Agricultural Meteorology

Agricultural Meteorology
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Prof. Dr. Paulo C Sentelhas
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Class Summary
1. Agricultural productivity and its interaction with the
environment
2. Concepts and definitions of weather and climate

- Climate Variability
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- Climate Trend
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- Climatic anomaly
3. Agrometeorology as an agricultural management tool
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4. Importance of agrometeorological information for the
sustainability of agriculture
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- Strategic purposes
- Tactical purposes
- Achieving resilience
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4. Other climate effects on agriculture 2
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Prof. Paulo C. Sentelhas
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Agricultural productivity and its interaction with the environment

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Agricultural productivity (clockwise)

- Harvest
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- Climate Conditions
- Production environment (Soil)
- Grow Crops/Cycle
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- Spacing
- Seed quality
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- Soil Preparation
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- Correction and Fertilization

- Planting Season
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- Weeds
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- Pests/Diseases
- Irrigation
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The image
will be HERE
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Agricultural productivity factors
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Climate – 50%
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Soil – 23%
Genotype – 13%
Management – 14%
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Agricultural productivity factors
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Climate - ?
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Soil
Genotype Man has action on these factors
Management
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Conceptualization of weather and climate

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Current Condition Average condition

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For a given location, the state of the The state of the atmosphere can be
atmosphere can be described both in described by variables that characterize
instantaneous terms, defining the current your physical condition. These variables
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condition, which is extremely dynamic, as are what we call meteorological elements:

well as in statistical terms, defining the air temperature, relative humidity, wind
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average condition, which in turn is a static speed and direction, precipitation,

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description. atmospheric pressure, solar radiation, etc

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The current condition or a specific period is called WEATHER

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The average condition of time is called CLIMATE

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Weather and climate determinants

Factors are causal agents that condition meteorological / climatic elements, that is,
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solar radiation, air temperature, rain, wind speed and direction, atmospheric
pressure, relative air humidity, etc ... The performance of the various factors causes
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the meteorological elements to vary in time and space.

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Some meteorological elements can also act as factors, which is the case of solar
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radiation, which can be taken both as an element, as it is a variable that quantifies

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the availability of solar energy on the Earth's surface, but can also be considered a
factor, for example. condition temperature, pressure and indirectly other elements.
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MACROCLIMATE FACTORS
They are those who operate on a regional or geographic scale. They are classified as
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permanent (latitude, altitude/relief, oceanity/continentality, etc.)

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Latitude
This factor is linked to Earth-Sun relationships, which involve the apparent movement
of the Sun in the N-S direction throughout the year, which is a consequence of the
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translation movement and the inclination of the terrestrial axis (23 ° 27 ') in relation
to the perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. Thus, there is spatial and temporal
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variation in the angle of incidence of the sun's rays on the surface (zenith angle) and
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the photoperiod, which in turn generate daily values of solar irradiance that vary
according to latitude and the day of the year, resulting in differences in thermal
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conditions.
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> Latitude
< Annual average temperature
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Translation and formation of the seasons

The Earth's translation movement around the Sun causes a seasonal variation in solar
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irradiance on the Earth's surface, generating the seasons. This seasonal variation is
due to the inclination of the terrestrial axis at 23 ° 27 'in relation to the normal to the
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plane of the ecliptic. This makes it possible for an observer on the Earth's surface to
feel that the Sun is moving in the N-S direction throughout the year.
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Distribution of solar radiation on the Earth's surface in the months of January and July
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Space-time variation of photoperiod and solar radiation at different times of the year
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and latitudes
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Latutude vs. Annual average temperature

Sea level locations
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Altitude
The increase in altitude causes a decrease in temperature. This is as a result of air
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thinness and decreased atmospheric pressure

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In addition, the association of altitude with relief can affect the rainfall regime of a
region. Orographic rains are an example of this:
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1- Hot and humid air 2 - Cooling the air as it rises 3 - Moisture condensation and rain
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formation 4 - Dry air heating 5 - Hot and dry climate
This effect also occurs at the Serra do Mar region in the State of São Paulo, where the
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total annual rainfall is 2,150mm/year in Santos, 3,800mm/year in the top of the

