10 MARKS

1. What is microbiology and distinctive characteristics of major group of

microorganisms
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and
algae.

Each group has distinctive characteristics:

Bacteria: Single-celled prokaryotic organisms, some of which can cause diseases while others
are beneficial, like those in our gut aiding digestion.

Viruses: Non-living entities consisting of genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein
coat. They need a host cell to replicate and can cause a range of diseases, from the common
cold to more severe illnesses.

Fungi: Eukaryotic organisms that can be unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (molds and
mushrooms). They can be beneficial, like in food production (yeast for bread), or harmful,
causing infections such as athlete's foot or thrush.

Protozoa: Single-celled eukaryotic organisms that are usually motile and can be free-living or
parasitic. Some cause diseases like malaria, while others play essential roles in ecosystems.

Algae: Diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms, ranging from single-celled to

multicellular forms. They are crucial for oxygen production and form the base of many aquatic
food chains.

Understanding these distinctions helps in studying their roles in health, disease, industry, and
the environment.

2. Intro to sterilization & disinfection

“crucial processes in microbiology aimed at controlling and eliminating microbial contaminants, including bacteria,
from surfaces, instruments, and environments”

Sterilization: complete elimination or destruction of all forms of microbial life, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and
spores.
Purpose: goal of sterilization is to make an object or environment free from microorganisms that could cause
infection or contamination.
Methods: Sterilization methods include physical methods such as heat (autoclaving), radiation (UV, gamma, or
electron beam), filtration, and chemical methods
Disinfection: involves reduction of the microbial population on surfaces and objects to a level that is considered safe
for public health standards.
Purpose: to reduce number of pathogenic or harmful microorganisms to prevent spread of infections and ensure a
hygienic environment.
Methods: include chemical agents such as disinfectants (e.g., bleach, alcohol) and antiseptics (iodine) applied to
surfaces, instruments, and skin.

Factors Affecting Effectiveness:

Microbial Load: initial level of contamination on object or surface
Type of Microorganism: Different microorganisms vary in resistance. i.e. bacterial endospores are highly resistant and
may require specialized sterilization techniques.
Time and Concentration: duration of exposure to sterilizing or disinfecting agents and their concentration
Environmental Conditions: temperature, humidity, and pH

Applications in Microbiology:
In labs, sterilization is essential for preparing culture media, sterilizing lab equipment and glassware, and maintaining
aseptic conditions during experiments.
Disinfection used to decontaminate work surfaces, laboratory benches to prevent cross-contamination and ensure a
safe working environment.
In healthcare for sterilizing surgical instruments, medical devices to prevent healthcare-associated infections.

In summary, play vital role in preventing spread of infections and ensuring public health and safety.

3. General characteristics and methods used for study & diagnosis of fungal
infections
Fungi are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that play essential roles in ecosystems as decomposers, symbionts,
and pathogens.
1. General Characteristics of Fungi:
• Eukaryotic: Fungi are eukaryotes, meaning their cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.
• Heterotrophic: Fungi obtain nutrients by absorbing organic matter from their environment. They
secrete enzymes to break down complex organic compounds.
• Cell Wall: Fungal cells have cell walls primarily composed of chitin, glucans, and other
polysaccharides (differing from bacterial cell walls).
• Reproduction: Fungi can reproduce sexually and/or asexually. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion
of gametes, while asexual reproduction occurs through spore formation.
• Morphology: Fungi exhibit diverse morphologies, including unicellular forms (yeasts) and
multicellular forms (molds and mushrooms).
2. Methods for Study and Diagnosis of Fungal Infections:
• Microscopy: Direct microscopic examination of clinical samples (e.g., skin scrapings, sputum, tissue
biopsies) using stains like potassium hydroxide (KOH) or fungal-specific stains (e.g., calcofluor white)
can reveal fungal structures such as hyphae, spores, and yeast cells.
• Culture: Fungal cultures involve inoculating clinical specimens onto culture media optimized for
fungal growth (e.g., Sabouraud dextrose agar). Cultures allow for the identification of fungal species
based on colony morphology, growth characteristics, and biochemical tests.
• Molecular Methods: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays and DNA sequencing techniques can
detect fungal DNA in clinical samples and identify fungal species accurately. These methods are
particularly useful for fastidious or slow-growing fungi.
• Serological Tests: Some fungal infections can be diagnosed using serological tests that detect specific
antibodies (e.g., enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, immunodiffusion tests) or antigens (e.g.,
galactomannan antigen in invasive aspergillosis).
• Histopathology: Examination of tissue samples (biopsies) under a microscope (histopathology) can
reveal fungal structures within tissues, aiding in the diagnosis of invasive fungal infections.
• Antifungal Susceptibility Testing: Antifungal susceptibility testing determines the sensitivity of fungal
isolates to antifungal drugs, helping guide treatment decisions and monitor antifungal resistance.
• Clinical Presentation: Clinical signs and symptoms, along with patient history (e.g., exposure to fungi,
immunocompromised status), play a crucial role in diagnosing fungal infections.
Overall, a combination of microscopy, culture, molecular methods, serological tests, histopathology, and clinical
evaluation is often used for the accurate diagnosis of fungal infections. Treatment of fungal infections typically
involves antifungal medications tailored to the specific fungal species and the patient's clinical condition.

