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Knitwear Design and Technology

Chapter · January 2018

DOI: 10.1201/9781315156163-16

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 16
Knitwear Design Technology

Tracy Cassidy

CONTENTS
16.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 441
16.2 Growth of the Knitwear Industry................................................................................442
16.3 The Importance of Design Technology for the Knitwear Specialist.......................443
16.4 Basic Fabrics, Production Methods, and Machine Types..........................................444
16.5 Characteristics of Knitted Fabrics and an Introduction to Making-Up
(Assembly) Technologies...............................................................................................446
16.6 Basic Garment Styles...................................................................................................... 447
16.7 Garment Production Types, Popular Knit Design Styles, and How to
Recognize Them..............................................................................................................448
16.8 Fully Cut, the Most Basic Production Method, and Basic Garment Styles............. 450
16.9 Cut Stitch Shaped, the Most Economical Knitwear Production Method,
and Further Basic Garment Styles................................................................................ 452
16.10 Fully Fashioned, a Better Quality Knitwear Production Method, and More
Sophisticated Garment Styles.......................................................................................454
16.11 Integral Garments and Full Garment Knitting, New Technology for
Knitwear Production, and Further Advanced Garment Styles............................... 456
16.11.1 Fabric Designs................................................................................................. 456
16.11.2 Garment Specs, Sample Garments (Prototyping), and
Garment Finishing.......................................................................................... 459
16.11.3 Trend Forecast Sources for Knitwear........................................................... 459
16.12 Conclusion....................................................................................................................... 461
Bibliography................................................................................................................................. 461

16.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we begin by rationalizing the importance of design and ­technological
knowledge for knitwear specialists and briefly discuss the growth of the knitwear
­industry: an industry sector that was revolutionized by influential designers at particular
times during the twentieth century and has continued to be an important sector of today’s
­fashion and textiles industry.
We introduce the processes of machine-produced knitwear with a brief discussion
of circular knit and flatbed fabric production, which leads to the characteristics of

441

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 442 Textile and Clothing Design Technology

knitted fabrics and making-up technologies before outlining the four types of garment
production:

• Fully cut or cut and sew

• Cut stitch shaped
• Fully fashioned
• Integral knitting and new full garment technology

AQ 1 We discuss and demonstrate how to recognize the key garment production methods inte-
grating basic knit-garment styles and design features (hems, necklines, sleeve shapes, and
fastenings including buttonholing) relating to those that are relevant to trends.
Garment specifications and sample garments (prototypes) are discussed, and further
production techniques and technologies are given that are associated with garment fin-
ishing plus a mock factory layout is provided. Computer-aided design (CAD) is briefly
made reference to in this chapter, and the stitch manipulation types that are used to create
a range of knit fabrics are described. To conclude, this chapter highlights trend forecast
sources specific to knitwear. Although knit fabrics can be used for a number of garment
types such as T-shirts, undergarments, and popular accessories such as hats, scarves,
gloves, and socks, this chapter focuses on the type of garments that are more generally
associated with the term knitwear, which includes sweaters, cardigans, knitted dresses,
skirts, and outerwear. Some retailers refer to cardigans and sweaters as jersey wear due to
the basic stitch type of the fabric.
Traditionally, knit textbooks either focus only on design, or on technology, or they dis-
cuss these two as separate entities by making it difficult to appreciate how they work
together and how they are dependent on each other. All knit specialists, be they design-
ers or technologists, require a sound understanding of fibers, yarns, dyeing, and finish-
ing that can be found in other chapters of this book. Such knowledge is essential for all
fashion and textile professionals. In order to connect design and technology in the con-
text of ­k nitwear, the topics in this chapter combine the technicalities and the practicalities
of  ­k nitwear ­production for a more fully integrated design technology approach to the
understanding of this subject.

16.2  Growth of the Knitwear Industry

Until the 1920s, knit fabrics were largely used for underwear; Coco Chanel is renowned
for using such interlock fabrics known as jersey for fashion apparel. The cost of the fabric
production was relatively low, making the resulting garments affordable for many mass
market consumers. Chanel’s suits often comprised long cardigans with long knitted belts,
skirts, and long tunic style tops; a completely knitted outfit. Meanwhile, Jean Patou met
the demands of the growing sports leisure industry. He is renowned for the tennis sweater
and cable knits. A decade later, Elsa Schiaparelli popularized knit sweaters with single
motif designs at the time when hand knitting was still popular. Later in the 1970s, compa-
nies such as Missoni brought a wealth of color to machine-produced knitwear and again
the popularity of hand-knit garments also gained importance. From the 1980s to the end

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 Knitwear Design Technology 443

of the twentieth century, the demand for hand knit and the hand-knit look declined but
mass produced machine-knit garments flourished with fashion designers such as Sonia
Rykiel, Kenzo, and Issey Miyake revolutionizing knit again as must-have fashion items.
Throughout the 1990s, CAD supported the mass production of knit, and the technical
yarns of the early 2000s helped to launch knit into areas such as performance sportswear.
Knit continues to be an important sector of the fashion apparel industry today. At times
when hand knit is on-trend, the look is reproduced in machine-made knitwear using
large-gauge machines and heavier yarns to achieve a chunkier fabric construction.
In its humble beginnings, knitwear was handmade by a mass population for personal
use and to clothe family members. The garments were shaped on the needle during the
knitting process. Whereas the mass production of knitwear began by mimicking the
manufacture of woven wear by cutting into knit fabrics to make into garments akin to
the most basic of production methods used today; fully cut. This production method is
discussed later in this chapter. Knitwear production has now come full circle with the
aid of new technology in which whole garments are knit and mostly made up on the nee-
dle bed through a fully operational technique. It is therefore easy to appreciate how both
design and technology have been equally responsible for the development of this industry
­sector. Today, the industry supports businesses of all sizes from designer-makers oper-
ating small-scale enterprises to large conglomerates operating on a global scale. Small-
scale knitwear specialists may fully use industrial machinery or domestic versions that
can be almost as electronically sophisticated and fully automated as industrial machines.
The design technology approach to production is therefore ever more critical, as we shall
see in the ­following section.