Mountain and 1,300mm/year in the city of São Paulo .
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Oceanity/Continentality
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These terms refer, respectively, to the proximity or distance to the ocean or large
portions of water. Oceanity refers to the effect of the ocean on the climate of a
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coastal region. Ocean water acts as a thermal moderator, that is, it does not allow
large temperature variations to occur. This is due to the fact that water has a higher
specific heat than air. Cooling and heating more slowly. The mass of water when
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exchanging heat with the air causes an attenuation of both the heating of the air and
its cooling, thus reducing the thermal amplitude (Tmax - Tmin). Continentality occurs
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in places located inside the continents, therefore without being affected by the
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oceans. In this condition, the thermal amplitudes are greater, both in daily and annual
terms.
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Cuiabá - Monthly thermal amplitude between 8 ans 17°C

Salvador - Monthly thermal amplitude between 3 and 6°C
On a larger geographic scale, the moderating power of the oceans also explains why
the thermal amplitudes (summer - winter) are higher in NH and lower in HS. See the
figure below and prove it ..
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Oceanity/Continentality - Difference between hemispheres

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Annual thermal amplitude (difference between the Tmed of the warmest month and
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the coldest month) due to the effects of continentality/oceanity.
HN Continent > Ocean > thermal amplitude

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HS Continent < Ocean < thermal amplitude

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Ocean currents
The continuous movement of ocean waters due to differences in density (caused by
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differences in temperature and salinity and by the rotation of the Earth) generates
currents that move in an organized manner, maintaining their physical characteristics,
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which differ from adjacent waters. The currents that circulate from the Poles to the
Equator are COLD and those that circulate from the Equator to the Poles are HOT.
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The atmosphere in contact with these portions of water comes into thermal
equilibrium with the surface. Therefore, the currents have a great effect on the
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thermal and water regime (rains) on the coast of the continents.

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Cold currents condition a mild and dry climate

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Hot currents condition hot and humid climate
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General circulation of the atmosphere and other types of circulation

The GCA generates the prevailing winds, which in turn are responsible for the
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formation of the intertropical (ITCZ) and extratropical (ETCZ) convergence zones, and
also of the semi-permanent anticyclones in the horse latitudes.
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The following ﬁgures show the average posi on of ITCZ in the months of January and
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July. It is possible to note that during the summer in HS the ITCZ moves to the south,
which contributes to the increase in rainfall in the N, Midwest and SE regions of
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Brazil.
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In July (winter in the SH), on the other hand, ITCZ moves to the north, which
contributes to the decrease in rainfall in the SE, midwest and even part of the
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northern region of Brazil.

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Atmospheric circulation in South America

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The general circulation of the atmosphere is modified by a series of factors

throughout the year, with great temporal and spatial variation. In South America, in
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addition to cyclones and anticyclones, a well-known phenomenon is the variation in

circulation in the zonal (east-west) direction, known as El Niño Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) which causes changes in the general circulation pattern of the atmosphere,
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causing changes in the weather patterns normally observed. Simply put, this
phenomenon is known as El-Niño/La-Niña.
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The figure shows the circulation observed in the Equatorial Pacific Ocean in normal
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years. The circulation cell with Central/Western movements and downward

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movements in the west of South America and with winds from East to West close to
the surface (trade winds, white arrows) and from West to East at high levels of the
troposphere is the so-called Walker cell. This circulation cell contributes to the
increase of rain on the Australian coast and the decrease of it on the west coast of
South America.
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El Niño is an atmospheric-oceanic phenomenon characterized by anomalous warming

of surface waters in the Tropical Pacific Ocean, which can affect the regional and
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global climate, changing wind patterns on a global scale, and thus affecting rain
regimes in tropical regions. and mid-latitudes.
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It is noted that the surface winds, in some cases, even change direction, that is, they
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are from west to east. There is a shift in the region with greater cloud formation and
the Walker cell is split.
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El Niño Impacts
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El Niño Impacts
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El Niño Impacts
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La Niña represents an oceanic-atmospheric phenomenon with characteristics

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opposite to El Niño, and which is characterized by an abnormal cooling in the surface

waters of the Tropical Pacific Ocean.
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Anomaly of sea surface temperature in December 1988. Only negative anomalies

below -1°C are plotted.
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La Niña Impacts
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La Niña Impacts
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La Niña Impacts
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Modoki El Niño vs. Canonical El Niño

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These differences clearly show that an El Niño event does not always generate
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impacts exactly the same as others that have occurred in the past. Although there is a
certain pattern, variations are expected.
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Air masses
Air masses are large volumes that, when moving slowly or parking, over a region
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acquire its thermal and humidity characteristics. The air masses are named according
to their region of origin and the type of surface they were in contact with. The main
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masses operating in South America are:

Continental equatorial (hot and humid)
Continental tropical (hot and dry)
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Polar maritime (cold and dry)

Equatorial maritime (hot and humid)
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Tropical maritime (mild and conditioning of stability and little precipitation)

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Distribution of the main air masses operating in Brazil and their relationship with
monthly rainfall
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Front systems
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The climate and its variability are conditioned by several factors, which can be
classified as FIXED and DYNAMIC
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FIXED Factors
Associated with the geographic location of the place: Latitude - Seasons, Altitude,
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Continentality and Predominant Systems (air masses, fronts, etc.)

