INTRODUCTION

Knitting is one of the most versatile methods of producing a textile fabric. The
structure is constructed from a series of intermeshing loops. Historically, there are many
different ways of forming the loops, including knotting yarns together and using a spool
with pins inserted. However, the technique that has become most associated with
fashion knitwear (weft knitting) is derived from either hand or pin or needle knitting.
Hand knitting usually involves two large needles or pins and a single end of yarn.
This method can be traced back to the fifteenth century in the United Kingdom
(UK), where the unique properties of the material obtained were utilised for the
manufacture of stockings. Of course, as with all textile manufacturing, knitting is no
longer a cottage industry. Hand knitting is considered a skilled craft, and most modern
computer-controlled machinery. Since William Lee’s pioneering invention of the stocking
frame in 1589, there has been much technological innovation. There are now two
distinct types of knitting technologies, which ultimately produce vastly different fabrics
for specific applications (weft and warp). The mechanical knitting process has been
perfected so that different weights of materials can be produced at extremely fast
speeds to the highest quality, often combined with complex patterning and texture. The
properties of knitted fabrics are vastly different from those of woven fabrics. Knitted
structures are less stable, more flexible and generally have better drape than their
woven counterparts.
The recent trend towards casual dress has increased the popularity of knitted
garments significantly.
Today, the knitting industry holds a larger market share in clothing and fashion
applications, with many retail companies employing specially trained knitwear designers
and technical staff to create innovations season after season.

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LOOP FORMATION

The mechanical process of forming loops differs from that of hand knitting significantly. In hand
knitting, the movement of the wrists and fingers is performing a series of complex actions that would be
nearly impossible to simulate mechanically. To simplify the mechanical process of knitting, each individual
loop requires its own needle. The needle type may vary depending on the type of machine, but the
process of knitting remains fundamentally the same (Figure 12.1). Assuming that the required number of
loops (stitches) has been cast on (first row of knitting), six subsequent stages will follow to complete the
loop formation process. Stage 1 illustrates the standard position for the needle; this is the rest position to
which the needle will return during the cycle of knitting.
Initially, the needle will be moved forward to the knit position (stage 2); as the needle moves
forward, the loop already formed (previously in the hook section) clears the latch (this is termed clearing).
The new yarn is then inserted into the empty needle hook (stage 3). The needle then retracts backward
causing the old loop to slip under the latch, forcing it to close (stage 4). The needle continues retracting
into the needle bed, which enables the old loop to fall off the end of the needle – this is commonly
referred to as knock over (stage 5). A downward force is applied (usually by a roller) to complete the
knitting cycle – the force is referred to as the takedown force (stage 6), and the needle returns to the rest
position identified in stage one. The yarns used to produce knitted fabrics usually have less twist than
those used to produce woven structures – this is to ensure the yarn is flexible enough to allow the
required deformation to occur in the formation of the loop shape.
Figure 1. The process of loop formation.