16.3  The Importance of Design Technology for the Knitwear Specialist

Knit is an exciting approach to fashion and garment production, largely because the
process involves both fabric creation and garment realization within one complete
design package. For this reason, there is a very distinct difference between the techni-
calities of producing knitwear and the practicalities of designing knitwear. The former
requires knowledge of how the machines work, and how fibers, yarns, and knit stitch
structures behave due to their constructions, and it is necessary to understand differ-
ent fabric design capabilities; whereas the latter is essentially designing knitwear for a
target market. In addition to knowledge of the characteristics of fibers and yarns and
of fabric structures, design requires considerations to the aesthetic appeal of the gar-
ment in relation to the intended wearer, and toward trends, and its relevance to the
retailer’s brand. In microsize and many small-to-medium size enterprises (SMEs), the
knitwear designer is often responsible for the entire design and production ­process.
The knitwear designer therefore requires a sound understanding of all aspects of
design and production including technological knowledge of materials and machin-
ery. In larger businesses, the fabrics are often produced by technologists in relation to
the designer’s specifications that are produced as a result of the design process. The
technological production and the creative design processes are more likely to be con-
ducted in isolation of each other and by individuals from different educational training
backgrounds. Technologists will have a sound technological knowledge of fibers, yarns,

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 444 Textile and Clothing Design Technology

stitch structures, and fabric behavior but little or no knowledge of the design process.
Designers with knitwear qualifications will have at least a basic working knowledge of
the technologies but usually little experience of their application. Designers who are
trained mostly in the design of woven fabrics or woven wear will have less specific tech-
nological understanding for knit but may still be employed in this specialist industry
sector. However, designers and technologists must be able to work together to produce
successful knitwear ranges and in order for a complete fusion between these two sets of
professionals, it is essential that knitwear designers have a solid technological knowl-
edge to produce garments that are fit for purpose and being desirable for consumers;
and knitwear technologists must have an appreciation of aesthetic desirability and
marketability of end products as an integral design factor of the functional product.
Therefore, in this chapter we unify the technological knowledge and the rudiments of
design specific to knitwear production to emphasize this necessary synthesis.

16.4  Basic Fabrics, Production Methods, and Machine Types

Knit fabrics can be produced in two basic forms in relation to the placement of the nee-
dles and needle beds on the machine. Single-bed fabrics are produced on machines that
have only one bed of needles. All of the needles operate in the same direction. The most
basic single-bed fabric is a plain fabric known as single jersey, which can be recognized
by the characteristic V-shaped stitches on one side, known as the technical face of the
fabric, or the knit face, and by the U-shaped stitches on the reverse side, known as the
technical back, or the purl face. The fabric has the same appearance as hand knit plain
fabric (Figure 16.1).

FIGURE 16.1
Single-bed knitting machine and single-jersey fabrics showing the U-shaped loops on the technical purl face
and the V-shaped stitches on the technical knit face. Notice how single-bed fabric curls in at the selvedge prior
to steaming or pressing, known as finishing.

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 Knitwear Design Technology 445

FIGURE 16.2
Two beds on a double-bed knitting machine and the needles are clearly shown to be operating in opposite direc-
tions. The double-bed fabric shows the V-shaped stitches on both sides of the fabric and the U-shaped loops
sandwiched within the fabric core.

Double-bed fabrics are produced on machines that have two beds of needles,
which operate in opposite directions. The most basic double-bed fabric is a plain fabric
known as double jersey, which looks identical on both sides having the characteristic
V-shaped stitches on the technical face and technical back, or reverse. The U-shaped
stitches can be seen sandwiched in between the two technical sides. As double-jersey
fabric is produced on a double-bed machine, technically it is known as a rib weft fabric
(Figure 16.2).
Single jersey and double jersey provide the basis for all knit fabric types. The range of
fabrics that can be achieved by manipulating the stitches on both single- and double-bed
machines is discussed later in this chapter. The number of needles in a needle bed will
depend on the size of the machine. In addition, different sized beds house different sized
needles (needle gauge), which affect the stitch size appearance on the fabric.
In addition to the number of needle beds on a machine, there are two fundamen-
tal types of knitting machine relative to the shape of the beds: flatbed and circular.
Both types can consist of one or two needle beds. Double-bed machines are commonly
called rib machines because they are capable of producing fabrics that resemble the rib
stitch of hand-knit fabric due to the two sets of needles that operate in opposite direc-
tions. In addition to producing double-bed or double-sided fabrics in which the two
sides of the fabric can look identical, one bed can be used to produce single-bed fabrics.
However for a single-bed fabric on a double-bed machine, it is more likely that the
two beds will be used to produce a single thickness tubular fabric piece, mimicking
the type of fabric that can be produced on a circular machine outlined next, rather
than producing a flat fabric piece from only one bed due to cost-efficiency. Circular
bed machines are more commonly used to produce fabrics for T-shirts rather than the
type of knitwear that is covered in this chapter. However, it is worth noting that fabrics
produced on flatbed machines are often more stable than those produced on circular

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 446 Textile and Clothing Design Technology

machines due to the yarn feed. On flatbed machines, the yarn is fed via yard feeders
on the carriage(s) from side to side across the bed. On circular machines, the yarn is fed
in only one direction in a continuous circular motion. This circular motion can cause a
condition of plain knit fabrics known as spirality, which is caused by twist stress that
creates a distortion of the fabric. This is particularly evident on cheap T-skirts in which
the side seams can clearly be seen to spiral off centre. Spirality can be minimized in
production by using two-fold yarns (double yarn) though this will inevitably increase
the cost of the garment.
The fabric pieces produced on knitting machines are known as blanks. Circular
machines generally produce blanks quicker than flatbed machines and are therefore eco-
nomical to use. The blanks produced by circular machines are tubular with a circumfer-
ence relative to the circumference of the machine and needle gauge and also dependent on
the type of stitch used. Depending on the circumference size, garments can be produced
directly from the tubular blanks with no side seams. Alternatively, the blanks can be cut
and opened out to produce a flat fabric. Flatbeds produce fabric blanks with sealed edges
known as selvedges. Knitted fabrics will generally unravel easily if the stitches are not
sealed in some way; the selvedges prevent such unroving. Blanks of various sizes can be
produced on flatbeds up to the maximum width of the bed. Several separate blanks can
be knit at the same time on one bed to increase productivity. The garment production type
employed will invariably determine the type of machine most suitable for the task as we
will see in the next section.

