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Recent developments of thermoelectric power generation

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DOI: 10.1360/04we0037

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Chinese Science Bulletin 2004 Vol. 49 No. 11 1—8
Recent developments of
thermoelectric power
generation
LUAN Weiling & TU Shantung
East China University of Science and Technology, School of Mechanical
Engineering, Shanghai 200237, China
Correspondence should be addressed to Luan Weiling (e-mail:luan@
ecust.edu.cn)
Abstract One form of energy generation that is expected
to be on the rise in the next several decades is thermoelectric
power generation (TEPG) which converts heat directly to
electricity. Compared with other methods, TEPG possesses
the salient features of being compact, light-weighted,
noiseless in operation, highly reliable, free of carbon dioxide
emission and radioactivce substances. Low current
conversion efficiency and high cost, however, are some of the
disadvantages. Use of TEPG is therefore justified to hightech
applications associated with aerospace, military operation,
tel-communication and navigation, instrumentation of
unmanned vehicles monitored from remote locations. More-
over, TEPG does not contribute to the depletion of natural
resource and pollution of the environment such as climate
warming that has been a concern in recent times. This work
is concerned with providing an overview of the state of the
art of TEPG with emphases placed on assessing its current
and potential application. Pointed out are the ways to fabri-
cate high performance thermoelectric material, a hurdle to
overcome for the enhancement of TEPG device efficiency.
Keywords: thermoelectric generation, thermoelectric material, elec-
tric power generation, thermoelectric sensor.
ARTICLES
taken into account. This makes the method attractive for
the generation of electricity [1—8] in addition to its superior
features for application in the high-tech fields involving
specialized medicine, space and military use.
Research and development of TEPG has been recog-
nized in many developed countries as long to mid-term
scientific programs. USA aims principally at its applica-
tion in military, space and high-tech areas. The Japanese
government is funding TEPG research in retrieving waste
heat emitted from automobiles, factories and similar
sources. The European Union focuses attention on
low-power generation and sensors. China makes achieve-
ments on cooling theory and the production of thermoe-
lectric semiconductors although with less emphases on
power generation for the present. Though several oversea
companies built plants in Shanghai, Hangzhou and other
cities, the exploration of this technology and product are
still lacking[9—12].
1 Mechanism of thermoelectric generation
Conversion of heat directly into electricity is not a
new principle. It was discovered in 1822 by a German
scientist, Thomas Seebeck. He observed that an electric
voltage is generated when two dissimilar, electrically
conductive materials (iron and copper) are joined in a
closed circuit and the two junctions are kept at different
temperatures. Such pairs of junctions are called thermoe-
lectric couples, and the phenomenon observed is called the
Seebeck effect.
The schematic of TEPG is illustrated in Fig. 1. A
typical device is composed of two electrically conducting

DOI: 10.1360/03we0037

The search for green, compact, long-lasting,

low-maintenance commercial methods of generating elec-
trical power has increased in priority as the public be-
comes more aware of energy conservation and environ-
ment protection. Fuel cells and other alternatives are cur-
rently being investigated. They, however, encounter diffi-
culties in practical application. Comparatively speaking,
TEPG has been recognized as one of the major energy
conversion technologies, mainly because of the advan-
tages mentioned earlier which include compact size,
lightweight, noiselessness and nil emission. The US Office
of Space & Defense Power Systems regards TEPG as a
proven method for energy generation in terms of safety,
reliability and maintainability. It is also capable of pro-
ducing either heat or electricity for long periods of time
measurable in decades under hazardness conditions en-
countered in outer space1). The recent recognition that Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of multicouple Thermoelectric Generation
Modules.
TEPG devices are also cost-effective if environment is
1) U.S. Department of Energy. Advanced Radioisotope Power Systems, http://nuclear.gov/space/arpsfact.pdf, 2002

Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 49 No. 11 March 2004 1

ARTICLES
materials: one called N-type and the other P-type. N-type last three decades, the United States has launched 25 mis-
material is doped so that it will have an excess of electrons sions involving 44 TEPGs,while TEPGs have never been
(more electrons than needed to complete a perfect mo- the cause of a spacecraft accident.
lecular lattice structure) and P-type material is doped so TEPG devices supply hundreds of watts of electrical
that it will have a deficiency of electrons (fewer electrons power for spacecraft by direct conversion of the heat gen-
than necessary are to complete a perfect lattice structure). erated by the natural decay of radioisotope materials. Such
The extra electrons in the N-material and the holes result- TEPG is therefore called Radioisotope Thermoelectric
ing from the P-material are the charge carriers. These two Generator (RTG). RTG consists of two major elements: a
kinds of materials are connected electrically in series by heat source that contains decay materials (Plutonium-238)
highly conducting metal strips and sandwiched between and a set of solid-state thermocouples. Fig. 2 illustrated
thermally conducting but electrically insulating plates. As the structure of RTG and its General Purpose Heat Source
the heat moves from the hot to the cold plate, the charge modules used on spacecraft.
carriers are carried with the heat. Heat also affects charge
carrier movement in the return path (typically copper
wire). Because electrons flow in a direction opposite to
that of hole, the current generating potentials in the pellets
do not oppose one another, but are series-adding. The heat
movement in semiconductor materials can carry far more
charge carriers than that of the return path of a circuit.
Therefore, a significant potential difference (i.e. Seebeck
voltage) is generated. By linking together a large number
of thermoelectric P and N couples, a sizeable voltage can
be generated. Commercially available TEPG contains 18
—128 couples. The power output depends on thermoelec-
tric material’s properties and the temperature gradient
between cold and hot ends.
In TEPG, electrical charge carriers (electrons or holes)
instead of lattice are the energy transport media. There is
no need of mechanical components or hazardous working
fluids during the whole process. Therefore TEPG offers
several distinct advantages over other technologies in-
volving no moving parts or bulk fluids, low maintenance,
light-weight, no vibration, no optic and sonic signal, and Fig. 2. Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (upper) and General
flexibility on heat source. Purpose Heat Source modules (lower).

2 Applications of thermoelectric power generation Now human being’s exploration is heading to

The first TEPG unit was built in the former Soviet
Union in1942 with an efficiency of 1.5%—2%. In the
1960s, the research in this area was intensified and a series
of thermoelectric devices were made successfully and
applied in military missions involving remote
tel-communication and instrumental navigation. Due to
the more recent concern of energy and environment crisis,
added value was given to the use of TEPG.
(ⅰ) Exploration of space. TEPG has provided
continuous power safely and reliably over the past three
decades in regions of space where the use of solar power
is not feasible. The US Department of Energy (DOE) has
used TEPG for space for many years[13]. The Apollo (to
the moon), Viking (to Mars), Pioneer, Voyager, Ulysses,
Galileo, and Cassini (outer Solar System) missions all
used TEPGs. The TEPGs for the Pioneer 10 spacecraft
have operated flawlessly for 30 years and continue to
power the spacecraft as it travels beyond Pluto. During
heliopause, the boundary where the Sun’s influence ends
and the dark recesses of interstellar space begin. To get
above the Sun, Ulysses has to fly around Jupiter and
slingshot out of the plane of the planets. Near Jupiter, the
Sun's rays are 25 times weaker than those near the Earth.
Solar panels large enough to catch this weak energy would
have weighed 1200 pounds, doubling the weight of the
spacecraft and making it too heavy for booster rockets
from the shuttle. Instead, Ulysses was equipped with an
RTG weighing only 124 pounds. It easily powers all the
probe's onboard systems, including navigation, communi-
cation and scientific instruments1).
The DOE and NASA are initiating the development
of a new generation of power system that could be used
for a variety of missions. The new RTG, called
Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
(MMRTG), will be designed to operate on planetary

1) U.S. Office of space & defense power systems, Radioisotope power systems. http://nuclear.gov/space/gphs.html, 2003.