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KNITTING TERMINOLOGY

It has previously been identified that the intermeshing loops (more commonly referred to as
stitches) are a key feature of knitted fabrics. To enable a fabric of specific dimensions to be produced the
stitches (counted horizontally) and the number of rows (loops counted vertically) can be specified.
Stitches and rows are a common feature in hand knitting patterns (instructions), but are rarely used in the
commercial industry. The standard terminology is wales for stitches and courses for rows. The definition
of a stitch in industrialised knitting refers to the type of stitch (knit, float or tuck), not the actual loop (this is
discussed briefly in Section 12.4). Knitted fabrics vary significantly in weight, from ultra-lightweight
(termed fine gauge) used in sporting and underwear applications, to heavier structures used in outerwear
sweaters (termed chunky gauge). Gauge is a term often used to describe the fineness of the fabric,
although it actually refers to the number of needles (per inch) within the needle bed (although there are
notable exceptions: in some older weft-knitting machinery the gauge is expressed as number of needles
per 1.5 inches, and in raschel warp knitting machines it is number of needles per 2 inches). But in general
terms, 18, 14, 12 and 10 gauge machines produce lightweight fabrics; midweight fabrics are produced on
8 or 7 gauge; and 5, 3 and 2.5 gauges produce heavyweight fabrics. There are two distinct types of
knitting technologies that ultimately produce vastly different fabrics for specific applications (weft and
warp). The method that you will be most familiar with is that used in hand knitting, which is termed weft
knitting – one continuous end of yarn, which feeds through each consecutive loop from the left selvage to
the right selvage (Figure 12.2). Generally, weft-knitted fabrics are flexible and will extend in all directions,
have good elastic recovery, superb formability and drape, provide excellent thermal insulation and are
resistant to creases. However, they suffer from poor shape retention, are prone to pilling and ladder
easily. In contrast warp knitted structures are more stable but lack drape properties. Warp knitted
structures are produced using multiple yarn ends and the loops intermesh diagonally with the adjacent
vertical columns (Figure 12.2). The resultant fabrics are ladder resistant and find end-uses in a variety of
areas including, lace, openwork, net, underwear, sportswear and technical applications.
Figure 2. Weft and warp knitted structures.

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WEFT-KNITTED STRUCTURES
 The majority of knitted garments available on the high street are constructed from weft-knitted
fabrics. This is by far the most versatile method of knitting, as the technology allows for a variety of
structures to be produced that can combine extensive patterning in the form of texture and colour. This
section identifies the three basic weft-knitted fashion structures (plain, rib and purl) illustrated in Figure
12.3. Plain structures are often referred to as plain fabrics, single jersey or single bed structures. This is
the simplest structure since it is composed of a series of identical loops intermeshed together. On closer
inspection, the fabric’s visual appearance differs on each side of the fabric. The correct side (technical
face) is the side where the loop legs can be seen clearly, while the reverse side (technical back) has a
wave or rippled appearance. Plain structures are unstable at the edges (they curl backwards at the
selvages, and forward at the top and bottom of the structure), and for this reason garments constructed
from this structure are usually finished at the welt and cuff, by either incorporating a different structure
such as rib or by hemming the fabric. One key factor of plain structure is that it will unravel from the top
and bottom of the fabric and ladders easily. This structure generally has good elongation and elastic
recovery and is the most drapable of the weft-knitted structures. It finds uses in a variety of applications
including underwear, sportswear, casual wear (T-shirts, dresses, trousers and sweaters), fashion and
classic knitwear.
Rib structures consist of face loops and reverse loops in the same course, which allows the fabric
to collapse in the width direction and elongate slightly in the length (Figure 12.3). If the structure is a
balanced rib (equal number of face and reverse loops repeating across the width of the structure) the
structure will look identical on both sides of the fabric (hence there is no technical face). If the structure is
unbalanced, it is usually designed for visual effect and it will be the designer’s choice as to which is
classified as the technical face. Traditionally this structure has been used extensively in cuffs, collars and
welts due to its excellent elongation and recovery properties. It is a stable structure, so unlike plain
structure it does not suffer from edge curling. Garments produced from this structure conform well to the
body and are usually designed to be tight fitting.
Figure 3. Weft-knitted structures.