16.5 Characteristics of Knitted Fabrics and an Introduction

to Making-Up (Assembly) Technologies
Knit fabrics can be made from natural and synthetic yarns both textured and untextured.
Elastene yarns can also be incorporated to improve the stretch–recovery properties, think
leggings! Knit fabrics generally have a soft handle and drape, and they tend not to crease
easily due to the stitch formation. Knitwear is soft and comfortable lending it well to infor-
mal casual wear. However, knitted fabrics tend to be limited in their dimensional stability
and therefore require careful handling both during the making-up processes and during
aftercare such as washing and drying. Dimension stability can be improved through fin-
ishing, depending on the yarn type. The formation of the stitches determines the amount
of stretch or extensibility of the fabric, which determines the most appropriate making-up
processes to be used; knitted fabrics will unravel (unrove) easily if stitches are not sealed.
Dropped stitches during the knit process can quickly unrove creating a ladder in the
fabric. When cutting into knitted fabric, the raw edges need to be covered and neatened
to prevent unroving or fraying; overlock machines are used for this purpose. Cup seam
machines are used to assemble fully fashioned garments or shaped edges that have sealed
fabric edges as they reduce the risk of overstretching the seams during the making-up
process. Linking machines are commonly used to attach knitted neckbands though they
can also be used to make up shoulder seams. It is important to use the correct type of
sewing thread for knitwear; it should be the same or very similar to the yarn composition
used in the knitted fabric. When linking, the same yarn used to knit the fabric is used on

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 Knitwear Design Technology 447

the linking machine. Depending on the yarn type, used knitwear has a tendency to pill.
Pills are small bobbles of yarn on the surface of the fabric. These occur through the con-
stant rubbing of the fabric against itself or by other fabrics. Under the armholes is the most
commonly prone to pilling due to the constant movement of arms. Yarns made up of short
staple fibers are more prone to pilling.
Before we move on to the different garment production types, the next section
­i ntroduces you to basic garment styles, which will aid the recognition of the production
methods.

16.6  Basic Garment Styles

As previously said, knit is an exciting medium as the designer can create both the garment
and the fabric. Garment styles are largely subject to trends, and for mass production the most
simplistic styles are largely preferred. The most common knit garments are the sweater and
the cardigan. In their most basic form, they are essentially the same with the exception of the
front of the garments. The sweater is made up of one garment front, one garment back, two
sleeves, and most commonly a neckband. The cardigan is made up of two garment fronts,
one garment back, two sleeves, and most commonly a neckband plus two button bands.
Neckbands, button bands, and other band types are generally known as trimmings. Both
garment types can be made without sleeves. A sleeveless sweater is generally known as a
slipover, and a sleeveless cardigan is generally known as a waistcoat or gilet. Sleeveless gar-
ments commonly have trimmings around the armholes to neaten the edges.
The cardigan style is often used for heavier outerwear using thicker, warmer yarns to AQ 2
produce jackets and coats though they are rarely waterproofed. The length of sweaters
and cardigans is subject to trends. The sweater can be extended well below hip level to
form a long-length jumper popularly worn with skintight trousers or leggings or further
extended to form a knitted dress. Depending on the fashion of that time, dresses may
or may not be shaped at the waist. Long jumpers and knitted dresses gained particular
popularity during the 1980s as part of the casual and sportswear fashion trends of that
time. Similar to knitted dresses, knitted skirts appear in lesser frequent fashion trend
cycles. Skirts are generally tubular with a small amount of hip to waist shaping to reduce
the bulk around the waist. Alternatively, an A-line shaped skirt known as a sunray skirt
periodically gains popularity subject to trends, which was last popular during the early
1990s. This style is knit sideways and incorporates pleating to achieve a good drape.
Some sleeve types also benefit from sideway knitting, which are discussed in the follow-
ing section. A waistband is common on knitted skirts. Depending on the extensibility
of the fabric around the waist and the design of the skirt, a zip fastening may be neces-
sary. The seating area of long sweaters and dresses often quickly distorts during wear,
making them appear unflattering. Knit skirts can also quickly lose their shape and hang
appeal and for the same reasons, though often not the case with the sunray design; and
probably for the same reason, trousers are not popular as knitwear. The length of sleeves
can be altered depending on the desired design style and sleeve length options as shown
in Figure 16.3, and an example of basic garment blocks are shown in Figure 16.4 with a
garment specification diagram.

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 448 Textile and Clothing Design Technology

Natural shoulder shape

Cap

Short

ELBOW length

¾ length

Bracelet

Long

FIGURE 16.3
AQ 3 Popular sleeve lengths.

Measurements

Body length 75 cm
Body width 63 cm
18 cm 17 cm Sleeve length 50 cm

10 cm
Size 12–88 cm
23 cm

5 cm 46 cm
Body
5 cm
Sleeve
75 cm 35 cm

45 cm
17 cm

1 cm
1 cm
63 cm 22 cm

Garment blanks

FIGURE 16.4
An example of a basic pattern block, showing a sweater body with a round neckline, no shoulder shaping, and a
basic semi-set-in sleeve. The measurements are given for a standard UK size 12. The accompanying photograph
shows the pattern pieces. The front and back blocks are to be cut with the center grain line on the fabric fold for
a symmetrical cut. There is a hem trim for the two lower body side slits and a tubular hem neckband.