5 MARKS
1. Explain streptococcus

genus of Gram-positive bacteria commonly found in various environments, including the human body.
Characteristics:
• Shape: spherical (cocci) bacteria
occur in chains or pairs
• Gram Staining: Gram-positive, retain crystal violet stain. Appear purple or blue.
2. Classification:
• Streptococcus bacteria are classified based on their hemolytic properties (ability to break down red
blood cells) on blood agar. This classification includes:
• Alpha-hemolytic Streptococcus: partially break down RBCs.
i.e. Streptococcus pneumoniae.
• Beta-hemolytic Streptococcus: completely lyse red blood cells. i.e.
Streptococcus pyogenes & Streptococcus agalactiae
• Gamma-hemolytic Streptococcus: These bacteria do not exhibit hemolysis on blood agar.
3. Pathogenicity:
• Streptococcus pyogenes: Causes strep throat, skin infections (impetigo), rheumatic fever and
glomerulonephritis.
• Streptococcus pneumoniae: common cause of pneumonia, sinusitis, otitis media, and
meningitis.
• Streptococcus agalactiae: neonatal infections, UTIs, and infections in pregnant women.
4. Laboratory Diagnosis:
• Culture: specimens cultured on specific media to isolate and identify Streptococcus species.
• Gram Staining: preliminary info about morphology of the bacteria.
• Biochemical Tests: catalase test, hemolysis patterns on blood agar, and specific antigen
detection tests
5. Treatment:
• Antibiotics commonly used.
• Penicillin

2. Explain systemic mycosis

fungal infections that affect multiple organ systems in the body, often spreading beyond the primary site of
infection. Are caused by pathogenic fungi that can invade tissues, disseminate through blood or and lead to
systemic manifestations.
1. Causative Agents:
• caused by dimorphic fungi, meaning they can exist in two different forms depending on
environmental conditions. i.e. Histoplasma, Blastomyces, Coccidioides, Paracoccidioides.
2. Transmission:
• found in soil, bird droppings, or other environmental sources.
• Human infection usually occurs through inhalation of fungal spores.
3. Clinical Presentation:
• Histoplasmosis: flu-like symptoms, respiratory symptoms (cough, chest pain)
• Blastomycosis: pulmonary symptoms, skin lesions, potential dissemination to bones, CNS,
and other organs.
 • Coccidioidomycosis: flu-like symptoms, respiratory symptoms (cough, chest pain), can lead to
disseminated disease with skin lesions, joint pain, and involvement of CNS and other organs.
• Paracoccidioidomycosis: Primarily affects lungs.
can disseminate to lymph nodes, skin, mucous membranes, and other organs, leading to
systemic symptoms.
4. Diagnosis:
• clinical evaluation, laboratory tests, and imaging studies.
• Laboratory tests include fungal cultures from sputum, tissue biopsy,
• microscopic examination of fungal elements (e.g., yeast cells) in tissue samples or body fluids,
serological tests for specific fungal antigens or antibodies.
• chest X-rays or CT scans may reveal fungal infections in affected organs (e.g., pulmonary infiltrates,
nodules, cavities).
5. Treatment:
• Antifungal medications

3. Explain superficial mycosis

• 70,000 recognized species of fungi.
• Most are beneficial to humankind.
production of food
antibiotics and immunosuppressive drugs
• About 300 species of fungi cause human infections.

Superficial mycosis : Infections are limited to the hair or the outermost layers of skin.
Refers to fungal infections that primarily affect the outermost layers of the skin, hair, and nails, without
invading deeper tissues or causing systemic disease.
Infections are generally localized.
No significant symptoms or complications.
1. Causative Agents:
• Dermatophytes. a group of fungi specialized in infecting keratinized tissues such as skin, hair, and
nails.
2. Transmission:
• direct contact with infected individuals
• contaminated surfaces (e.g., floors, towels)
• fomites (objects that carry infectious agents).
• Warm and humid environments, such as locker rooms, swimming pools, and communal showers, can
facilitate fungal growth and transmission.
3. Clinical Presentation:
• Tinea Corporis: Ringworm of the body, characterized by circular, red, scaly lesions with a
clear center.
• Tinea Cruris: Jock itch, affecting groin area and presenting as red, itchy, and often well-
demarcated lesions.
• Tinea Pedis: Athlete's foot, affecting feet.
Causing redness, itching, scaling, and blistering b/w toes or on the soles.
• Tinea Capitis: Ringworm of the scalp.
common in children.
characterized by scaling, hair loss, inflammatory nodules or abscesses.
• Tinea Unguium: fungal nail infection, leading to thickened, discolored, brittle nails
4. Diagnosis:
• Microscopic examination of skin scrapings, hair, or nail clippings.
• Fungal culture on specific media helps identify the causative dermatophyte species
5. Treatment:
• Antifungal medications
 • Severe infections may require oral antifungal therapy, especially for fungal nail infections.