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In a collapsed state, the structure is significantly thicker than plain structure and therefore has greater
thermal insulation. In past years, anglers’ outwear known as ‘ganseys’ would have been constructed
utilising rib structures produced from chunky wools.
The use of the Rib structure has become increasing important in fashion knitwear, especially
during the late 1990s, and has enabled new garment shapes to be produced which fit like a second skin.
The final structure, purl, is used more as a decorative structure and tends to find uses in baby wear rather
than fashion applications. Some knitting machine manufacturers refer to this structure as links–links. It is
the opposite of rib: instead of every alternate wale being a face loop followed by a reverse loop, each
course is constructed of identical stitches that alternate from front loops to back loops between the
courses, producing a ripple effect (Figure 12.3) on both sides of the fabric (hence there is no technical
face). Purl collapses in the length direction and elongates slightly in the width, which is a definite
advantage in knitwear for infants and children, since they grow significantly in height during childhood.
Although the structure collapses, it does not cling to the body like rib, and still retains reasonable drape
properties. The structure is lofty, and when constructed from spun yarns it is incredibly soft. The major
disadvantage of purl structures is the production cost; it is significantly more expensive to produce than
rib or plain structures due to the continual transferring of wales between courses.
Unlike woven fabrics where there are many variations of structure types, the variations in
weftknitted fabrics occur when different stitches are introduced to change the surface texture or when
colour is inserted to vary the visual effects. The options to change the texture of a knitted structure are
limited to knit stitches, floats, tucks or movement of stitches to form Aran’s and cable-type structures.
Multiple coloured effects can be created by utilising two or more yarns in the same course to create a
pattern or motif – coloured patterns in knitwear are described as stripes, Fair Isles, Jacquards or intarsias.
David Spencer’s (2001) book, Knitwear Technology, goes some way in explaining the functions of each.

WEFT-KNITTING MACHINES

Historically, there are three distinct types of weft-knitting machinery: circular, fully fashioned and
flatbed. However, recent developments in technology have enabled a new type of flatbed machine to be
manufactured specifically for the purpose of producing seamless garments; therefore, it could be argued
that there are now four classifications. The most productive method of manufacturing weft-knitted fabrics
is utilising the circular knitting machine. In this method, the knitting needles are arranged in a circular
formation and can be fed from a variety of sources located around the circumference of the machine;
hence more than one course is knitted in a single revolution. The fabrics obtained from this machine are
generally continuous tubes that can be slit to produce an open width fabric. Single- and double-jersey
fabrics utilised in T-shirts and sweatshirts are manufactured using this technology. One example of recent
advances in circular technology include seamless Santoni technology. Santoni has produced small
diameter machines that produce a tube of fabric to fit over the body contour. It is seamless in the sense
that it has no side seams, but this machinery should not be confused with the flatbed complete garment
process that can produce truly seamless garments (hence, a body with two integral sleeves).
Traditionally, high-class knitwear was produced on a special class of machinery termed the
straight bar frame (or Cottons Patent Machines as they are more commonly referred to). The advantage
of this machinery is that it can shape individual panels (front, back and sleeves). Traditionally, shaping
was seen as essential for garments constructed from luxury yarns (cashmere, merino wool, lamb’s wool
and others) that were too expensive to produce using cut and sew manufacturing (Power, 2008).
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The disadvantages of this machine type are that it knits at significantly slower speed than the
circular knitting machine, and rib structures for cuffs and welts need to be produced on a separate
machine (since it only contains one set of needles and not two).
The flatbed machine (or the rib machine) was developed to service the straight bar frame.
However, as technology and computer software advanced this machine found a niche in the fashion
markets. The modern flatbed machines are the most versatile of all weft-knitting technology. They are
capable of producing ribs combined with complex structures, different patterning options, panel shaping
and integral knitting (knitting pockets, collars and trims into the garment). The only disadvantage is speed,
but this has improved significantly in recent years (the latest technology operates at 1.6 m/s). The majority
of fashion knitwear (excluding T-shirts) on the high street is produced using flatbed machinery. The final
knitting machine type could be classed as flatbed technology (since in reality it is) but its sophistication
has earned it a classification of its own: complete garment knitting, or seamless. There are two major
players in this area of innovation: the German company Stoll, with its Knit & Wear range of machinery,
and the Japanese company Shima Seiki with its Wholegarment machinery range. These machines are
designed to produce a complete garment; hence, the entire sweater or other garment produced by one of
these machines is seamless and there are no post knitting operations to be completed after knitting (with
the exception of labelling and sewing in the ends of yarn).