DYNAMIC Factors
Associated with the variability of the circulation of the atmosphere at different spatial
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scales (global, zonal and local), causing meteorological conditions to vary in time
(interannual variation) and in space (space variation)
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Climatic variability: Anomalies vs. Trends vs. Changes

Climate Variability: caused by the combination of several factors that condition the
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climate of a place. This combination is extremely dynamic and variable in time and
space. Climatic variability is an intrinsic aspect of a climate of a place and should
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always be assessed in agricultural projects.

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Defines the degree of risk of agricultural activity

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Climate Trend refers to a continuous period, with more than 5 years, with an increase
or decrease in the analyzed meteorological variable. If this occurs sporadically, only in
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a few years, it indicates a situation compatible with variability. On the other hand, if
this occurs continuously over a long sequence of years, this trend passes and is
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characterized as a climate change.

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Climatic anomalies are meteorological events with deviations much higher than the
normally observed variability pattern. Anomalies are associated with ocean-
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atmospheric phenomena that cause consequences in weather conditions. The most

common example are the events of El Niño and La Niña. In addition to these we have:
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SACZ, Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and Atlantic Dipole.

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Climate Variability: Main Causes

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Climate changes
Climate changes are changes in average weather conditions for successive periods of
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30 years, showing continuous trends, which can be positive, neutral or negative.

Therefore, for the identification of climate changes there is a need for at least two
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periods of 60 years. Climate change can have different causes.

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Climate Variability vs. Climate Change

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Possible causes of climate change

The factors that can cause climate change are:
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- Extraterrestrial: variation of energy emission by the sun

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- Astronomical: precession and obliquity - variation of inclination and position and
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variation in the eccentricity of the orbit

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Precession - The time required to describe a full turn is 25,800 years

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Obliquity - It is the variation of the inclination of the terrestrial rotation axis. 41,000
year period
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Orbit eccentricity - The elliptical movement that the Earth performs around the Sun
has its scentricity varying over time. 100 thousand year period.
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- Astronomical: precession and obliquity - variation of inclination and position and
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variation in the eccentricity of the orbit

- Terrestrial: distribution of oceans and continents, volcanism, size of polar ice caps
and changes in the composition of the atmosphere
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Distribution of oceans and continents

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There have been no significant changes since 1850

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Volcanism
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Polar cap size

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Changes in the composition of the atmosphere

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Among the factors that have been promoting changes in the Earth's climate pattern,
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the change in the chemical composition of the atmosphere is the most likely, as it
alters the Earth's radiation balance, intensifying the GREENHOUSE EFFECT, thus
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promoting what is called GLOBAL WARMING.

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Balance of Radiation, Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

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Air Temperature Projections vs. Uncertainties

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RCP = Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) are GHG concentration

trajectories adopted by the IPCC to predict future climate change scenarios
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Projection Gross Primary Productivity
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Overall Impacts of Global Warming in Agriculture
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Importance of Agrometereological Information for
the Sustenaibility of Agriculture
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Strategic
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Purposes
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Tactical Resilience
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Purposes Obtention
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Strategic Purposes
Mapping of the capability of production,
layout of cultures in properties and the
choice of venture based in the
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interpretation of the local climate
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Relating to Agricultural Planning
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Agro Climatic Zoning
Climatic Risk Zoning
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Zoning of the best periods for sowing
Zoning of the risk of plague and disease occurences
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Climatic Planning of the Property
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Agro Climatic Zoning
Strategic
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Strategic
Climatic Risk Zoning of the Culture from Caupi in the State of Piauí
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Low 2.7
Medium High
Source:
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Zoning of the Beans Cuture in Rainy Season
Agro Climatic Zoning and Planting

