Norman Conquest Effects

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Norman Conquest
Overview:
The Norman Conquest of 1066 was a pivotal event in English history,
profoundly shaping the English language.

Effects on Language:
1. Influence on Vocabulary:
 Introduction of a vast number of French words into English.
 Made English appear as a hybrid of Romance and Germanic
languages.
2. Impact on Grammar:
 Accelerated the decline of inflections in English.
 Shift towards a more analytical language structure.
3. Language Evolution:
 Without the Conquest, English may have retained more Germanic
features.
 Would have likely developed differently, following the trajectory
of other Germanic languages.
Revision Points:
 Norman Conquest: 1066.
 Significantly altered English language.
 Introduced French vocabulary.
 Accelerated decline of inflections.
 English would have developed differently without the Conquest.
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Origin of Normandy
Location and Settlement:
  Normandy, situated across from England on the northern coast of
France, stretches about seventy-five miles inland.
 Named after Northmen (Scandinavian Vikings) who settled there in the
ninth and tenth centuries, similar to settlements in northern and eastern
England.
 Seine River provided access for Scandinavian penetration into the
region.
Establishment of Norman Rule:
 Rollo, leader of the Danes in Normandy, reached an agreement with
Charles the Simple, King of France, in 912.
 Recognized right of Northmen to occupy the region; Rollo became the
first Duke of Normandy.
 Successive dukes strengthened Normandy's influence, sometimes
overshadowing the French king's power.
Assimilation and Adaptation:
 Normans quickly assimilated into French civilization, adopting customs
and ideas.
 Absorbed elements of French military tactics, enhancing their army's
strength.
 Incorporated features of Frankish law, including the jury system, and
organized it effectively.
 Embraced Christianity and initiated construction of impressive Norman
cathedrals.
 Most notably, they abandoned their Scandinavian language and
adopted French rapidly.
Influence on English Court:
 Relations between England and Normandy were close before the
Norman Conquest.
 Æthelred the Unready's marriage to a Norman wife and Edward the
Confessor's upbringing in France fostered a strong French influence in
the English court.
 Edward's restoration to the English throne in 1042 brought Norman
friends into influential positions in the government, further enhancing
the French atmosphere.
Revision Points:
 Normandy settled by Northmen in 9th-10th centuries.
 Rollo recognized as first Duke of Normandy in 912.
 Normans assimilated into French civilization quickly.
 Adopted French language and customs.
 Influenced English court before the Norman Conquest.
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The Year 1066

Succession Crisis:
 Edward the Confessor's death in January 1066 left England without a
clear heir.
 Godwin, Earl of Wessex, and his son Harold wielded significant power
and influence during Edward's reign.
 Harold, succeeding his father, was elected king the day after Edward's
death.
William's Claim to the Throne:
 William, Duke of Normandy, claimed the English throne as Edward's
second cousin.
 Edward had seemingly promised William the succession.
 Harold had reluctantly acknowledged William's claim but later reneged.
William's Preparation and Invasion:
 William began preparations for invasion upon learning of Harold's
accession.
 Secured support from vassals, made alliances, and gained papal
approval.
 Landed at Pevensey, unopposed, in September with a formidable force.
 Harold, dealing with a Norwegian invasion in the north, was caught off
guard by William's landing.
Battle of Hastings:
 Harold's forces, depleted and ill-prepared, faced William's army at
Senlac Hill near Hastings.
  Initially, Harold's position was advantageous, and English defense held
firm.
 William feigned a retreat, luring part of the English army into pursuit.
 Harold was killed during the battle, leading to English disorganization
and eventual defeat.
 William seized victory at Hastings but hadn't yet secured the English
crown.
Conquest and Coronation:
 William's forces ransack southeast England, prompting capitulation from
London.
 Crowned King of England on Christmas Day 1066, solidifying his
conquest.
Revision Points:
 Edward the Confessor's death in 1066 led to succession crisis.
 Harold elected king, but William of Normandy claimed the throne.
 William invaded England, defeated Harold at the Battle of Hastings.
 Crowned King of England on Christmas Day 1066.

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The Norman Settlement

Introduction of a New Nobility:
 William's victory at Hastings resulted in the establishment of a new
nobility in England.
 Many English nobles were killed or treated as traitors, leading to their
replacement by Norman followers.
 Repeated rebellions necessitated further consolidation of Norman
power, resulting in the near eradication of the Old English nobility.
Dominance of Normans in Government and Church:
 Normans occupied important positions in both government and church.
 English bishops and abbots were gradually replaced by Normans.
  Norman prelates and ecclesiastics held influential roles,
contributing to the foreign domination of the church.