16.7 Garment Production Types, Popular Knit Design Styles,

and How to Recognize Them
There are four garment production methods available for the production of knitwear:

• Fully cut
• Cut stitch shaped
• Fully fashioned
• Integral knitting and full garment knitting

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 Knitwear Design Technology 449

Each production method requires a special making-up processes and machinery. The
design style will indicate a preferred or even essential production method depending on
whether or not edges; for example, around the neckline or the front edges of a cardigan/
jacket can be left untrimmed utilizing a sealed edge. Fully cut and cup stitch shaped meth-
ods require trims to seal and cover raw edges, whereas the fully fashioned method allows
for the creation of sealed edges. The fully fashioned method also allows for additional style
features to be included that can improve the aesthetic. In order to create even the most
basic knitwear styles, an element of shaping is required. One of the first considerations of
styling is the shoulder of the garment. A style known as drop shoulder results when no
shaping is undertaken, such as the example in Figure 16.4. As the human form has some
degree of shoulder shaping, even those who are considered to be very square shouldered,
any garment to be worn draped over the shoulders will benefit from some shoulder shap-
ing. The natural shoulder slope of the human form is shown on the sleeve length form in
Figure 16.3. Cheap knitwear often has no shoulder shaping. No shoulder shaping will tend
to slightly distort the drape of the garment’s body and sleeve parts though this is often not
really noticeable when worn. Shaping the shoulder using the fully cut or cut stitch shaped
production method will not greatly incur additional cost as the assembly procedures for
both shoulder types are the same; the front and back shoulders are cut with or without
shoulder shaping and then stitched together. However, when using the fully fashioned and
integral production methods, the knit productivity is reduced to undertake the additional
shaping process that will incur higher costs for garment production per unit. Assessing
shoulder shaping is simple, either there is a visible gradient or not. In addition to shoulder
shaping, the sides of upper body garments can also be shaped. Knitwear generally uti-
lizes straight side seams but subject to trends side shaping, or tapering, can be included.
The trend for tapered knitwear, both machine-produced and handmade, was particularly
popular during the 1930s to create a very feminine, shapely silhouette in contrast to the
straight-bodied masculine silhouette of the 1920s. The style returned in the 1980s, support-
ing the power dressing trend where often the shoulders incorporated shoulder padding.
The broad exaggerated shoulder line and side shaping to create a smaller waistline cre-
ate an inverted triangular body shape synonymous with a strong masculine upper body
shape. The style was popular for both male and female knitwear and for tailored jackets.
Similar to shoulder shaping, shaping the side seams using the fully cut and cup stitch
shaped production methods incurs little to no additional assembly cost, but additional
cost will be incurred using the fully fashioned and integral knit methods as productivity
is reduced due to the shaping process that is being undertaken on the machine. However,
the fully fashioned method will not incur any fabric waste from the tapered side seams
that result from the cut and sew method.
In order to create different styles of knitwear, shaping is required around the neckline
and armholes. However, there are two basic styles that do not have any shaping: the bateau
or boat neckline and the drop sleeve (Figure 16.5). The bateau neckline may be trimmed,
or a sealed edge may be desired. The drop sleeve is commonly used with a drop shoulder
giving a very basic garment style. The bateau neckline, however, is considered to be par-
ticularly flattering and sensual as the shoulders are fully exposed. The style is more sen-
sual coupled with some side seam shaping and a set-in sleeve that accentuates the curves
of the upper body silhouette. The set-in sleeve basically fits around an imaginary line from
under the armhole following the contour of the body to the top of the edge of the shoulder
and down the back of the arm to join under the armhole. To achieve a good fit, shaping is
required both on the sleeve head and on the front and back body parts. Figure 16.5 shows
the set-in sleeve style. A semi-set-in sleeve, as previously shown in Figure 16.4, allows for

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 450 Textile and Clothing Design Technology

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 16.5
(a) Bateau/boat neckline shown on a dress form; (b) drop sleeve (without drape) and (c) set-in sleeve illustrated
AQ 4 on a body form.

excess bulky fabric to be removed from under the armhole and to lessen the extent of a
drop-shoulder line in which a set-in sleeve is fully shaped (curved) around the sleeve
head; the semi-set-in sleeve has an unshaped sleeve head.
Further basic styles and the most popular design styles will be introduced in the fol-
lowing sections linked to one of the four production methods, which are discussed with
their appropriate making-up methods and technologies. Although it is possible to produce
almost all the styles through any of the four production methods, some processes work
better than others and are more cost-effective.

16.8 Fully Cut, the Most Basic Production Method,

and Basic Garment Styles
From a knit perspective, fully cut garment production is the most straightforward of the
four production methods as the blanks are produced on the machine without any shap-
ing. The garment-making process is similar to making garments from woven fabrics as
the garment is cut out of the blank, or lay, which is why this process is also referred to as
cut and sew; however, because knit fabric is generally very stretchy (extensible), darts are
not required and little side-seam shaping is favored. The blanks are steamed if made of
a man-made fiber such as acrylic, or pressed if made of wool or cotton. For mass produc-
tion purposes, several layers of fabric are marked and cut through in one operation in the
cutting room area of the factory. Although the fully cut method is akin to the woven-wear
garment production process, lockstitch is unsuitable for knitwear production as the raw
edges will fray and be unsightly; in addition, the stitch is not extensible enough for knit
fabric. Three thread overlock machines are therefore used to seal all the raw edges of the
garment. The overlock stitch joins the garment pieces, covers the edge with a chain stitch
structure, and cuts the edge to neaten all in one operation. A four thread overlock machine
is often used for heavier knitwear such as a jacket or coat. If a neckband is attached using