Periods for Beans in PR
Zoning of the Beans Cuture in Drought
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Source: Zoning of the Beans Cuture in Fall/Winter
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Strategic
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for Soy in
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Favorable
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Strategic
Sowing Period for Soy Culture
Culture Cycle Soil AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL
Favorable (green) and Unfavorable (grey) periods for sowing by every 10 days
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CLAYEY
GROUP I
MEDIUM TEXTURE
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SOY CLAYEY
GROUP II MEDIUM TEXTURE
CLAYEY
GROUP III
MEDIUM TEXTURE
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Culture Cycle Soil AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL
Favorable (green) and Unfavorable (grey) periods for sowing by every 10 days
SANDY
GROUP I CLAYEY
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MEDIUM TEXTURE
SANDY
SOY GROUP II CLAYEY
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MEDIUM TEXTURE
SANDY
GROUP III CLAYEY
MEDIUM TEXTURE
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Zoning of the risk of
plague and disease occurences
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Climatic Planning
Strategic In places where there’s a propability of occurence of frost,
producers must choose the best climatic conditions for the
culture of perennial crops, in order to minimize damage risks.
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LOCATION CHOICE
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Avoid facing
South and Image provided by
South west
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Do not plant
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Microclimatic Planning
In places where there’s a propability of occurence of intense
Strategic wind, frost or hail, the alteration of the microclimate is a
viable action to reduce damage risks in the crop and
increase productivity.
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Tactical Purposes
Tactital Create flexibility in the procution system,
due to the follow up on the weather
conditions, hydrological availability of the
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soil and forecast of weather/climate
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Relating to Decision Making
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Decide on the most appropriate moments for the agricultural
management practices through agrometereological monitoring.
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Tillage, Sowing, Side Dressing, Pesticide Application (fungicide,
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insecticide, herbicide), Irrigation (when and how much to
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Tactital Agrometereological Monitoring and Favorability Conditions
Monitoring for the implementation of agricultural practices
Planting
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Tillage Aerial Pulverization
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Irrigation Harvest
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Pulverization
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2.7 74
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Jataí, GO - Relative Storage of Water in Soil – CAD= 50mm
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2.7 75
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Tactital
In this context, weather and climate forecasts are
still extremelly importante for decision making
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Tactital
In this context, weather and climate forecasts are
still extremelly importante for decision making
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2.7 77
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2.7 78
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Resilience Obtention
Strengthening of agricultural systems
Resilience by means of diversification and
Obtention strategies of risk management
0
(Strategic Actions + Technical Actions)
1-6
Resilience
.53
Refers to the capability and hability of the agricultural
system to face adverse severe and unexpected
16
metereological conditions, such as prolongued drought,
frost, intense winds, hail, among others adverse
2.7
metereological events.
79
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Utilizing minimum tillage or direct planting
reduces evaporation of water in the soil, resulting in
Resilience
Obtention a better use of water by the cultures and giving
more flexibility for the staggering of plantings
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2.7 80
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Productivity, bushel/ha Coverage and Organic Matter in the Soil
0
GAINS (bsh/ha)
1-6
MOS = +12
Straw = +22
.53
MOS + Straw = + 34
16
Average
Straw
2.7 Adapted from
by
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Integrated Plague and Disease Control
Resilience Improves cultures’ vigor, allowing more tolerance to
Obtention
the adverse metereological conditions
0
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2.7 82
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Irrigation – guarantees the necessary hydrological supply do plants
endure prolongued drought, being specially importante in the
reproductive phase of cultures
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Resilience
Obtention
2.7 83
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Resilience
Deepening of roots
Obtention
Physical, chemical and biological management of soil
Physical
Water storage
Chemical
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CTC and Organic Matter
Texture
CTC
Porosity
1-6
Ca
Structure
Compaction Water Al
Roots
.53
Biological
Cultural
16
Plagues
Diseases
Nematoides
2.7
Weeds
Image 2. Interrelation among chemical, physical and biological factors with the
development of roots and the water reservoir availble for plants. 84
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Resilience
Obtention
Soil Profile
0
X
1-6
Productivity
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2.7 85
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Resilience
Obtention
0
1-6
Photos:
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Source:
2.7 86
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Resilience
Obtention
Use of Microorganisms and Biostimulants
Improvement of soil microbiota

