J. Inst. Eng. India Ser.
C (February 2019) 100(1):65–74
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40032-017-0431-5
ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION
Experimental Determination of Cavitation Characteristics of Low
Specific Speed Pump using Noise and Vibration
Christopher Stephen1 • S. Kumaraswamy2
Received: 19 April 2017 / Accepted: 8 December 2017 / Published online: 3 January 2018
 The Institution of Engineers (India) 2018
Abstract An experimental investigation of the cavitation
behaviour of a radial flow pump of metric specific speed
23.62 rpm having different leading edge profiles of the
vane is presented. The pump was operated for flow rates
from 80 to 120% of the best efficiency point. The mea-
surement included noise and vibration signals apart from
the hydraulic parameters. The results exhibited the trends
of noise and vibration with respect to percentage of head
drops for all operating conditions. It was concluded that the
trends were totally different for various flow rates. Hence it
is suggested that the criteria to be used for detecting the
early cavitation in pump based on noise and vibration
signals should be a function of the flow rate. Further, it was
found that the range of frequency band for noise and
vibration was within 5 kHz with reference to the magni-
tude of fluctuation. The repeatable predominant frequency
of vibration for prediction of cavitation behaviour of this
particular pump was established as 0.992 kHz.
Keywords Cavitation
Noise
Vibration
NPSH