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 Knitwear Design Technology 451

the linking method (discussed in Section 16.10), it is usual to overlock the cut neckline
first to prevent fraying; alternatively, the neckband can be attached using a mock-linking
process. The fully cut method is the cheapest production method and is particularly suited
to the more basic design styles with minimum shaping and fabrics that are produced on a
circular knitting machine. This method is used more for garments such as T-shirts rather
than the type of knitwear that we are concerned with in this chapter, which is more likely
to be produced on flatbed machines, employing cup stitch shaped and fully fashioned
assembly methods.
Knitwear is typically classified in relation to the shape characteristics. Sweaters, knitted
dresses, slipovers, cardigans, jackets/coats, and waistcoats/gilets all require a neckline.
The most basic neckline style is a round neck. As the fully cut method produces a raw
cut edge around the neckline, overlocking is necessary to seal the edge and a neckband
is required to cover the edge and thus neaten the garment. If a round neck is produced
using the fully fashioned method with a sealed edge, a neckband is not required to neaten
the edge but may be used as a design feature. The neckband needs to stretch sufficiently
for the head to pass through the neckhole of a sweater, dress, or slipover and is therefore
often constructed on a double bed using a rib stitch structure, which is more extensible
than single-jersey fabric. Rib stitch fabrics are discussed later in this chapter. The neck-
band can be attached using a linking process, which is described in Section 16.10. Linking
is a highly skilled process that adds cost to a garment. Such an expense would not be
justified for a garment that is produced using a fully cut method, and therefore a mock-
linking technique is more likely to be used. The edges of the neckband need to be sealed
with a cast off edge or an overlocked edge because mock-linking does not secure open
stitches as the linker machine method does. The principle of linking and mock linking is
illustrated in Figure 16.6.
The fully cut production method allows for the most basic method of assembly. First, the
shoulder seams are joined, thus joining the front and back pieces together. For a garment
with no front fastening, such as a sweater, the neckband is joined to form a tube, which
is then mock linked to the neckline either at this point in the assembly line or at the end
of the process. For a garment with a front fastening, such as a cardigan, the neckband
may be mock linked in place before attaching the front fastening bands or after attaching

Mock linking on a sealed edge

Linking open loops capturing each loop

(a) (b)

FIGURE 16.6
Round neckline shown on a dress form; mock linking and linking (illustrations) used to attach neckbands and
other trims such as button bands; wrap and tie front shown on a dress form. AQ 5

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 452 Textile and Clothing Design Technology

the front fastening bands, depending on the designer’s specification. The sleeves are then
positioned within the armhole shaping or between the armhole markings if a drop sleeve
is used. The sleeves are then overlocked in place. The side seams are made up continuing
through to join the sleeve seams as one operation on each side of the garment.
For a garment with a front fastening, the most basic style is a single buttoned front.
This requires a button band on one side and a buttonhole band on the second front
side. Buttonholes are made using a buttonhole machine similar to those used for woven
wear. The ends of the holes are secured with a dense zigzag stitch known as a bar tack, and
the buttons are attached using a special machine.
A button fastening can also be applied to one or both shoulders on a sweater. For adult
wear, this would more likely be used as a design feature rather than being functional and
would add cost to the garment. This style feature is however useful on baby wear and chil-
dren’s wear, particularly for children under the age of five, as babies’ and young children’s
heads are proportionately larger than their body size; the shoulder opening makes it easier
and less stressful for the infants when the garment is put on and taken off them.
The overlock stitch is somewhat bulky that would be uncomfortable in certain areas
of the garment when worn if not flattened. A covering seam stitch is therefore used around
the  back neck and along the front fastening trims on cardigans and jackets, and so on.
Once the garments are fully assembled, they are inspected for faults and undergo a final
press.
Another popular basic cardigan style is the wrap and tie front (Figure 16.6). This style
requires slightly wider front pieces to wrap one over the other and a long knit belt to fasten,
thus not requiring buttons and buttonholes. The front garment pieces are akin to a double-
breasted cardigan front fastening that normally has a button fastening along the outside
edge and a matching column of nonfunctioning buttons down the other corresponding
front aspect, and may have a round neckline. The length of the wrap and tie garment var-
ies mostly from hip level to knee level but can be as long as ankle length, depending on
the current trend. Belted wrapover cardigans were particularly popular during the 1970s.

16.9 Cut Stitch Shaped, the Most Economical Knitwear

Production Method, and Further Basic Garment Styles
The main difference between the cut stitch shaped process and the fully cut method is that
instead of cutting garment blanks from one large piece of fabric, the blanks are knit to the
required width of the garment, plus a small seam allowance. The fabrics are generally pro-
duced on flatbed machines. The bottom of each blank is sealed either with a hem in which
a flat, even edge is desired or a rib stitch is used when a snug fitting sleeve cuff or a figure
hugging waistband is required such as at the bottom of a sweater; this is known as a welt.
Most often, the blank begins with a rib stitch for the waistband and cuffs to incorporate a
degree of shaping and to provide a snug fit at the extremities of the garment. The garment
blanks are then cut to provide the correct garment length, armhole shaping, neck shaping,
and possibly shoulder shaping. This process produces a less fabric/yarn waste than the
fully cut method; however, cheaper acrylic yarns are more likely to be used than the more
expensive wool or cotton yarns. The blanks are given a steam treatment to relax and stabi-
lize the fabric and to control the shape and size. Wool and cotton fabrics are pressed rather