Impact on Lower Social Strata:

 Norman soldiers and retainers formed the garrisons of William's castles
and surrounded Norman barons.

 Foreign merchants and craftsmen settled in England, contributing to the

integration of Norman culture.
 Norman presence extended to everyday life, with instances of armed
ecclesiastics imposing their authority and Norman settlements in English
towns.
Enduring Influence:
 The governing class in both church and state became predominantly
Norman.
 Despite uncertain numbers, the influence of Normans and French
settlers remained disproportionate due to their dominance in key
institutions.
Revision Points:
 Norman conquest led to establishment of new nobility in England.
 Old English nobility replaced by Normans.
 Normans dominated government, church, and lower social strata.
 Norman influence enduring due to dominance in key institutions.
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Use of French by the Upper Class

Initial Predominance of Normans:
 Following the Norman Conquest, the new ruling class in England
predominantly used French.
 Normans, unfamiliar with English, naturally continued using their own
language.
Long-Term Usage of French:
  French remained the language of ordinary communication among the
upper classes for about 200 years after the Conquest.
 Despite gradual acquisition of English knowledge, there was no
concerted effort to adopt English as a policy.
Expansion beyond Norman Origin:
 Initially, those of Norman origin primarily spoke French.
 Over time, individuals of non-Norman origin also adopted French for
social and practical reasons.
Continuation of French Influence:
 French language persisted due to its association with the upper class
and its use in commerce.
 Settlements of individuals from French regions like Rouen and Caen in
London further facilitated the use of French.
Revision Points:
 Following the Conquest, Normans predominantly used French.
 French remained the language of the upper class for about 200 years.
 Non-Normans also adopted French due to its social and practical
advantages.
 French influence continued due to its association with the upper class
and commerce.
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Use of French by the Upper Class

Predominance of Norman Ruling Class:
 Despite uncertain numbers, Normans constituted the dominant ruling
class in England after the Conquest.
 Initially, they continued using French due to their unfamiliarity with
English.
Long-Term Use of French:
 French remained the language of everyday communication among the
upper classes for about 200 years.
  Although some knowledge of English was acquired gradually, there was
no concerted effort to adopt it as policy.
Social and Linguistic Dynamics:
 Initially, French speakers were primarily of Norman origin, but
intermarriage and association with the ruling class led to English
individuals adopting French.
 The distinction between French and English speakers became largely
social rather than ethnic.
Linguistic Description by Robert of Gloucester:
 Robert of Gloucester described England's bilingual character around
1300, where French was spoken by the ruling class and English by the
masses.Aqe z
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Circumstances Promoting the Continued Use of French

Close Connection with the Continent:
 English kings held titles as dukes of Normandy, leading to a strong
connection between England and the continent.
 William the Conqueror, for example, felt a closer attachment to
Normandy than to England.
 The division of possessions at William's death, giving Normandy to his
eldest son and England to his second, exemplifies this connection.
 Subsequent rulers, like Henry I and Henry II, further expanded English
possessions in France through inheritance and marriage.
Focus on Continental Affairs:
 English kings often spent significant time in France, with some rulers
spending about half of their reigns there.
 English royalty was continentally minded, as evidenced by their frequent
presence in France and preference for continental wives.
Anglo-French Aristocracy:
 The English nobility was more Anglo-French than purely English, owning
land both in England and on the continent.
  Many nobles engaged in continental marriages and spent considerable
time in France, aligning their interests with those of the king.
Influence of Military, Ecclesiastics, and Merchants:
 Military operations frequently took the king and nobles across the
Channel, accompanied by forces.
 Ecclesiastics and merchants also traveled abroad for business,
contributing to the constant movement between England and the
continent.
Inevitability of French Usage:
 The constant movement across the English Channel made the continued
use of French by the upper class natural and inevitable.
Revision Points:
 English kings held titles in Normandy, fostering a strong connection with
the continent.
 Rulers and nobles spent significant time in France, focusing on
continental affairs.
 The English nobility was Anglo-French, owning land and engaging in
marriages on the continent.
 Military operations, ecclesiastical business, and trade contributed to the
constant movement between England and the continent, reinforcing the
use of French.