4. Explain Culture media

“Culture medium or growth medium is a liquid or gel designed to support the growth of microorganisms.”
These media provide essential nutrients, pH balance, and other factors necessary for microbial growth and
are crucial for studying and identifying microorganisms.

-Diff. types of media suitable for growing different types of cells.

-It’s the method of cultivating microbial organisms by letting them reproduce in predetermined culture
media under controlled laboratory condition.
-Louis Pasteur used simple broths made up of urine or meat extracts.
1. Classification of Culture Media:
• Based on Composition:
• Chemically Defined Media:
A medium in which all chemical components are known.
- such as amino acids, vitamins, salts, and carbohydrates.
- it is devoid of yeast, animal or plant tissue.
- can be in liquid form (broth) or in solid by solidified agents like agar
- useful for studying nutritional requirements of microorganisms.
• Complex Media: Also known as undefined or rich media.
-Media that contain some ingredients of unknown chemical composition are complex media
or undefined media.
- Contains components such as peptones, beef extract, yeast extract, and agar.
- support growth of wide range of microorganisms.
- commonly used in routine laboratory culture.
• Based on Physical State:
• Liquid Media: Also called broth or liquid culture.
- in a liquid form
- suitable for growing bacteria or fungi in suspension.
- used for studying microbial growth kinetics, biochemical tests.
• Solid Media: contain a gelling agent (usually agar) that solidifies the medium.
-Allows growth of microorganisms as colonies on the surface.
- Used for isolating pure cultures.
• Based on Function:
• Selective Media: contain specific additives (e.g., antibiotics, inhibitors) that selectively inhibit
growth of certain microorganisms while allowing others to grow.
- used for isolating and culturing specific types of bacteria.
• Differential Media: contain substrates that allow for differentiation between different types
of microorganisms based on their metabolic activities.
i.e. blood agar, MacConkey agar
• Enriched Media: nutrient-rich formulations that support growth of fastidious
microorganisms with complex nutritional requirements.
-contain blood, serum, or special growth factors to enhance microbial growth.
2. Use in Microbiological Techniques:
• Isolation and identification of microorganisms.
• Determination of microbial growth characteristics (e.g., growth rate, colony morphology).
• Conducting biochemical tests (e.g., fermentation, enzyme activity assays).
• Testing antimicrobial susceptibility.
• Studying microbial physiology, metabolism, and genetic manipulation.
5. Explain bacterial genetics
Refers to study of genetic processes and mechanisms in bacteria.

1. Genetic Material: have single circular chromosome containing their genetic material.
includes genes encoding proteins, RNA molecules etc.
2. Genetic Variation:
• arise through mutations, which are changes in the DNA sequence.
can occur spontaneously or due to exposure to mutagens (e.g., chemicals, radiation).
• Genetic recombination. including processes like conjugation, transformation, and transduction,
allows bacteria to acquire genetic material from other bacteria or their environment.
Contributes to spread of beneficial traits
i.e. antibiotic resistance genes or virulence factors.
• Bacterial genetic variations drive evolution, adaptation to changing environments, and the
development of new traits or capabilities.
3. Plasmids:
• Plasmids are small, extrachromosomal DNA molecules found in bacteria.
Can carry accessory genes that provide advantages to the bacteria, such as antibiotic resistance
genes, virulence factors or genes for environmental adaptation.
• Plasmids are transferable between bacteria.
Through conjugation, transformation, and transduction.
This facilitates the rapid spread of genetic traits within bacterial populations.
• Tool of “genetic” engineering
• In genetic engineering, plasmids are commonly used as vectors for introducing foreign genes into
bacterial cells.
Allows researchers to manipulate and study gene function,
create genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
4. Genetic Engineering:
• Bacterial genetics is utilized in genetic engineering techniques to manipulate bacterial DNA, insert
foreign genes, delete or modify existing genes, and study gene function and regulation.
• Techniques include gene cloning, gene knockout, gene editing, and gene expression studies.

Understanding bacterial genetics is crucial for studying bacterial evolution, adaptation, pathogenesis,
antibiotic resistance, and for applications in biotechnology, medicine, and agriculture.