Biostimulants adjust and
0
favors the development os the
favor physiological processes
radicular system for acting in
1-6
in cultures, contributing to
the availability of nutrientes
growth and productivity
and repellency to nematoids.
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16
Image provided by
2.7
Photo by
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Resilience
Use of
Obtention
antiperspirants
Trasnpiration
water evaporation to air
0
dimishes the hydrological
potencial in the leaf
1-6
Cohesion
water column in the xylem is Triadimefon (fungicide) reduces
maintained by cohesion of transpiration from 19 to 40%, resulting
.53
the molecules of water in in an increase in productivity.
the elements of the vases
Tension
16
Low hydrological potencial in
the roots causes the
Amino polysaccharide reduces
transpiration from 26 to 43%, without
2.7
entrance of water in the soil,
which dislocates by osmosis affecting productivity.
untill the medulla
88
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0
1-6
Other climate effects on agriculture
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2.7 89
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Cultivation System
Dryland X Irrigated
Conventional X Direct Planting
Use of wind breakers
Integrated System Field-Forest-Cattle,
0
among others
1-6
.53
16
2.7 90
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Cultivation and
Plant Population
0
1-6
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Tolerant to drought
2.7
Susceptible to drought
91
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Culture Phenology
0
1-6
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16
2.7 92
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Agricultural Productivity
0
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2.7 93
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Agricultural Productivity - An Open Air Factory
Energy Atm Raw Material
Solar Water and CO2
radiation Work shift
Photoperiod
0
Proc Regulator.
1-6
Air Temperature
Factory - Plants
.53
Factory
Process - Photosynthesis maintenance
Expenses: Breath Management
16
(Air Temperature)
Final product: Grains 2.7

Soil raw material
Water and Nutrients 94
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Definitions of Agricultural Productivity and Efficiency
Determinant
Productivity types
factors RS, T, N,
Potential Productivity Genotype,
Plant
Real productivity with Irrigation (AT) Population
0
Crop and
Limiting and Reducing
1-6
Determining Factors
Irrigation
Real productivity with Irrigation Management
(BT)
Determining and Limiting
Achievable Productivity Water Deficit
.53
Factors
Real Dry Farming Production

(AT) Determining, Limiting and Crop
16
Reducing Factors Management
(BT)
2.7
Productivity Levels
95
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Productivity Breakdown Definitions
(Yield Gap)
Productivity types
Potential Productivity
Real productivity with Irrigation (AT)
0
Yield Gap by
1-6
Real productivity with Irrigation Water Deficit
(BT) Total
Achievable Productivity Yield Gap
.53
Real Dry Farming Production Yield Gap by
(AT) Management
16
Deficit
(BT)
2.7
Productivity Levels
96
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Productivity types
Potential Productivity
Real productivity with Irrigation (AT)
0
Climatic Efficiency (EC)
1-6
EC = (PA/PP)*100
Real productivity with Irrigation
(BT)
Achievable Productivity
.53
Real Dry Farming Production Agricultural Efficiency (EA)
(AT) EA = (PR/PA)*100
16
(BT)
2.7
Productivity Levels
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Variability of Soy Productivity x Climate Variability
Soy Productivity
0
Productivity (bsh/ha)
1-6
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2.7
Source: IBGE (2019) 98
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Soy Productivity in Brazil
0
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16
2.7 99
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0
1-6
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2.7 100
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100
0
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2.7 101
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2.7
PP, PA and PR of Soy Culture
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1-6
0
Battisti, Sentelhas, Pascoalino et al. (IJPO 2018)
102
102
Climate Efficiencies x Management Efficiency
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2.7
Battisti, Sentelhas, Pascoalino et al. (IJPO 2018) 103
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PP, PA and PR of Soy Culture
Soy Productivity Champions – CESB 2017/18
0
1-6
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NORTH EAST CENTER-WEST SOUTH EAST SOUTH IRRIGATED
2.7
Crop Champions 2017/18
104
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Climatic Efficiency x Agricultural Efficiency
Soy Productivity Champions – CESB 2017/18
0
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2.7
105
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Productivity Gains
Opportunity for Improvement in Soy Productivity
Season 2017/18
water Manage
ment
0
1-6
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16
2.7
106
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Productivity Gains
Opportunity for Improvement in Soy Productivity
Season 2017/18
water Manage
ment
0
1-6
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16
2.7
National Average CONAB
107
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Soy Productivity Loss
Hydrological deficit X Agricultural Management
Real Prod. Mgt. Loss Hydro. Loss
0
1-6
Reducing the
YGma in 30% (+27,6 bsh)
.53
YGdef in 20% (+8,8 bsh)
Would result in an average
national PR of 87,4 bsh/ha
16
CESB Average 2.7 Brazil Average
108
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Quality of Agricultural Products
0
1-6
.53
16
2.7 109
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Quality of Grains in Harvest
0
1-6
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2.7 110
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Table 7 – Average percentage of molded grains found in soy, submited in three

periods of rain simulation, from the experimente installed at UNIVAG, Várzea Grande,
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MT, in october 2007.