Vane leading edge
Low specific speed
& S. Kumaraswamy
s.kumaraswamy@gmail.com
1
National Research Center of Pumps, Jiangsu University,
Zhenjiang 212 013, China
2 The conventional method of identifying cavitation is by
Hydroturbomachines Lab, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600 036, India
Introduction
Over time, the application of pumps in the original agri-
cultural field has expanded to cover other domains such as
chemical industries, petroleum industries, pharmaceutical
companies, medical field, steel mills, construction, mining,
water supply, sewage, drainage, irrigation and slurry
transport. Depending upon the position of operating point
with respect to the best efficiency point (BEP), the flow
behaviour changes inside the pump, which results in vari-
ous effects such as (i) temperature rise, (ii) reduced bearing
and seal life, (iii) reduced impeller life, (iv) suction recir-
culation, (v) discharge recirculation, and (vi) cavitation at
both low and high flow rates [1]. Cavitation occurs at low
pressure zone in the impeller and develops in accordance
with the reduction of suction pressure. The reasons for drop
in pressure at suction of the impeller are (i) flow deviation
from axial to radial direction, (ii) vane leading edge
obstruction and (iii) difference of pressure between suction
and pressure surfaces of the vane [2–4]. Elevation and
friction heads are subtracted from atmospheric head to
determine the suction head for pump at its inlet. From this
suction head, vapour pressure head should be deducted to
get Net Positive Suction Head available (NPSHa) which
serve as the important parameter for study of cavitation in
pumps. NPSH-required (NPSHr) is the summation of losses
in the critical path from the suction nozzle to the leading
edge of the first stage impeller vanes.
Cavitation Prediction
experimentally locating the point at which the pump total
head has decreased by three percent (3%) due to cavitation
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66
within the pump. But cavitation inception occurs much
before that NPSH corresponding to 3% head drop. Knapp
[5] observed that it was difficult to visualize the inception
of cavitation using even the best optical measurements.
The level of amplitude of cavitation noise at the chosen
frequency was found to be higher on the Perspex wall as
compared to that of metal wall [6].
Gopalakrishnan [7] reported about acoustic emission
during cavitation which spans a very large frequency from
10 to 120 kHz and the low frequency noise variation was
not as distinct. But Kumaraswamy [8] observed the good
trend of noise and vibration magnitude with respect to the
cavitation for the frequency range up to 10 kHz. Friedrich
[9] discussed about cavitation noise and background noise
level in centrifugal pumps and suggested to concentrate on
broad frequency spectrum as well as low frequency com-
ponents. On contrary to the work of Gopalakrishnan [7],
the frequency tone at 147 Hz (half the blade passing fre-
quency) was separated from the noise spectra of cavitating
pumps and then used to detect the incipient of cavitation
and its development [10].
Acoustic emission technique was also used by Alfayez
and Mba [11] to determine the BEP and for detecting
incipient cavitation. Beginning and development of cavi-
tation in pump was found out by the emitted noise in the
audible frequency range [12]. The identification of critical
NPSH was reported for three radial flow impellers using
noise and vibration signals and it was found that there was
good correlation existing with head characteristics [13].
Jiaxing, et al [14] reported that the pump inlet pressure
pulsation was more sensitive to the change of cavitation
and found that the typical frequency of pressure pulsation
was 30 Hz in severe cavitation conditions. During the full
development of cavitation, the low frequency noise com-
ponent showed significant fluctuations as observed by Luo,
et al [15]. The results of these investigators exhibited a
good correlation of cavitation with noise and vibration in
pumps. A study of the previous literature shows that there
was a good correlation between cavitation characteristics
and vibro-acoustics signals, but the results does not specify
whether it holds good for entire operating range of the
pump with respect to design flow rate. For the present
study, the frequency range chosen was from 0.2 to
10.6 kHz for vibration and 0.1 Hz to 200 kHz for noise to
examine the variation of hydraulic parameters along with
vibration and noise for different flow rates.
Influence of Leading Edge
The inception of the cavity takes place within a definite
narrow area and depends on the shape of the impeller and
the pump’s operating condition [16]. Kovats [17] estimated
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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (February 2019) 100(1):65–74
the losses and their effects occurring due to three different
leading edges of the vane in centrifugal pump. Sharpening
the inlet edges of the vane showed a better performance as
reported by Lazarkiewicz and Troskolanski [18]. Neumann
[19] suggested changing the vane shape, vane angle and
thickness of the vane for better suction performance.
Balasubramanian, et al [20] have tried with four different
vane leading edge profiles (blunt, circular, elliptical and
parabolic) for their experimental studies and found out that
parabolic profile was performing better than other profiles.
From these publications, it was observed that leading edge
plays a significant role in pumps. This paper presents the
results of cavitation studies on low specific speed pump with
three different impellers having various leading edge profiles
of the vane. During the tests, noise and vibration measure-
ments were made and the frequency band and critical fre-
quencies were determined. Further, the relation between
percentage head drop and noise/vibration level was analyzed.
Test Impeller
The radial flow pump impeller was designed for a flow rate
(Q) = 0.031 m3/s, total head (H) = 25 m and speed
(n) = 1500 rpm with 8 numbers of vanes. This set of data
was chosen as it leads to a pump of low specific speed. Such
pumps are used for low discharge-high head applications and
are typically less efficient. A better understanding of cavi-
tation in such pumps will enhance their utility. The metric
specific speed of the pump designed was 23.62 rpm. The
variation of its vane course from inlet radius to outlet radius
was obtained by point by point method following the pro-
cedure explained by Lazarkiewicz and Troskolanski [18].
The vanes were made out of 6 mm thick brass flat and bent
to the required curvature by means of a template with the
inlet diameter and outlet diameter of 180 mm and 306 mm
respectively. For the present work, three different leading
edges of uniform vane thickness were used; they are (a) plain
edge (PL), (b) semi-elliptical edge denoted as Ellipse2 (E2)
and (c) circular (R3) edge. The choice of the leading edge
was in such a way that first PL was used. This was followed
by E2 and R3 which were obtained by filing the leading edge
to the corresponding template. Figure 1 shows the leading
edge of impellers. The front shroud of the impeller and the
front cover of the pump were made of acrylic plastic. This
enabled the visualization of flow during the experiments.
Experimentation
The schematic sketch of test rig used for this investigation
is shown in Fig. 2 was an open circuit with the water at a
temperature of 25C and was fully saturated at 101.3 kPa.
J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (February 2019) 100(1):65–74 67

Fig. 1 Leading edge (LE) of

impellers a PL LE, b E2 LE,
c R3 LE

(a) (b) (c)

11 14
c c 12
1. Test pump
o p f 5 1 2. Coupling
1m
v 13 2 3 3. Torsion bar
c 4 4. Motor
8 o 5. Stabilizer
GL
10 6. Cavitation well
closed valve 7. Submersible pump
FV FV c 8. Auxiliary pump
f valve for filling the cavitation well 9. Venturimeter
10 m
FV foot valve with Strainer 10. Sump
o valve fully opened 11. Flow control valve
6 12. Control panel
p valve for priming
13. Suction manometer
v valve for venting of the system 14. Delivery pressure gauge
7
FV