WARP KNITTED STRUCTURES

Warp knitted structures are constructed from intertwined loops, with the yarns that connect them crossing
in a zigzag formation (Figure 12.2). A warp knitting machine consists of needles extending across the
width of the machine like a weft machine, but each individual needle is fed from an independent yarn
source. Hence, each needle is fed by its own yarn supply delivered by a guide that directs the yarn
around the needle during the knitting action. It should be noted that all of the wales in one course (i.e.
row) are formed simultaneously. At first glance, the appearance of a warp structure may appear similar to
that of a weft, but on closer inspection one can observe that neighbouring loops of the same course are
not created from the same end of yarn. In complex structures, it is quite common to have more than one
guide per needle (the most common warp structure uses two sets). The yarns that feed through the guide
bars are wrapped onto a warp beam (similar to the weaving process); a machine could consist of two to
four beams, depending on the fabric type to be obtained. The difference in the orientation of the yarn, fed
from the weft to the warp direction, enables vastly different structures to be produced at extremely high
speeds.
Warp knitted fabrics produced are continuous sheets of materials and usually produced from
filament yarns which can be utilized in a variety of applications from industrial to fashion garments. The
varieties of fabrics that can be produced are among the widest ranges of any textile manufacturing
method. There is a wide range of machinery available in a variety of widths, from small crochet and scarf
making machines, to gigantic machinery (5 m wide) used to produce industrial fabrics. Whilst both warp
and weft technologies are referred to as knitting, they have never really been in direct competition for
market share, since the fabrics produced are so vastly different. Throughout history, warp knitting has
remained the smaller sector, with specific niches, particularly in technical textiles. The mechanical
properties of warp knitted fabrics are often similar to those of woven structures. However, the structure
range is so diverse that a more cautious definition is that they combine the technological advantages of
woven and weft-knitted fabrics.
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Fabrics can be produced that are extremely stable (like a woven structure) or very extensible like
a weft-knitted structure – more often the range lies somewhere between the two. The two most common
types of warp knitting machines are the tricot and raschel machines.

WARP KNITTING MACHINES

Tricot and raschel warp knitting machines have developed to find a niche in relation to the type of
fabric that each produces. There are discrete differences in the configuration of the knitting elements that
support distinctive structure types (see Spencer (2001) for more detail). The structures obtained from the
tricot machine are generally of the plain type and find many applications, particularity in lingerie and
sportswear; quite often, these incorporate elastane or Lycra to produce fabrics with two-way stretch.
Raschel machines, by comparison, are useful for other structure types, since they can knit yarns
in both filament and staple form into open works, laces, jacquards, fancywork (largest outlet) and pile
fabrics.
Structures produced from the raschel machine do not tend to stretch significantly and can be
designed to be highly structural for technical applications. The most common warp knitted structures in
clothing and fashion are those produced using the tricot type of machine. The simplest structure that is
produced using one guide bar (Figure 12.2) is rarely used in any application because it is unstable (the
loops incline to the direction of the yarn feed) when the knitting takedown is removed. The most common
warp knitted structures to be produced are those of the plain tricot type knitted with two needle bars.
Figure 12.4 shows one of the most common warp knitted structures, tricot or half jersey. However, in
fashion applications locknit is by far the most popular option since it has good extensibility, cover, handle
and excellent drape, and is flatter on the reverse of the fabric. In contrast, raschel machines can have one
or two beds of needles (hence they can produce double structures). Many fabric types can be produced
but the general structure categories can be divided into five types; openwork, inlaid yarns, double
structures, pile structures and structures with spacers (there are exceptions to these structure types, but
they tend to fall into the technical textile category that is outside the scope of this publication), Figure 12.5
illustrates the most popular fashion structures. The structures used in clothing applications tend to be split
into three categories: those used in functional clothing such as bi-directional stretch fabrics; the
supportive component in laminate structures and compression fabrics; and those which add aesthetic
value such as laces, jacquards and fancy nets. The Italian design house Missoni continues to produce
sophisticated warp knitwear designs (Black, 2002), and Karl Mayer, the German warp knitting
manufacturer, remains a global leader in the development of warp knitting machines.

Figure 4. Tricot warp knitted structures (left) Tricot - front, (right) Tricot - reverse.