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 Knitwear Design Technology 453

than steamed. The blanks are then cut either by machine or by hand. The two sleeves
and the two body blanks are usually cut together to ensure that they are the same to aid
the making-up process. A process known as press-off shaping may be incorporated on a
double-bed machine to shape the neckline without the need to cut. The loops are allowed
to drop with the aid of pressers without unraveling. The neckline is then trimmed during
the cutting process with minimum waste. Alternatively, the loops can be held (held-stitch
method) on the needles until the shaping is complete; two or three rows of knit then com-
plete the edging to secure the loops. This process is often used on sloped shoulders and
sleeve heads.
The press-off shaping method or the held-stitch method can be used for all the basic neck-
line shapes including the round neck but is particularly beneficial for V-shaped (V neck)
and square necklines. The production method is much easier to undertake, and the finish-
ing is more superior to that which is achievable through a cut and a sew neckline. V neck-
lines and square necklines require a neckband to cover the edges unless they are produced
using the fully fashioned method in which a sealed edge can be achieved, as described in
Section 16.10. The filled-in V neck is a popular variation on the V neck, the fill-in is often
made from a contrasting colored fabric to give the appearance of a garment worn under-
neath the sweater. Popular variations on the round neck include the polo neck and the tur-
tle neck; both styles are produced with a collar rather than a neckband. The polo neck collar
is knit using a rib stitch that fits snuggly around the neck. A turtle neck is a loosely fitting
collar that stands away from the neck; it may be constructed using a rib stitch or a jersey
fabric. Polo and turtle necks when subject to trends tend to be considered as classical styles
that can be popular even when they are not particularly on-trend (Figure 16.7). Another col-
lar type that is more subject to trends is the sailor collar. This style gains more popularity
within the children’s market for girls and last popularized during the 1980s among women
by Lady Diana, Princess of Wales. The collar itself sports a square shape, giving the appear-
ance of a square neckline though the neckline itself is V shaped often with a tie feature at
the base of the V on a sweater.
Round necks, polo necks, and turtle necks work particularly well with raglan sleeves
and saddle shoulder styles (Figure 16.8). Sleeve heads may also be shaped on the machine,
using the press-off shaping process. Raglan and saddle shoulder sleeve styles are the vari-
ations on the set in sleeve. Shoulder shaping is incorporated into the sleeve and body
pieces, producing a comfortable and stylish fit. The assembly requires an additional seam,
making it more expensive to produce than a set-in sleeve, and therefore these styles are
more likely to be used with higher quality yarns to further justify the cost.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

FIGURE 16.7
(a) Square neckline, (b) V neckline, (c) a filled-in V neckline, (d) Polo neck, and (e) Turtle neck.

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 454 Textile and Clothing Design Technology

(a) (b)

FIGURE 16.8
(a) Raglan sleeve and (b) saddle shoulder sleeve. The sleeve head of the raglan forms a larger part of the neckline
than the head of the saddle shoulder, which is essentially a strip that extends from the head of an otherwise
­set-in sleeve that sits along the top of the shoulder and forms a small part of the neckline shaping.

Cup seamers are used to assemble sealed edges, whereas cut edges require overlock-
ing and neck bands may be attached using a linker. Cup seamers are designed to uncurl
the sealed edges of knit fabric, which is typically the characteristic of single-jersey fabrics
when they come off the knitting machine. The fabric passes between two metal cups into
the stitch zone acting as a feed device and hence the name of the machine. This is consid-
erably a more skilled process than overlocking and therefore is a more expensive produc-
tion method than the fully cut method. The neck and sleeve head shaping still tends to
be relatively simple and basic for cost efficiency. The design emphasis is therefore more
likely to be on the textile design, employing more intricate stitch structures or use of color.
Textile design and color are particularly subject to trends. More interesting shapes such as
raglan and saddle shoulder styles are more likely to be used with plain jersey fabrics as the
interesting style features are easily lost in textured and multicolored textile designs, which
would render the styles as insufficiently cost efficient.

16.10 Fully Fashioned, a Better Quality Knitwear Production

Method, and More Sophisticated Garment Styles
Electronic flatbed knitting machines and CAD packages are fully utilized for this produc-
tion process, and with advances in technology, fully fashioned garment production has
become a highly profitable production method. Not only are more sophisticated styles
possible but also an array of knit fabrics makes this method a knitwear designer’s par-
adise. Necklines may still be cut and sewn using an overlocker if desired, though cup
seamers and linkers are more fully utilized. As linking machines join loop for loop, the
process makes a very neat join possible on raglan sleeves. Fully fashioned garment blanks
are shaped entirely on the knitting machine by decreasing or increasing the number
of stitches across the width of the blank and thus eliminating the need to cut. This is
particularly a economical method of knitting in terms of fabric waste reduction, and all
edges are sealed; however, the production rate is slower than producing unshaped blanks.

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 Knitwear Design Technology 455

To decrease the fabric width, one or more stitches are moved from the outer needle(s) and
are placed inward onto corresponding needles; this process is known as fashioning. This
forms a characteristic mark on the fabric face in which one loop can be seen to overlap
another. When increasing the fabric, an additional needle is worked at the selvedge. For a
smooth increase, one or more of the selvedge stitches can be removed from their needles
to adjacent corresponding needles to introduce a new stitch inside the selvedge. This tech-
nique forms a hole underneath the new stitch, which may be used as a decorative feature.
Alternatively, a loop from an adjacent stitch can be placed on the empty needle prior to the
next course (row of knitting). Fully fashioned garments do not require overlocking; they
are assembled with cup seamers and linkers. The fully fashioned method is most com-
monly used for more expensive yarns such as cashmere due to the reduced yarn wastage.
Classics such as ladies’ suits, jackets, and coats in luxurious yarns with a strong market-
place are particularly affordable to produce using this method, and designers can better
exercise their creativity through more interesting design styles and fabrics.
More intricate variations of the round neck, such as scoop and standaway, and V neck
variations such as sweetheart and slot are possible (Figure 16.9). The width of V necks can
vary from very wide to very narrow; the slot neckline is particularly a narrow V shape.
The sweetheart neckline is a variation of a hybrid V and square neckline. The slot and
sweetheart styles are particularly flattering without a neckband trim and therefore highly
suited to the fully fashioned technique with its characteristic neat sealed edges. Similarly,
a scoop neckline can be particularly sensual with no trim. A further variation of this style
is to shape the scoop in a more stylized manner, creating a horseshoe neckline or a more
basic U shape. The standaway neckline is not too dissimilar from the turtle neck collar
(shown previously in Figure 16.7) standing away from the neck but without a separate col-
lar or band that looks very elegant.
Cap and kimono sleeves are subject to fashion trends. Cap sleeves are common on
T-shirts in which they are often formed as a separate sleeve part. For knitwear, the cap
sleeve is more likely to be knit as part of the body sections by increasing the number of
needles to form the protruding cap; the style length is shown in Figure 16.3. The kimono
style is particularly favored for lightweight or heavier weight outerwear. Textured yarns
are often used to give added interest to the kimono style, providing a costly but stylish
coat. The degree of slope or angle of the sleeve relative to the body affects the comfort
and the aesthetic appeal of the style. At 90° such as a drop sleeve is full with good drape
capability, depending on the softness of the yarn but will extend the shoulder line below

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 16.9
(a) Scoop, (b) sweetheart, (c) slot necklines, and (d) kimono sleeve.