Fig. 2 Schematic sketch of test rig

Direct current compound wound motor was used to drive
the test pump and the speed was controlled by shunt field
control method. The dissolved oxygen concentration for
100% air saturated water is 8.6 mg O2/l. Auxiliary pump
was used to fill the water in cavitation well above 1 m of
test pump centerline. Water from the cavitation well was
pumped out in steps by submersible pump to the sump, in
order to reduce the NPSHa at the inlet of the test pump.
NPSHa was calculated by the difference between suction
and vapour heads, where suction head is the summation of
absolute pressure, dynamic and datum heads with pump
axis as a reference. Flow stabilizer was provided ahead of
the test pump which was used to have uniform flow at the
inlet of the impeller. Single column mercury-water
manometer (located at 8D distance before the impeller) and
Bourdon pressure gauge(positioned at 5D distance from the
outlet flange of volute casing) were used to measure suc-
tion and delivery pressures respectively. The flow rate was
measured using Venturi nozzle [21] of 150 mm nominal
diameter and a differential pressure gauge. Speed was
measured by a stroboscope (Nova Strobe model bax) and it
was also used to visualize the flow in the impeller channels
through front shroud and front cover. Torque was found out
by the measurement of twist in the calibrated torsion bar.
The hydrophone (B&K 8103) with a nominal sensitivity
of 0.1 pC/Pa and with the frequency range of 0.1 Hz to
200 kHz was used for noise measurement. Sound pressure
level or noise level (Ne) was presented in dB re 1 lPa.
Vibration was measured using accelerometer (B&K 4367)
with the frequency range of 0.2 Hz to 10.6 kHz and the

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sensitivity of 2 pC/m/s2. Vibration level (Vn) was deter-

mined in dB re 1 lm/s2. Dual channel Fast Fourier
Transform Analyzer (SR780) having a frequency range of
Front Cover Impeller
0.2 Hz to 100 kHz was used to process the data from noise
and vibration sensors through charge amplifiers (B&K
Radial Accelerometer
2635). Details about the instrumentation and the choice of
frequencies are reported by Christopher and Kumaraswamy Axial

[13]. 167° Hydrophone

Tongue
122°

OD of Accelerometer
Suction Pipe Mounting Base

Location of Noise and Vibration Sensors

Location of hydrophone with reference to the tongue or Hydrophone

Holder
cut-water of the pump is important, because flow distur-
bance near the tongue will be higher which leads to an
additional flow noise along with the cavitation noise [22].
As far as the radial direction is concerned it was kept close
to the leading edge of the vane, which is the source of
cavitation. The hydrophone was kept immersed in an (a)
acrylic chamber (hydrophone holder), which was filled
with water and positioned on the front cover of the pump.
This transparent boundary further enabled the sound to
follow an underwater path except at the acrylic walls.
Several investigators [5, 8, 23] used this method to capture Accelerometer
the noise using hydrophone. Figure 3a shows the location
of hydrophone and accelerometer with reference to tongue
and Fig. 3b shows the photograph of accelerometer and Hydrophone
hydrophone mounted on the radial flow pump.
The accelerometer mounting base permits measurement
of vibration in one of the two directions, namely, axial or
radial direction with reference to the axis of the pump.
Figure 3a shows the position of accelerometer with refer-
ence to tongue; it is at 122 clockwise direction from
tongue as seen from impeller eye. From the preliminary
results it was understood that radial mounting gives a (b)
higher magnitude of vibration than the axial mounting of
Fig. 3 a Location of hydrophone and accelerometer with reference to
accelerometer for both design and off-design conditions. tongue, b hydrophone and accelerometer mounting on radial flow
Hence the vibration measurement was done in the radial pump
direction for all the experiments.

