and gypsum as
two major diamagnetic minerals. Dependence of magnetic susceptibili-
ty variation on Fe oxide crystallinity is confirmed by significant correla-
tion between χlf/Fed and Feo/Fed in both the claystone and shale derived
soils (Fig. 9h, k).
The more intensive weathering environment of Torrerts and Calcids
is reflected in higher differentiation of clay mineral composition of soils
with their underlying parent materials (Table. 3). While clay mineral
abundances in Gypsids are similar to their parent material, Calcids and
Torrerts show differences in their illite/chlorite ratio compared to the
parent materials suggesting chlorite weathering. The minor increase
in smectite with decreasing chlorite in Torrerts in relation to parent ma-
terial can be interpreted as weathering and transformation of chlorite to
smectite. Chlorite weathering has been reported in soils of arid and
semi-arid area of Iran (Burnett et al., 1972). Recent studies show that
chlorite weathering through releasing of iron can influence effectively
the Fe oxide concentration and magnetic susceptibility enhancement
of soils (Peng et al., 2014).
4.4. Possible source of ferrimagnetic minerals in topsoils
As discussed above, pedogenic formation of ferrimagnetic minerals
play an important role in magnetic enhancement of soils developed
from Gl sandstone, siltstone, limestones, shale and claystone. Magnetic
enhancement associated with pedogenesis under aerobic condition is
mainly related to the formation of nano-sized magnetite and/or
maghemite as the two major ferrimagnetic minerals.
265
As illustrated in Fig. 10, there are significant correlations between or-
ganic carbon contents and χlf of pedons studied. Piepenbrock et al.
(2011) showed that humic substances through constraining interaction
between ferrihydrite and Fe2+ (via complexing Fe2+ and blocking sorp-
tion sites on ferrihydrite) can inhibit magnetite formation therefore this
mechanism cannot explain positive correlations between organic car-
bon and χlf in pedons studied. In contrast, bacterially mediated pathway
of magnetite formation either intercellular by microaerophilic assimila-
tory bacteria (magnetotactic bacteria) or extracellular by dissimilatory
iron reducer bacteria are stimulated by organic matter content
(Paasche et al., 2004; Snowball et al., 1999). Biosynthesis of magnetite
might account for magnetite enhancement of topsoils especially in
soils derived from fine textured parent rocks (shale and claystone)
where anaerobic micro-zones are believed to be more frequent than
soils derived from coarser texture parent rocks (limestones, siltstone
and Gl sandstone).
The magnetic enhancement of topsoils can also be attributed to
maghemite formation. Maghemite can be formed through solid state
transformation of ferrihydrite which is later transformed to hematite.
Increasing values of Feo, which is an approximate of ferrihydrite concen-
tration, from parent materials to surface horizons of soils derived from
Gl sandstone, limestones and claystone (Fig. 6: f, j; Fig. 8: c, g and Fig.
9: g) might indicate higher pedogenic formation of maghemite associat-
ed with magnetic enhancements. Higher organic ligands of surface ho-
rizons lead to blocking surface of ferrihydrite and can undergo
internal rearrangement and slow dehydration of maghemite to hema-
tite (Torrent et al., 2006). Since magnetite in aerobic condition readily
oxidize to maghemite (Torrent et al., 2010), maghemite is a more prob-
able phase controlling magnetic signals of studied soils.
Thermal transformation of weakly magnetic iron oxides and hydrox-
ides to ferrimagnetic magnetite may be produced by natural fire or crop
burning. Fire affects the iron minerals to a depth of no more than several
centimeters (Singer et al., 1996), while in some studied soils, enhance-
ment exceeds 40 cm. In addition, we found no evidence of fire (such
as charcoal) both in field and thin section studies of surface horizons.
Therefore, fire could not be responsible for magnetic enhancement in
the region. However, it is likely that bioturbation (and
argillipedoturbation in Torrerts) processes could mix high and low sus-
ceptibility horizons in the deeper sola.
5. Conclusion
Parent material is a main soil forming factor in the area studied. The
close genetic relation between soils and parent materials is indicated by
micromorphological and clay mineralogical studies. Texture and miner-
alogy of parent materials are two most important factors affecting the
degree of soil development. Examination of the MISECA development
index showed that microstructure development, calcite depletion
pedofeatures and alteration of more susceptible minerals such as gyp-
sum and calcite are main factors to assess soil development. Our results
showed that magnetic susceptibility beside MISECA index are useful
tools to differentiate weak weathering intensity of genetic horizons of
soils developed under arid and semi-arid climate. Very low lithogenic
contribution of ferrimagnetic minerals is indicated by low χlf of parent
materials derived from sedimentary rocks. Depletion and redistribution
of diamagnetic minerals (calcite and gypsum), pedogenic formation of
magnetite and/or maghemite through weathering and transformation
of iron-bearing minerals such as glauconite, chlorite and Fe oxide are
processes responsible for χlf variation in the soils. This interpretation is
based on the studies of calcite and gypsum distribution in soil profiles,
depth trend variations of χlf, χlf/Fed, Fed, Feo and correlations between
organic carbon with χlf and χlf/Fed with Feo/Fed.
Soil genesis studies on soils derived from clayey parent materials
(claystone, marl and shale) reveal that vertic properties are not formed
in the absence of smectitic clay minerals in soils developed from shale
and that the presence of gypsum plays a key role in impeding vertic
266 H. Tazikeh et al. / Catena 152 (2017) 252–267
properties in smectite rich soils derived from marl. In comparison, de-
pletion of gypsum and dominance of smectite favors the condition for
Vertisol formation on claystone.
Acknowledgements
The present study is a part of the PhD thesis done at Gorgan Univer-
sity of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Iran. The construc-
tive comments of the reviewers are highly appreciated.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.01.020.
These data include the google map of the most important areas de-
scribed in this article.
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