Attitude toward English

Natural Preference for French:
 The governing class in England's preference for French was likely a
natural result of circumstances.
 There is no evidence to suggest active hostility towards the English
language among the newcomers.
Social Status of English:
 English was considered an uncultivated tongue, associated with a
socially inferior class.
  Ignorance of English might lead to disdain from the Norman elite, as
seen with Bishop Wulfstan.
Mutual Respect and Cooperation:
 Despite social differences, there was evidence of mutual respect,
peaceful cooperation, and intermarriage between Normans and English.
 Chronicler Orderic Vitalis, of mixed Norman and English heritage,
identified himself as English.
William the Conqueror's Efforts:
 William the Conqueror attempted to learn English at the age of forty-
three to understand and administer justice to his subjects.
 His son Henry I may have also had some knowledge of English.
Lack of Fixed Purpose:
 Later kings' lack of acquaintance with English was not due to any fixed
purpose or hostility.
 Up to 1200, the attitude of the king and upper classes towards English
can be characterized as one of indifference, as their activities in England
did not necessitate its use.
Revision Points:
 Preference for French was likely a natural outcome of circumstances, not
active hostility towards English.
 English was associated with a socially inferior class, leading to some
disdain from the Norman elite.
 Despite social differences, there was evidence of mutual respect and
cooperation between Normans and English.
 William the Conqueror attempted to learn English, and later kings' lack
of acquaintance with the language was due to indifference rather than
hostility.
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French Literature at the English Court

During this period, the English court was heavily influenced by French
literature, reflecting the cultural dominance of the Norman ruling class.
Literary Patronage:
 Literature played a significant role in the lives of the leisured class,
providing entertainment and cultural enrichment.
 French literature was produced in England from the early 12th century,
tailored to meet the tastes and interests of English patrons.
Royal and Noble Patrons:

 William the Conqueror's court had some recognition of learning,

and his daughter Adela and son Henry I were patrons of poets.
 Matilda, Henry I's first wife, favored foreign poets, while
Adelaide of Louvain, his second wife, had poems written about
her husband's achievements.
 Notable works include Philippe de Thaun's "Bestiary," Geoffrey Gaimar's
"History of the English," and Samson de Nanteuil's "Proverbs of
Solomon."
Literary Works:
 Wace wrote "Roman de Brut," a legendary history of Britain, for Queen
Eleanor of Aquitaine, focusing on King Arthur's exploits.
 Wace also wrote "Roman de Rou," detailing the dukes of Normandy.
 Other genres included works of devotion, saints' lives, allegories,
chronicles, and romances featuring heroes like Horn, Havelok, and
Tristan.
Cultural Significance:
 The prevalence of French literature in England, especially under royal
patronage, demonstrates the strong influence of French culture on
English soil.
 The court's patronage of French literature reflects its interest in cultural
and historical narratives, as well as its desire to maintain cultural
connections with Normandy and France.
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Fusion of the Two Peoples

The period following the Norman Conquest saw a gradual fusion of the
Norman and English peoples, facilitated by social, political, and cultural
factors.

Acceptance of the New Order:

 Over time, the bitterness of defeat and the hardships of social upheaval
were gradually forgotten.
 People accepted the new order as a fact and adjusted to it, similar to
how national antagonisms can dissipate quickly in modern times.
Rapid Fusion:
 Fusion between Normans and English was rapid, facilitated by national
interest and everyday interactions.
 Distinctions between French and English soon blurred, with terms like
"English" encompassing all people of England.
Evidences of Fusion:
 Intermarriages between Normans and English, such as Robert d’Oily
marrying an English landowner's daughter.
 Support of English troops for Norman rulers and prelates,
demonstrating unity in times of conflict.
 Spiritual federations between Norman and English monasteries,
emphasizing spiritual fellowship over birthplace.
 Norman nobles integrating into English society by founding monasteries
and choosing burial in England over Normandy.
 Trade associations in towns fostering unity between the two peoples.
Progress by Henry I's Reign:
 Fusion accelerated during Henry I's reign, with intermarriages and social
integration becoming more common.
 By the end of the 12th century, the blending of English and Norman
populations was so significant that distinguishing between them
became difficult.
Complete Union:
 The loss of Normandy and growing antagonism toward France in
the next century solidified the psychological and physical union of
all inhabitants of England.
The fusion of Norman and English peoples in England was a gradual process
driven by social, political, and cultural factors, ultimately leading to a unified
nation.
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Diffusion of French and English

Determining the extent of the use of English and French in England after the
Norman Conquest presents challenges due to scattered evidence that must be
carefully evaluated and sometimes harmonized. Various sources provide
insights into language usage, including writings, court proceedings, and
instructional manuals.