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 456 Textile and Clothing Design Technology

the shoulder point, thus dropping down the arm. This can give the look of a cheaper cost
garment. Whereas a slope of around 75° increases the possibility of restriction giving a
poor fit unless the sleeve is large and loose such as a kimono (Figure 16.9).
A popular alternative front fastening to the single breasted is the double-breasted front
fastening. Again the style is subject to trends but is considered to be a classic style. As there
is a significant overlap of fabric for this style, consideration must be made to the thickness
that the yarn and the fabric structure create. The style, however, provides extra warmth for
the front of the body.

16.11 Integral Garments and Full Garment Knitting, New Technology

for Knitwear Production, and Further Advanced Garment Styles
The original forms of integral machine knitting included the production of socks, hats,
and gloves. Early use of the technology applied to garment production was restricted to
more simplistic garment styles such as a waistcoat and often still incorporated some degree
of cut and sew. With the aid of new state-of-the-art technology, today it is possible to knit
garments entirely on the machine with little or no seams and including intricate design fea-
tures such as pockets, trims, and even buttonholes all in one process and at relatively high
production speeds. More complex garment styles that are possible using the fully fash-
ioned production method can now be achieved with minimal making up using this fully
automated technology. Such styles include batwing and dolman sleeve types (Figure 16.10),
keyhole necklines, integral knit shirt collars, and shawl collars.

16.11.1  Fabric Designs

Different fabric structures are possible by manipulating the stitches as the fabric is constructed
on the machine. However, this is not always possible when possible garments and the knitted
fabrics should be unroved to accurately analyze the fabric construction and to analyze the
AQ 6 yarns used in a garment. In this section, the stitch manipulation techniques are discussed,

(a) (b)

FIGURE 16.10
(a) Dolman and (b) batwing sleeves.

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 Knitwear Design Technology 457

while limited in number the variations possible when using these techniques is limited
only by design capability and technical realization. The basic stitch manipulation tech-
niques are described in this section with example fabrics in Figure 16.11. It is recom-
mended that you fully explore stitch and fabric types through the wealth of available text
and design books.
The most basic fabric is plain single jersey, which can be seen in Figure 16.1 in which
the technical face has the characteristic V-shaped stitches, and the technical reverse
has the U-shaped loops. To produce plain knit stitches, a new loop of yarn is pulled
through the previous loop by the action of the needle; the previous loop is released from
the needle and the new loop is held on the needle. An open fabric structure can be pro- AQ 7
duced by simply omitting some needles in a sequence; for example, when five needles
are working, one needle is out-of-work across the needle bed. Where there is a needle
missing, the yarn will simply form a strand from the last needle loop to the next; the fab-
ric has a delicate lace or laddered appearance. A variety of lace patterns can be produced
using the previously described method for shaping in which the loops are transferred
to adjacent needles to form holes in the fabric. Cables are also formed using the transfer
method; however, rather than leaving empty needles to collect yarn for the formation
of new loops as with lace patterns, cables are produced by changing the order of sets of
loops periodically. For example, for a six-needle cable, stitches 1, 2, and 3 are removed AQ 8
from their needles as are stitches 4, 5, and 6—stitches 1, 2, and 3 are replaced on needles
4, 5, and 6 and stitches 4, 5, and 6 and crossed over to be placed on needles 1, 2, and 3.
Normally, at least 6–8 rows of plain knit occur before repeating the transfer sequence.
Cable sweaters were historically popular hand-knit garments using very heavy-weight
yarns for warmth. Cable knits though now possible on modern knitting machines are
costly to produce due to low productivity. Lace patterns are also time-consuming to pro-
duce because transfer rows are often required prior to knit rows though some machines
are capable of transferring stitches and knitting in one row (or course) operation. A mock
lace appearance can be achieved using tuck stitches. Tuck stitches are produced when
instead of taking the yarn through the loop to produce a new loop, the needle holds the
existing loop and the newly laid yarn without releasing the loop. This action may be
repeated a number of times, depending on the yarn count and the needle size before
knitting the loop to form a new loop. The original loop and the laid yarn strands are cap-
tured by the newly formed loop. At least one plain knit loop on either side of a tuck stitch
is required. The resulting fabric is wider than plain fabric but requires more knit rows to
create the same length of fabric as plain knit because the stitch formation produces flat-
tened stitches. Tuck stitch is often used for double-bed fabrics to produce fisherman’s rib
or half fisherman’s rib.
Miss or slip stitches are created when a needle is completely bypassed by the yarn; short
strands are formed on the technical reverse of the fabric. When using only one color, the
technical reverse is used as the fabric face because the strands can be strategically placed
to produce patterns across the fabric surface. However, slip stitch is more likely to be used
with more than one yarn to produce colored patterns on the technical face of the fabric,
called single jacquard, which is more commonly known as Fair Isle after hand knit. Double
jacquard is produced on double-bed machines in which the would-be strands on the tech-
nical reverse are knit on the second bed, creating a thicker fabric with no outward facing
floats. Small and large motifs can also be incorporated in a knit fabric, whereas small
motifs are possible using the jacquard technique in which a special method and carriage
are mostly employed; this process is known as intarsia knitting.