pump with Ellispe2 and Circular leading edge impellers at

Results and Discussion
Performance test was conducted for the pump with Plain
leading edge impeller at the design speed of 1500 rpm with
maximum water level in the cavitation well. Visual
observation indicated that the pump was operating with
cavitation at higher flow rates. Series of experiments were
performed at various lower speeds to obtain the pump
characteristics without cavitation. Cavitation was not
observed at speeds lower than 850 rpm and therefore this
speed was used to determine the pump performance with-
out cavitation. Performance tests were conducted for the
900 and 950 rpm respectively, since that was the highest
speed at which the pump could be operated without cavi-
tation. Uncertainties were calculated based on the accuracy
of the instruments and variances obtained during experi-
ment at that particular operating condition. The measure-
ment error in speed, total head, flow rate, coupling power,
efficiency and NPSH were ±0.12, ±2.53, ±0.25, ±1.54,
±2.97 and ±0.57%, respectively. It may be mentioned that
the maximum permissible limit of overall error as per the
guideline specified in the Indian standard [IS 9137:1978
(Reaffirmed 2011) Code for Acceptance Test for Cen-
trifugal, Mixed Flow and Axial Pumps-Class C] is ±3.5%

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (February 2019) 100(1):65–74
for rate of flow and for pump total head. Errors in noise and
vibration measurement were determined at best efficiency
point of pump and were estimated to be 0.8 dB for both the
sensors.
Cavitation Test
Cavitation characteristic of test pumps was determined at
constant values of speed and flow rate. It was found that the
best method for doing the cavitation test was by decreasing
the water level in the cavitation well from 1 m above to
10 m below the pump centerline (that is, progressively
from non-cavitating conditions to cavitating conditions)
[24]. Several experiments were conducted to ensure
repeatability of the results. Experiments for cavitation
studies were done at 80, 90, 100, 110 and 120% of BEP
flow and at three different speeds (1400, 1500 and
1600 rpm). It should be noted that the scaling laws apply to
the flow but not to the activation of cavitation nuclei. The
nuclei activation process cannot be scaled, because it
depends on the absolute pressure difference [25].
Frequency Investigation for Plain Leading Edge
Impeller
Frequency investigation involves the study of predominant
frequencies in the frequency domain and the variation of
noise and vibration magnitude as NPSH changes with
respect to percentage head drops (HD). For all the impel-
lers, the first four predominant frequencies based on
highest magnitude of noise and vibration were taken into
consideration for plotting with respect to NPSH at their
respective operating conditions over the entire range of
frequencies. During this process, a variation in predomi-
nant frequency was tolerated within the bandwidth, that is,
±256 Hz for noise and ±128 Hz for vibration. Figure 4
shows the variation of noise and vibration with respect to
NPSH at predominant frequencies for the pump with Plain
leading edge impeller at 1500 rpm and 120% of BEP flow.
The percentage of head drops (0.5, 3 and 10%) lines are
drawn in Fig. 4 as vertical lines in the plot to know how
magnitude of noise and vibration varies along with cavitation
curve. The magnitude of noise and vibration increases con-
tinuously from the beginning of experiment (higher NPSH)
till full cavitation in the pump. This nature is observed for all
the predominant frequencies of noise and vibration.
It may be seen that at 0.992 kHz frequency of vibration,
increment in magnitude is higher than the increment of
magnitude at other frequencies. For the flow rates higher
than the BEP flow, cavitation occurs at pressure surface.
The bubble grew steadily as there was a reduction in
69
NPSH. At further lower NPSH, suction surface cavitation
was also visualized. Then on both the surfaces, cavitation
was seen to develop steadily, as a result of which noise and
vibration magnitude increased continuously. A detailed
study of critical NPSH for radial flow pump was done and
it was found out that noise and vibration signals were better
parameters to sense the occurrence of cavitation rather than
the 3% head drop irrespective of flow rate, speed and the
choice of leading edge [13].
Frequency Investigation for Ellipse2 Leading Edge
Impeller
Figure 5 shows the noise and vibration variation with
respect to NPSH at chosen frequencies for the pump with
Ellipse2 leading edge impeller at 1500 rpm for 100% of
BEP flow. The predominant frequencies of noise are 3.07,
1.536, 4.096 and 2.176 kHz. Similar predominant fre-
quencies were extracted for 80, 90, 110 and 120% of BEP
flow and for the three speeds. When the flow rate was near
to or at BEP flow, the trend of noise and vibration signals
was different as compared to flow rates above or below the
BEP. Almost for all predominant frequencies of noise and
vibration, the change in slope with respect to 0% head drop
was not appreciable up to 3% head drop. But the pump was
running with cavitating condition for prolonged duration in
some sort of thermodynamic equilibrium. Thereafter the
slope of noise and vibration magnitude was too steep until
full cavitation. Same was true for the pump with Plain and
Circular leading edge impellers.
Frequency Investigation for Circular Leading
Edge Impeller
The variation of noise and vibration with respect to NPSH at
predominant frequencies for the pump with Circular leading
edge impeller at 1500 rpm for 80% of BEP flow are shown
in Fig. 6. Predominant frequencies of noise at 80% of BEP
flow are 1.792, 25.984, 16.256 and 37.888 kHz. Out of
these frequencies, 1.792 kHz frequency has higher magni-
tude. The trend of magnitude variation with respect to
NPSH was almost same as Plain and Ellipse2 leading edge
impellers at 80% of BEP flow. The magnitude of noise is
higher at 4.8 m of NPSH. As NPSH was lowered further,
the magnitude of noise decreases continuously, until it
reaches the 3% head drop. After this point, there was an
increase in noise magnitude till full cavitation. The mag-
nitude of noise increment with NPSH range of 10 to 4.8 m
is about 5 dB re 1 lPa for 1.792 kHz, 10 dB re 1 lPa for
25.984 kHz, 10 dB re 1 lPa for 16.256 kHz and 11 dB re
1 lPa for 37.888 kHz. But the drop in noise magnitude
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70 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (February 2019) 100(1):65–74