6. Explain mechanism of bacteriophage

Bacteriophages, or phages, are viruses that infect bacteria.
1. Attachment: Phages attach to specific receptors on bacterial cell surfaces using tail fibers.
2. Entry: inject their genetic material (DNA or RNA) into the bacterial cell.
3. Replication: Phage DNA takes over the bacterial cell's machinery, directing it to produce new phage
components.
Lytic Cycle: In lytic cycle, the phage DNA directs the host cell to produce viral components, including new
phage DNA, capsid proteins, and tail fibers. These components assemble to form new phages. The host cell is
then lysed (burst open), releasing the newly formed phages to infect other cells.
Lysogenic Cycle: phage DNA integrates into the host cell's chromosome, becoming a prophage. prophage is
replicated along with the host DNA during cell division. Under certain conditions, prophage can exit
chromosome and enter the lytic cycle, leading to viral replication and cell lysis.
4. Release & Spread: The host cell is lysed (burst open), releasing the new phages to infect other cells.
In lysogenic cycle, the prophage replicates along with the host DNA and is passed on to daughter cells during
cell division. spreads phage genome within bacterial populations without causing immediate cell lysis.

They impact bacterial populations, regulate numbers, and can transfer genes between bacteria.
 Applications:
• phage therapy for treating bacterial infections
• phage display for protein engineering and drug discovery

7. Explain systemic bacteriology of pneumococcus; Expl Pneumococcus

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a Gram-positive bacterium that causes various systemic infections

-Encapsulated : helps evade host immune system

- appears lancet-shaped diplococci
1. Transmission: spreads via respiratory droplets, causing pneumonia, sinusitis, and otitis media.
2. Pathogenesis: has a polysaccharide capsule that evades the immune system
leading to colonization in the nasopharynx.
potential invasion into the lungs (pneumonia), bloodstream (bacteremia), or central nervous system
(meningitis).
adhesion to respiratory epithelial cells via surface proteins.
3. Clinical Manifestations: Infections range from mild respiratory symptoms to
Severe pneumonia : cough, fever, chest pain.
Meningitis: headache, neck stiffness, fever, altered mental status
Sepsis
Otitis media(middle ear infection)
4. Diagnosis: Gram staining, Sputum/Blood test, Chest Xray, CT scan, rapid antigen detection and PCR for
specific identification.
5. Treatment and Prevention: Antibiotics like penicillin, azithromycin
Vaccine : pneumococcal conjugate vaccines(PCV)

Understanding pneumococcal systemic bacteriology is crucial for diagnosing, treating, and preventing
infections caused by this bacterium.

8. Define parasites; What's parasites and desc. types of protozoa

“Parasites are organisms that live in or on another organism (host) and benefit at the host's expense.”
derive nutrients and resources from host, often causing harm or disease in the process.

Classified based on their characteristics and life cycles.

Protozoa : includes single-celled eukaryotic organisms.

1. Types of Protozoa:
• Amoebae: move and feed by extending their cell membrane (pseudopods).
i.e. Entamoeba histolytica (causes amoebic dysentery)
• Flagellates: have whip-like structures (flagella) for movement.
i.e. Giardia lamblia (causes giardiasis).
• Ciliates: have hair-like structures (cilia) for locomotion and feeding.
i.e. Paramecium species (common in freshwater habitats).
• Apicomplexans: complex structures at their apex, involved in host cell invasion.
i.e. Plasmodium species (cause malaria)
• Sporozoans: produce spore-like structures during life cycle.
i.e. Cryptosporidium species (cause cryptosporidiosis)
2. Life Cycles:
• complex life cycles involving multiple stages
including trophozoites (active feeding stage) and cysts (dormant, resistant stage).
 • Many alternate between an infective stage and a reproductive stage within host's tissues or organs.
• Some have intermediate hosts (other organisms) or vectors (e.g., mosquitoes, flies) that facilitate
their life cycle and transmission between hosts.
3. Disease and Symptoms:
• Cause many diseases in humans and animals, including
diarrhea (giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis),
dysentery (amoebiasis),
malaria, sleeping sickness etc.
• Symptoms vary depending on type of protozoa and the affected organs but
common symptoms include gastrointestinal disturbances,
fever, fatigue, neurological symptoms, and organ dysfunction.
4. Diagnosis and Treatment:
• microscopic examination of specimens (stool, blood, tissue samples) for presence of protozoa,
antigen detection tests
molecular methods (PCR).
• Treatment varies based on the specific protozoa and may include antiprotozoal medications

Understanding the types and characteristics of protozoa is important for the diagnosis, treatment,
and prevention of protozoal infections, which can have significant health impacts on humans and
animals.

9. Explain Plasmodium

Plasmodium is a genus of parasitic protozoa belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa.

are responsible for causing malaria, a significant infectious disease in humans.