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 458

K30374_C016.indd 458
FIGURE 16.11
Top left to right: single-bed lace with a picot hem; double-bed tuck stitch fabric; double-bed tuck stitch with two-colored yarns; single jacquard with a plain rib welt
(double bed). Bottom left to right: Two-color single jacquard with a tuck stitch rib welt (double bed); double-bed tuck stitch with transferred loops (lace stitch); intarsia
knit using three-colored yarns incorporating lace pattern 9 transferred loops) and rose bud hem applique.
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 Knitwear Design Technology 459

16.11.2  Garment Specs, Sample Garments (Prototyping), and Garment Finishing

Garment specifications (specs) are used in the industry to create garments exactly to
the requirements of the customer/designer. The spec sheets normally contain garment
sketches and/or pattern block illustrations, yarn samples and fiber content details, and
knit instructions; a designer’s example is given in Figure 16.12. Sample garments, or pro-
totypes, are produced following the garment specs for inspection by the designer and/or
customer (most likely to be a retailer). The prototype garments are usually made to size 12 in
the United Kingdom. The garments are finished with all labels, and so on, prior to inspec-
tion that includes measuring the garments to ensure that they conform to the specs. The
sample garments are often sealed and tagged with the company’s seal to verify that the
garment has passed the quality control inspection and now serves as the official quality
for all subsequent garments that form part of that particular order. Other sizes are graded
from the standard size 12.
Creases and careless staining can occur through excessive handling during the mak-
ing of knitwear. At the end of the making process, garments are prepared for their jour-
ney to the retailer and subsequently to the consumer. Metal frames are used relative
to the required finished garment size as inserts during the steaming process after the
garment has been assembled and after the labels have been inserted. Heat, moisture—
often in the form of steam, and a degree of pressure are used to deform or reform the
fibers to eliminate creases. Garment is then packed for transportation to the customer’s
requirements, which are normally relative to how the garments will be displayed—on
hangers covered with plastic wrappers or folded and boxed. Figure 16.12 also shows a
mock factory layout.

16.11.3  Trend Forecast Sources for Knitwear

Once upon a time, trend forecasting information was confined to the industry sector
that pays handsomely for the privilege. Trend forecasting information is more widely
available today to the general public for fee, albeit however more related to what is read-
ily available on the high street at that time rather than being months, or even a year or
two in advance. Peclers Paris is one of the original trend forecasting agencies to cre-
ate dedicated forecasts for knitwear and is still active today. According to expodata-
base, there are currently trade shows for knitwear that are operating in 115 different
countries. Many of the trade journals update the industry on-trend information from
such trade fairs and shows. For students, WGSN is a popular trend source accessible for AQ 9
free through most university design schools. Even for the general public, trend infor-
mation is easy enough today to find on the Internet. Independent knitwear designers,
such Debbie Bliss, give their own accounts of the current trends, and popular magazines
such as Vogue and knit craft magazines are useful sources. Blogs and Pinterest are also
becoming popular resources. Bloggers who attend catwalk shows are more likely to give
a good spin on likely imminent trends.
Thus far, throughout the twenty-first century, knitwear has been predominantly plain
knit, single color, and basic in style. The popularity of hand knitting as a hobby craft
throughout the twentieth century influenced a number of exciting styles and yarns giv-
ing knitwear a creative edge. Even though the technology available today in the industry
knitwear is still experiencing a lull; it is hoped that through the nitration of design and
technology, a new generation of knitwear specialist will break free to use this highly cre-
ative medium to generate excitement again in the world of knit.

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K30374_C016.indd 460
460

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 16.12
Example of (a) a designer’s garment spec, (b) a fabric sample, and (c) a mock factory layout.
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 Knitwear Design Technology 461

16.12 Conclusion
This chapter has introduced a rationale for encouraging knitwear specialists to develop
both design and technological knowledge and skills for the betterment of the industry,
education, and for the sake of readily available creative knitwear for consumers. This
chapter briefly discusses the growth of the sector before focusing on the types of machines
available. The four garment production processes have been discussed in relation to gar-
ment design and where relevant to trends. The reader is introduced to basic garment styles
and a number of variations that have come in and out of favor for fashion over time. The
reader is also introduced to some of the designers’ tools such as pattern blocks and gar-
ment specs. This chapter concludes with a brief discussion of resources for knitwear trends
and words of encouragement to develop as a creative knitwear specialist.

Bibliography
Brackenbury, T. (1992) Knitted Clothing Technology, Blackwell Publications, Oxford, UK.
Carr, H., and Latham, B. (1994) The Technology of Clothing Manufacture, 2nd ed., Blackwell Publications,
Oxford, UK.
Donofrio-Ferrezza, L., and Hefferen M. (2008) Designing a Knitwear Collection from Inspiration to
Finished Garments, Fairchilds Publicaions, New York.
Taylor, M. (1994) Technology of Textile Properties, 3rd ed., Forbes Publications, London, UK.

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 Author Query Sheet

Chapter No.: 16
Query No. Queries Response
AQ 1 Please check whether the edits made to the sentence
“We discuss and demonstrate how to…” retain the intended
meaning.
AQ 2 Please check whether the edits made to the sentence
“The cardigan style is often used for heavier outerwear…”
are OK.
AQ 3 The caption differs from the one that is provided along with
the artwork. Please check.
AQ 4 Please check whether the insertion of part labels (a)–(c) in
Figures 16.5 and 16.12 is OK.
AQ 5 Please indicate (a) and (b) in Figure 16.6.
AQ 6 Please revisit the sentence “In this section, the stitch
manipulation techniques…” for clarity.
AQ 7 Please check whether the edits made to the sentence
“An open fabric structure can be produced…” retain the
intended meaning.
AQ 8 Please revisit the sentence “For example, for a six-needle
cable…” for clarity.
AQ 9 Please provide the expansion for WGSN, if available.

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