Fig. 4 Noise and vibration

variation with respect to NPSH
at predominant frequencies for 2.688 kHz-Ne 1.408 kHz-Ne 6.144 kHz-Ne
PL LE impeller at 1500 rpm and
120% of BEP flow 10.88 kHz-Ne

Fig. 5 Noise and vibration

variation with respect to NPSH
at predominant frequencies for
E2 LE impeller at 1500 rpm and
100% of BEP flow

level from the value of 4.8 m of NPSH to the 3% head drop
is about 9 dB re 1 lPa for 1.792 kHz, 17 dB re 1 lPa for
25.984 kHz, 13 dB re 1 lPa for 16.256 kHz and 18 dB re
1 lPa for 37.888 kHz. Similar trend was observed for the
predominant frequencies of vibration, but the magnitude of
increment/decrement differed for different frequencies. The
entire flow phenomenon was observed through flow visu-
alization using stroboscopic light on impeller. Due to this
flow physics at reduced flow rates, there was enhanced
structural vibration and noise.

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (February 2019) 100(1):65–74 71

Fig. 6 Noise and vibration

variation with respect to NPSH
at predominant frequencies for
R3 LE impeller at 1500 rpm and
80% of BEP flow

Fig. 7 Variation of magnitude

for noise and vibration between
0.5% HD and 3% HD for all
leading edges at 80, 100 and
120% BEP flow