1. Classification: classified based on ability to infect humans and other primates:

• Plasmodium falciparum: Causes the most severe form of malaria in humans, with high mortality rates
if untreated.
• Plasmodium vivax: Causes a less severe form of malaria but can lead to relapses due to dormant liver
stages (hypnozoites).
• Plasmodium malariae: Causes a chronic form of malaria with less severe symptoms.
• Plasmodium ovale: Causes a rare form of malaria similar to P. vivax.
2. Life Cycle:
• The life cycle involves both mosquito vectors and human hosts.
• In human host, undergoes several stages:
• Sporozoites are injected into the bloodstream by infected mosquitoes during a blood meal.
• Sporozoites travel to the liver, where they infect hepatocytes and undergo asexual replication
(exo-erythrocytic phase).
• Merozoites are released from liver cells, enter the bloodstream, and infect red blood cells
(erythrocytic phase).
• Within RBCs, merozoites multiply asexually, leading to the release of more merozoites upon
RBC rupture (lysis).
• Some merozoites differentiate into male and female gametocytes, which can be ingested by
mosquitoes during a blood meal, completing the cycle.
3. Pathogenesis and Symptoms:
• Plasmodium infection causes malaria.
Symptoms : fever, chills, sweating, fatigue, headache, muscle aches, and sometimes organ
dysfunction.
 •Severe malaria, often caused by P. falciparum, can lead to SEVERE conditions : cerebral malaria,
severe anemia, respiratory distress, organ failure, and death if not promptly treated.
4. Diagnosis and Treatment:
• microscopic examination of blood smears for Plasmodium parasites, rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs)
detecting parasite antigens, polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
• Treatment depends on the Plasmodium species, severity of the infection, and drug resistance
patterns.
5. Prevention and Control:
• Preventive measures against malaria include vector control (e.g., insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor
residual spraying), chemoprophylaxis for travelers to endemic areas, and vaccination
• Public health strategies focus on early diagnosis, prompt treatment, surveillance for drug resistance,
and mosquito control to reduce malaria transmission.

Understanding Plasmodium in microbiology is crucial for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of malaria,
a globally significant infectious disease affecting millions of people each year.

10. Klinefelter’s syndrome

Also known as 47,XXY or XXY syndrome.
A genetic condition that occurs in males.
Characterized by the presence of an extra X chromosome, resulting in a total of 47 chromosomes instead of
the usual 46. Here's an explanation of Klinefelter's syndrome:
1. Genetic Basis:
• Typically, males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (46,XY), determining male sex
characteristics.
• In Klinefelter's syndrome, there is an additional X chromosome, leading to a karyotype of 47,XXY.
2. Causes:
• caused by a random error in the formation of sperm or egg cells during parental gametogenesis
(spermatogenesis or oogenesis).
• Rarely result from problem during cell division after fertilization, leading to extra X chromosome in
developing embryo.
3. Symptoms and Characteristics:
• Can vary in severity
• Not all individuals with XXY karyotype have same symptoms.
• Common characteristics and symptoms may include:
• Small testes (hypogonadism)
• reduced testosterone production, leading to infertility, delayed or incomplete puberty, and
reduced facial and body hair.
• Gynecomastia (enlarged breasts) due to hormonal imbalances.
• Tall stature, long limbs, and reduced muscle mass compared to typical males.
• Learning disabilities, delayed speech and language development, and difficulties with reading
and writing.
• Behavioral and social challenges, such as shyness, social anxiety, and problems with social
interactions.
• Increased risk of osteoporosis, autoimmune disorders, and metabolic syndrome.
4. Diagnosis:
• genetic testing. Typically by analyzing a blood sample for chromosomal abnormalities.
• Prenatal diagnosis if there is suspicion of XXY karyotype during pregnancy.
5. Treatment and Management:
• Focuses on addressing symptoms and improving quality of life:
 • Hormone replacement therapy (testosterone) can be used to address hypogonadism and
promote masculine development during puberty.
• Speech therapy, educational support, and behavioral interventions
• Regular monitoring and mgt of osteoporosis and metabolic disorders, are important.
• Fertility options(IVF) may be considered for individuals seeking fertility assistance.

Overall, early diagnosis, appropriate medical interventions, and supportive therapies can significantly
improve outcomes and quality of life for individuals with Klinefelter's syndrome.