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Weather X Quality of Grains

Excess of humidity
0
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Weather X Physiological Disorders
Effects oh high temperatures and
hydrological stress
0
1-6
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2.7 112
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0
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2.7 113
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Final Considerations
Agriculture is highly dependente of weather and climate conditions. Seen that there’s
ge
no way to predict the metereological conditions with great advance, agriculturists

need to adopt planning measures, that allow to minimize the risks derived from
Eu
climate variability, and agriculturists have no control over them, except for the choice
os location ou time of sowing;
The impact of climate variability in agriculture is not just related to growth,
tos
productivity and quality of cultures, but also related to agriculture practices, like
tillage, sowing, irrigation, phitossanitary control, harvest etc. Therefore, the
n
agrometereological control is the best solution for more assertive decision making.
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Recomended Bibliography
0
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Thank you for the attention!
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Agricultural Meteorology

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Agricultural Meteorology

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Agricultural Meteorology

2. Concepts and definitions of weather and climate

3. Agrometeorology as an agricultural management tool

Agricultural productivity and its interaction with the environment

Agricultural productivity (clockwise)

- Correction and Fertilization

Agricultural productivity and its interaction with the environment

Agricultural productivity and its interaction with the environment

Conceptualization of weather and climate

Current Condition Average condition

condition, which is extremely dynamic, as are what we call meteorological elements:

average condition, which in turn is a static speed and direction, precipitation,

description. atmospheric pressure, solar radiation, etc

The current condition or a specific period is called WEATHER

The average condition of time is called CLIMATE

Weather and climate determinants

the meteorological elements to vary in time and space.

radiation, which can be taken both as an element, as it is a variable that quantifies

permanent (latitude, altitude/relief, oceanity/continentality, etc.)

Translation and formation of the seasons

Latutude vs. Annual average temperature

thinness and decreased atmospheric pressure

formation 4 - Dry air heating 5 - Hot and dry climate

total annual rainfall is 2,150mm/year in Santos, 3,800mm/year in the top of the

Cuiabá - Monthly thermal amplitude between 8 ans 17°C

Oceanity/Continentality - Difference between hemispheres

the coldest month) due to the effects of continentality/oceanity.

HN Continent > Ocean > thermal amplitude

HS Continent < Ocean < thermal amplitude

thermal and water regime (rains) on the coast of the continents.

Cold currents condition a mild and dry climate

Hot currents condition hot and humid climate

General circulation of the atmosphere and other types of circulation

northern region of Brazil.

Atmospheric circulation in South America

The general circulation of the atmosphere is modified by a series of factors

addition to cyclones and anticyclones, a well-known phenomenon is the variation in

years. The circulation cell with Central/Western movements and downward

El Niño is an atmospheric-oceanic phenomenon characterized by anomalous warming

La Niña represents an oceanic-atmospheric phenomenon with characteristics

opposite to El Niño, and which is characterized by an abnormal cooling in the surface

Anomaly of sea surface temperature in December 1988. Only negative anomalies

Modoki El Niño vs. Canonical El Niño

masses operating in South America are:

Polar maritime (cold and dry)

Tropical maritime (mild and conditioning of stability and little precipitation)

Continentality and Predominant Systems (air masses, fronts, etc.)

Climatic variability: Anomalies vs. Trends vs. Changes

always be assessed in agricultural projects.

Defines the degree of risk of agricultural activity

characterized as a climate change.

atmospheric phenomena that cause consequences in weather conditions. The most

SACZ, Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and Atlantic Dipole.

Climate Variability: Main Causes

30 years, showing continuous trends, which can be positive, neutral or negative.

periods of 60 years. Climate change can have different causes.

Climate Variability vs. Climate Change

Possible causes of climate change

- Extraterrestrial: variation of energy emission by the sun

Possible causes of climate change

- Extraterrestrial: variation of energy emission by the sun

variation in the eccentricity of the orbit

Precession - The time required to describe a full turn is 25,800 years

Possible causes of climate change