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At flow rates lesser than BEP flow, there was no con-
tinuous increase in the slope of noise/vibration magnitude
as NPSH was decreased; in this case there was a peak at
one point and then a decrease till some intermediate value
of NPSH, and then an increase near the full cavitation zone.
Reason for this behavior may be a possibility of recircu-
lation, at which condition velocity at that zone was
increased and then reduced again by the upstream flow.
Due to this, cavitation at suction surface was unsteady so as
to have a continuous increase in noise and vibration level.
A type of cavitation which occurs in this zone was like
rolling cavitation or transient cavitation which appears and
then disappears quickly. As NPSH decreases, this intensity
of noise and vibration increased further to the maximum
and then it decreased, there was the appearance of cavita-
tion inception in pressure surface. Since then there was a
steady growth of cavitation observed on both suction and
pressure surfaces [3, 26].
It was noticed that these predominant frequencies did
not have any correlation with respect to speed, flow rate
and type of leading edge. This could be due to the random
and unsteady cavitation incidences inside the pump. Single
Fig. 8 Noise and vibration
magnitude difference between
3% HD and 10% HD for all
leading edges at 80, 100 and
120% BEP flow
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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (February 2019) 100(1):65–74
bubble of different diameter, will have a different fre-
quency. Similarly cluster of bubbles will have different
frequencies. Different types of cavitation will have differ-
ent effects on frequencies. As a result of all these, pre-
dominant frequencies of noise and vibration cannot be
ascertained from a simple measurement.
Further analysis at the individual frequency was to find
out the change in magnitude of noise and vibration for
predominant frequencies in two categories (i) 0.5 to 3%
head drop, and (ii) 3 to 10% head drop. Figures 7 and 8
show the variation of magnitude for noise and vibration for
the head drop from 0.5 to 3% and 3 to 10% for all leading
edges at three flow rates (80, 100 and 120% of BEP flow),
respectively. In these figures the predominant frequencies
are denoted as 1, 2, 3 and 4 in X-axis and the magnitude of
noise and vibration in Y-axis.
At 80% of BEP flow, the change in magnitude of noise
and vibration is negative for all chosen frequencies from
0.5 to 3% head drop and is positive from 3 to 10% head
drop. For flow rates equal to and higher than BEP flow,
change in magnitude is positive from 0.5 to 3% head drop
and also from 3 to 10% head drop for noise and vibration.
J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C (February 2019) 100(1):65–74
Table 1 Value of frequencies
1400 rpm, 1500 rpm, 1600 rpm,
Hz Hz Hz
Critical speed of the shaft 430
Rotational frequency (n/60) 23.33 25 26.67
Blade passing frequency 186.67 200 213.30
(nz/60)
In McNulty’s work [27], the noise due to cavitation started
to increase much earlier than the fall of the total head
before the NPSH required was achieved.
These figures show the good correlation between
percentage head drop and noise/vibration with respect to
NPSH for all leading edges, flow rates, and speeds. But
the level of cavitation inception was good for noise/vi-
bration than the percentage head drops. It may be also
concluded from Figs. 7 and 8, that prediction method or
procedure adapted for early detection of cavitation in
pump may not be same for all flow rates irrespective of
leading edges. For vibration, 0.992 kHz frequency was
found to have good repeatability to predict the devel-
opment of cavitation better than all other predominant
frequencies. A 0.992 kHz frequency of vibration is
approximately equal to the fifth harmonic of blade
passing frequency of those particular speeds. Table 1
shows the values of these frequencies for the various
speeds of operation.
Many researchers claim that the cavitation vibration
signals are in relation with rotational frequency and blade
passing frequency [10, 28–30]. It may be correct to say in
relation with rotational frequency, but a detailed study is
needed to find out the frequency of the entire pump system
with respect to the cavitation and abnormalities occurring
in the pump.
Conclusion
The major findings from the cavitation studies on low
specific speed pump impeller for three different leading
edge profiles of the vane are:
• The first highest magnitude of noise and vibration was
observed within the frequency band of 0.2 Hz to 5 kHz
for all flow rates, speeds and leading edges for this
particular pump in this set up.
• The predominant frequencies of noise were different
for the different operating conditions. It was observed
that these frequencies did not have any correlation with
respect to flow rates and speeds for all three leading
edge impellers.
73
• When the flow rate was less than BEP flow, the change
in magnitude of noise and vibration from 0.5 to 3%
head drop was almost negative. But the change in
magnitude from 3 to 10% head drop was positive.
When the flow rate was greater or equal to the BEP
flow, the change in magnitude of noise and vibration
was positive from 0.5 to 3% head drop and from 3 to
10% head drop.
• At 0.992 kHz frequency of vibration, a good repeata-
bility was observed for all leading edges, flow rates and
speeds to observe the level of cavitation than all
predominant frequencies for this pump in this set up.
It is necessary to conduct similar experiments on a few
more shapes for the inlet edge of pumps and in pumps of
various specific speeds to arrive at a correlation between
the inlet geometry and its effect on the cavitation behaviour
of pumps.
Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to the Hydroturbo
Machines Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai.
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