Sources of Evidence:
1. Contemporary Writers: Some writers mention individuals who spoke
both French and English or were ignorant of one language, providing
clues to language proficiency.
2. Books and Treatises: Works like the Ancrene Riwle and thirteenth-
century texts on husbandry shed light on language usage based on the
intended audience or social class.
3. Court Proceedings: From the thirteenth century onwards, court records
occasionally note the language in which individuals testified.
4. Language Manuals: The appearance of French teaching manuals
around 1250 indicates efforts to instruct in the language.
5. Literary Works: Fourteenth-century poets and writers sometimes
explain their language choice in prefaces and offer valuable linguistic
observations.
6. Historical Records: By the fifteenth century, letters, town records, guild
acts, and government documents provide abundant evidence of
language use.
General Situation:
 French: Predominantly used in the court and among the upper classes.
 English: Spoken by the majority of the population.
Specific Questions:
 1. Upper Class Learning English:
 When and how widely did the upper class acquire proficiency in
English?
2. Knowledge of French in Lower Classes:
 To what extent was knowledge of French common among lower
social strata?

Conclusion
While French was primarily used by the upper class and English by the masses,
specific details about language acquisition and proficiency levels require
further investigation into social and educational factors.
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Knowledge of English among the Upper Class

During the period following the Norman Conquest, the use of French
extended beyond individuals of foreign origin to include those associated with
the ruling class, as it became a mark of social distinction. Conversely, English
remained the language of the majority, making it likely that many in the upper
class acquired some proficiency in it, particularly by the twelfth century.

Instances of English Proficiency among the Upper Class:

1. Henry II and his Court:
 William of Canterbury's account of Helewisia de Morville's use of
English suggests that her husband, of Norman descent,
understood the language.
 Henry II demonstrated understanding of English, as recorded by
Giraldus Cambrensis, although he preferred French and Latin in
communication.
2. Churchmen and Nobility:
 Gilbert Foliot, Bishop of London, was fluent in Latin, French, and
English.
 Hugh of Nonant, Bishop of Coventry, criticized a fellow bishop for
his lack of English proficiency.
  Giraldus Cambrensis, Bishop-elect of St. Davids, had a deep
knowledge of English, enabling him to read and comment on Old
English texts.
 Abbot Samson of Bury St. Edmunds was described as proficient in
both French and Latin, with a capability to preach in English,
specifically the Norfolk dialect.
3. Variability in English Proficiency:
 Not all individuals of this station were fluent in English; some
bishops and abbots could only preach in Latin or French.
 Examples include St. Hugh, Bishop of Lincoln, who required an
interpreter, and William Longchamp, Bishop of Ely and Chancellor
of England, who was notorious for his lack of English knowledge.
4. General Trends:
 Among lower-ranking individuals in positions that necessitated
interaction with both upper and lower classes, proficiency in both
English and French was common.
 Children born into families where parents spoke different
languages likely acquired knowledge of English from an early age.

Conclusion:
While English proficiency varied among the upper class, particularly
churchmen and educated individuals, it was not uncommon by the end of the
twelfth century. The ability to speak both English and French was widespread
among those whose roles involved interactions across social strata.
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Knowledge of French among the Middle Class

Towards the end of the twelfth century, familiarity with French became
increasingly common among the middle class, albeit to varying degrees
depending on social status.

Knights and Town Dwellers:

  Among the knightly class, even those whose mother tongue was English
often cultivated proficiency in French. Instances include knights hiring
tutors from Normandy to teach their sons French.
 In towns, especially major trading centers, individuals with Norman
names predominated among prominent burgesses and merchants, likely
constituting a majority of the merchant class.
 Stewards, bailiffs, and other officials on manors likely spoke both English
and French, reflecting the bilingual nature of their roles.
Social Expectations and Observations:
 Jocelyn de Brakelond noted instances where individuals were conferred
land or positions because they did not speak French, indicating the
expectation of French proficiency among certain social circles.
 William Rothwell highlighted the prevalence of French in regions closer
to London, where governmental activities were centered.
Language Dynamics and Sociolinguistics:
 The linguistic landscape of medieval England, with the coexistence of
Latin, French, and English, resembled situations where pidgins and
creoles develop, but labeling Middle English as a creole is debatable.
 The majority of the population, approximately ninety percent, retained
their proficiency in English, with limited evidence suggesting intentional
modification of English structures under French influence.
 Middle English speakers likely maintained their native language
alongside acquired French proficiency, with bilingualism being fairly
common.

Conclusion:
By the late twelfth century, knowledge of French was becoming more
prevalent among the middle class, particularly among knights, town dwellers,
and officials. While French proficiency varied, bilingualism was increasingly
common, reflecting the linguistic diversity of medieval England.
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