11. Explain HLA disease

HLA (human leukocyte antigen) diseases, also known as HLA-associated diseases, are a group of medical
conditions that are influenced by variations in the human leukocyte antigen system.
1. HLA System:
• Are a group of genes that encode proteins called human leukocyte antigens.
• These antigens play a crucial role in immune system by helping the body distinguish between self
and non-self cells.
• HLA antigens are found on the surface of cells, particularly on WBCs (leukocytes) and other immune
cells.
2. HLA Variability:
• There r many different alleles (gene variants) for HLA genes within human population.
• Each individual inherits two sets of HLA genes (one from each parent), resulting in diverse range of
HLA antigen combinations.
3. HLA Diseases:
• occur when certain HLA gene variants or combinations of gene variants are linked to increased risk of
developing specific medical conditions. These diseases are often autoimmune or immune-mediated
disorders.
4. Examples of HLA Diseases:
• HLA-B27 and Ankylosing Spondylitis: Ankylosing spondylitis is a chronic inflammatory arthritis
affecting the spine and joints. The HLA-B27 allele is associated with increased risk of this condition.
• HLA-DR3 and Type 1 Diabetes: Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease where immune system
attacks insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. The HLA-DR3 allele is one of the genetic factors with
susceptibility to type 1 diabetes.
• HLA-DR2 and Multiple Sclerosis: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a demyelinating disease of central
nervous system. The HLA-DR2 allele is linked to an increased risk of developing MS.
• HLA-DQ2&DQ8 and Celiac Disease: Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder triggered by gluten
consumption.
• HLA-B51 and Behçet's Disease: Behçet's disease is a rare inflammatory disorder affecting blood
vessels. The HLA-B51 allele is more commonly found in individuals with Behçet's disease.
5. Mechanism of HLA Diseases:
• The exact mechanisms by which HLA alleles contribute to disease susceptibility are complex and may
involve interactions with environmental factors, immune dysregulation, and genetic predisposition.
• HLA molecules play a role in antigen presentation to immune cells.
6. Diagnosis and Management:
• genetic testing to identify HLA alleles.
• Management of HLA diseases may include
• immunosuppressive therapy,
• anti-inflammatory medications,
• lifestyle modifications,
• treatments aimed at modulating the immune response.
 Overall, HLA diseases highlight the intricate interplay between genetic factors and immune system function,
contributing to the development and progression of various medical conditions.

12. Explain herpes

Herpes is a viral infection caused by herpes simplex virus (HSV). 2 main types of herpes simplex virus:
1. Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 (HSV-1):
• Causes oral herpes, characterized by cold sores or fever blisters around the mouth and lips.
• It can also cause genital herpes through oral-genital contact, although HSV-2 is more commonly
associated with genital herpes.
2. Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 (HSV-2):
• causes genital herpes, characterized by sores, blisters, or ulcers on or around the genitals, buttocks,
and anus.
• Can also infect the oral mucosa through oral-genital contact or oral sex.
Overview of herpes :
1. Viral Structure and Replication:
• HSV are enveloped
• double-stranded DNA viruses
• Herpesviridae family.
• The virus enters host cells, typically epithelial cells of mucosal surfaces or neurons, where it
replicates and establishes latency in sensory ganglia (e.g., trigeminal ganglion for oral herpes, sacral
ganglion for genital herpes).
2. Transmission:
• direct contact with infected secretions, such as saliva, genital secretions, or skin lesions during active
viral shedding.
• Also through oral-genital contact, sexual intercourse, or vertical transmission from mother to
newborn during childbirth (especially if the mother has active genital herpes lesions).
3. Clinical Manifestations:
• can be asymptomatic or cause symptomatic outbreaks.
• Primary infection: Initial infection leads to primary herpes, characterized by
fever,
malaise,
painful ulcers at the site of infection.
• Recurrent infection: After initial infection, the virus establishes latency in sensory ganglia.
Recurrent episodes of symptoms : tingling, itching, burning sensations, and formation of new lesions.
• Latent infection: In between active outbreaks, the virus remains dormant in sensory ganglia without
causing symptoms.
4. Diagnosis:
• clinical presentation, symptoms, and lab tests:
• Viral culture: Collecting swabs from active lesions
• Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
• Serologic tests: Blood tests can detect antibodies to HSV
5. Treatment and Management:
• Antiviral medications such as acyclovir, valacyclovir used to and reduce severity and duration of
symptoms during active outbreaks.
• Management include symptomatic relief (e.g., pain management, topical creams), avoiding triggers
(e.g., stress, sun exposure for oral herpes), and practicing safe sex to reduce transmission risk.

Herpes infections are common, and while there is no cure, antiviral medications can help manage symptoms and
reduce transmission risk.
Preventive measures : avoiding contact with active lesions, using condoms during sexual activity, and disclosing
herpes status to sexual partners.
 13. Explain Taenia
Taenia is a genus of parasitic tapeworms belonging to the class Cestoda.
Infect the digestive tracts of humans and other mammals
Causes a condition : taeniasis.
1. Types of Taenia:
• Several species of Taenia that can infect humans, with Taenia solium (pork tapeworm), Taenia
saginata (beef tapeworm), and Taenia asiatica being the most common.
• Each species has specific intermediate host, where the larvae develop before being ingested by
definitive host (humans or other mammals).
2. Life Cycle:
• involves two main hosts:
• Definitive host (humans or carnivorous mammals): Infection occurs by ingesting
undercooked or raw meat containing larvae of Taenia species.
• Intermediate host (herbivorous animals): larvae develop into cysticerci in the muscles or
other tissues of the intermediate host.
• When a person consumes contaminated meat containing cysticerci, the larvae are released in the
digestive tract, attach to the intestinal wall and mature into adult tapeworms.
• Adult tapeworms can produce thousands of eggs, which are shed in feces and can contaminate the
environment, perpetuating the life cycle.
3. Clinical Manifestations:
• Taeniasis: Infection with Taenia tapeworms in humans often causes taeniasis, characterized by
mild gastrointestinal symptoms such as
abdominal discomfort,
nausea,
diarrhea,
weight loss.
• Cysticercosis : ingestion of Taenia eggs or larvae can lead to cysticercosis, a more severe condition.
larvae forms cysts in various tissues, including the brain, muscles, eyes, and other organs. Symptoms
of cysticercosis depend on location and number of cysts and can include neurological symptoms
(seizures, headaches)
muscle pain,
visual disturbances, etc.
4. Diagnosis:
• identifying tapeworm segments or eggs in fecal samples using stool tests.
• Diagnosis of cysticercosis may involve imaging studies (e.g., CT scan, MRI) to visualize cysts in tissues.
Serologic tests to detect antibodies against Taenia.
5. Treatment and Prevention:
• Medication to eliminate the tapeworms or cysts.
• Prevention strategies :
• Cooking meat thoroughly to kill parasites.
• Avoiding consumption of raw or undercooked meat, especially pork and beef.
• Practicing good hygiene, including handwashing and proper sanitation to prevent
contamination with Taenia eggs.
• Treating infected individuals and educating communities about proper food handling and
hygiene practices.

Understanding Taenia in microbiology is crucial for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of taeniasis and
cysticercosis, which are important public health concerns in areas where these parasites are endemic.
 14. Explain Gonococci
Gonococci refer to the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Responsible for the sexually transmitted infection (STI) known as gonorrhea.

1. Bacterial Characteristics:
Gram-negative
diplococcal bacteria.
Non-motile,
Non-spore forming, appear as pairs (diplococci)
Resembling coffee beans.
2. Transmission: sexual contact, including vaginal, anal, and oral intercourse with an infected individual.
infected mother to her newborn during childbirth = neonatal gonococcal infection.
3. Infection Sites: Infect the mucous membranes of the genitourinary tract,
including the urethra, cervix, rectum, and throat (pharynx).
In women, gonorrhea can also affect the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries, leading to pelvic inflammatory
disease (PID).
4. Clinical Manifestations: May be asymptomatic or symptoms like:
• Urethral discharge (in men)
• Vaginal discharge or bleeding (in women)
• Painful urination
• Rectal pain or discharge (in anal infection)
• Sore throat or pharyngitis (in oral infection)
5. Complications: Untreated gonorrhea can lead to various complications, including:
• Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women, which can cause infertility, ectopic pregnancy, and
chronic pelvic pain.
• Epididymitis (inflammation of the epididymis) in men, leading to testicular pain and infertility.
• Disseminated gonococcal infection (DGI), where the bacteria spread to other parts of the body,
causing joint pain (arthritis), skin lesions, and systemic symptoms.
6. Diagnosis: Gonorrhea is diagnosed through laboratory tests, including:
• Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) to detect gonococcal DNA or RNA in clinical samples (e.g.,
urethral swabs, cervical swabs, urine).
• Gram staining of discharge or clinical specimens, where gonococci appear as Gram-negative
diplococci.
• Culture of gonococci on selective media, although this method may take longer and is less sensitive
than NAATs.
7. Treatment: Gonorrhea is treated with antibiotics, typically a combination of ceftriaxone (injectable) or
cefixime (oral) along with azithromycin or doxycycline to cover for possible co-infection with Chlamydia
trachomatis. Due to increasing antibiotic resistance, periodic monitoring of treatment guidelines is essential.
8. Prevention: Preventive measures for gonorrhea include practicing safe sex (consistent and correct use of
condoms), reducing the number of sexual partners, regular STI screening, and prompt treatment of infected
individuals and their partners.
Gonococci are a significant public health concern due to their ability to cause STIs with potential complications and
contribute to the global burden of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria. Early diagnosis, effective treatment, and
preventive strategies are crucial for controlling gonorrhea transmission and reducing its impact on individuals and
communities.
 2 MARKS
1. What's hemophilus?
a genus of bacteria belonging to the family Pasteurellaceae.
Are facultatively anaerobic,
Coccobacilli,
gram-negative,
non-motile,
pleomorphic (can take on different shapes).
Causes : Haemophilus influenzae

2. What's mycology?
Branch of biology that deals with study of fungi.
Fungi are diverse group of organisms that include yeasts, molds, mushrooms, and other fungal species.
Mycology encompasses study of fungal biology, ecology, genetics, taxonomy, pathology, and their
interactions with other organisms and the environment.

3. What's bacteriophage?
A bacteriophage is a virus that infects and replicates within bacteria.
highly specific to certain bacterial species or strains.
attaching to bacterial cell surfaces and injecting their genetic material (DNA or RNA) into the host cell.
Bacteriophages either integrate their genetic material into the bacterial genome (lysogenic cycle) or
replicate immediately and lyse the host cell (lytic cycle), releasing new phage particles to infect other
bacteria.
Have been studied for their potential in phage therapy, biotechnology, and as tools in molecular biology
research.

4. Define HIV
HIV, or Human Immunodeficiency Virus, is a lentivirus that attacks the immune system.
Specifically targeting CD4 cells (T-helper cells) vital for immune function.
HIV weakens the immune system over time.
Increasing susceptibility to infections and diseases.
If untreated, HIV can progress to AIDS.

5. Define Fungi
Fungi are diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that include yeasts, molds, mushrooms, and other
fungal species.
Are distinct from plants, animals, and bacteria.
Obtain nutrients through absorption, breaking down organic matter externally and absorbing nutrients
through their cell walls.
Play crucial roles in ecosystems as decomposers, symbionts, pathogens.

6. What's Algae?
Algae are a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms found in various aquatic and terrestrial
environments.
Are simple photosynthetic organisms
Lack complex structures like roots, stems, or leaves found in higher plants.
Primary producers, producing oxygen and serving as food sources for many aquatic organisms.
Classified into several groups, including green algae, red algae, brown algae etc.

7. What's normal flora?

Also known as the microbiota or microbiome.
refers to the diverse community of microorganisms that naturally inhabit various parts of the human body,
such as the skin, mouth, gastrointestinal tract, genital tract, and respiratory tract.
These microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other microbes.
Normal flora plays essential roles in maintaining health and performing various physiological functions.

8. What's plasmids?
Plasmids are small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria, archaea, and some eukaryotic organisms like
yeast. They are distinct from the chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently within the host cell.
Plasmids often carry genes that are beneficial to the host, such as antibiotic resistance genes, virulence
factors, metabolic enzymes, or genes involved in stress response.

9. Define Streptococcus
Gram-positive bacteria
non-motile,
non-spore forming
facultative anaerobes.
classified based on hemolytic properties (ability to lyse red blood cells) into three main groups:
alpha-hemolytic, beta-hemolytic, and gamma-hemolytic.
S. pyogenes, S. pneumoniae, S. agalactiae

10. Define Ascaris?

Parasitic roundworms belonging to the phylum Nematoda.
Worms are also known as intestinal nematodes or giant intestinal roundworms
Large size compared to other human parasites.
Ascaris lumbricoides = human infections.
15-35cm length. Smooth, white or pinkish body. Female ascaris longer than male.
Live upto 1-2 years in human host.

11. What's nosocomial infections?

Also known as healthcare-associated infections (HAIs)
Infections that occur in patients as a result of receiving medical care or treatment in a healthcare facility.
Not present or incubating at the time of admission but develop during the course of healthcare delivery.
Transmitted by : Direct, Indirect, Air, Water

12. Define poliovirus?

Single-stranded RNA virus
Family : Picornaviridae
Genus : Enterovirus.
It is the causative agent of poliomyelitis, commonly known as polio.
Vaccines : OPV & IPV
 13. What's necrosis?
Necrosis is a type of cell death
characterized by irreversible damage and breakdown of cells or tissues in a living organism.
Necrosis can occur because of illness, infection, injury, disease or lack of blood flow to your tissues.

14. Def Adenoviruses?

Group of DNA viruses that can infect humans and a wide range of other vertebrates, including mammals,
birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
Family Adenoviridae
Are non-enveloped,
Double-stranded DNA viruses.

15. What's rabies?

Rabies is a viral disease caused by the rabies virus,
Rhabdoviridae family.
It affects the CNS
Transmitted through the bite or scratch of an infected animal.

16. What's Virology?

Virology is the branch of microbiology that deals with the study of viruses, including their structure,
classification, replication, pathogenesis, and interactions with host organisms.

17. What's Morphology?

Study of the form, structure, and appearance of living organisms, cells, tissues, or structures within
organisms.
plays a fundamental role in understanding the characteristics, functions, and relationships of biological
entities.