2 Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 49 No. 11 March 2004


bodies as well as in the vacuum of space. In addition, the
new MMRTG will be designed to generate approximately
100 W of electricity that is a more flexible modular design
capable of meeting the needs of a wider variety of mis-
sions.
(ⅱ) Military. Navy is the second primary customer
of TEPG next to NASA. As early as the 1980s, USA
worked out its TEPG for military uses with an output
power of 500—1000 W, and officially equippted it at the
end of the 1980s. Such major features as no sonic signal,
no vibration, and hidden-easily made TEPG used well for
submarine, tel-communication and data transfer. A type of
TEPG was put in deep sea to supply electric energy for
radio transmit system, acting as a part of missile GPS net.
For this purpose, TEPG was located 10 km under sea with
working efficiency of 1 W and life length more than one
decade.
Hi-Z Technology, Inc. of USA is currently perform-
ing a Navy SBIR study using TEPG in developing a
miniature energy harvesting system to provide electric
power for shipboard health monitoring wireless sensors[14].
These sensors are designed to be used to detect cracks,
corrosion, impact damage, and temperature excursions as
part of the Condition Based Maintenance. In order to sat-
isfy requirements such as small design-volume of one
cubic inch, lightweight, no leak and low maintainence,
thin-film quantum well thermoelectric technology is
choosen as the best candidate.
In the year of 1999, DOD of USA started its Energy
Harvesting Science & Technology Objective (STO) Pro-
gram to investigate the feasibility of harvesting energy
from soldiers as a mean of supplying electric power to
recharge the Land Warrior battery1). Portable, agile and
easy to recharge are major demands from the battery.
Current projection indicates a 12-h mission requirement of
250 W-h of energy at a minimum, and a peak power
draw during the mission of no more than 25—30 W.
(ⅲ) Remote telcommunication, navigation and in-
strument protection. As many telecommunication, navi-
gation and long-distance instrument protection applica-
tions involve remote sites, their requirements on reliability
approach 100%. Thus TEPG is becoming the reliable and
cost-effective power supply solution of choice. We can
find that TEPG is applied on microwave links, ra-
dio/television re-broadcasting systems, lighthouses and
navigation beacons, automatic weather forecasting station,
current cathodic protection systems in pipelines and well
casings, and emergency shutdown systems[15]. Fig. 3
shows a 5000 W TEPG used in India for SCADA,
1) U.S. Department of defense, 99-651 Energy Harvesting. http://frwebgate1.access.gpo.gov, 1999.
2) Global thermoelectrics. About generators. http://www.globalte.com/genabout-frames.html, 2001.
3) Alimov, R., Radioisotope thermoelectric generators. http://www.bellona.no/en/international/russia/navy/northern_fleet/incidents/31772.html,
2003.
4) Hi-Z Technology Inc. HZ-2 thermoelectric module. http://www.hi-z.com/websit02.htm, 2003.
5) D. T. S. GmbH. Thin film thermoelectric generator systems. http://ww.dts-generator.com/index.htm. 2003
Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 49 No. 11 March 2004
ARTICLES
communications and cathodic protection of gas pipeline
which was produced by the world’s largest TEPG pro-
ducer, Global Thermoelectric Inc. in USA2).
The former Soviet Union started to produce TEPG
from the end of the1960s, and by now there are around
1000 RTGs in Russia, most of which are used as power
sources for lighthouses and navigation beacons. These
RTGs use Sr90 as heat source, and can provide steady
voltage of 7 —30 V and the power capacity of a few
watts up to 80 W with average lifetime of more than a
decade3).
(ⅳ) Low power generation.Small, light-weighted,
vibration free and silent distinct benefits made TEPG suit
well on low power generation for unattended sensors, mi-
cro short-distance communication systems, iatrology and
physiology studies, micro watt power supply for sensing
circuit, logic gate and Emitter Correction circuit[16,17]. Fig.
4 illustrates such a TEPG made by Hi-Z Technology, Inc.
of USA, which produces 2.5 W at 3.3 V on matched
load4).
Researchers at Jet Propulsion Laboratory of NASA
specified their research on output power of 10—600 mW
with cross section of several cm2. Its voltage and current
are compatible with rechargeable batteries. After three
years of exploration, some products are now put into prac-
tice.
Seiko Instruments Inc. of Japan developed and
commercialized SEIKO THERMIC in 1998, a
heat-powered wristwatch that used micro-thermoelectric
device based on Bismuth Telluride materials. This TEPG
utilizes the difference between ambient and body tem-
peratures. The back lid of the watch receives heat from the
user's arm as the hot end, while the case emits heat from
the back lid efficiently as the cold end with a temperature
difference of 1 to 3℃. To fit for the small space in watch,
104 thermoelectric elements are connected in series be-
tween two 2 mm×2 mm substrates, and adopted a booster
circuit by IC[19].
D. T. S. Company of Germany is well-known for its
achievements on thin film TEPG whose output is com-
patible to the requirements of recent micro electronic and
micro matched system loads, such as electronic heat cost
allocators, active transponders, and self-sufficiently pow-
ered temperature displays5).
(ⅴ) Thermoelectric sensors. Based on the Seebeck
effect of thermoelectric materials, novel types of sensors
have been performed, which aimed to be used on the
detection of cryogenic heat flux[20] , X-ray/UV single
3
ARTICLES
Fig. 3. 5000 TEPG for SCADA, communications and cathodic
protection of gas pipeline.
Fig. 4. Low power TEPG: produces 2.5 at 3.3 at matched load made by
Hi-Z Technology, Inc.
photon[21], hydrogen and other inflammable gas leak[22].
Shin et al. at the Synergy Materials Research Center
of AIST, Japan, recently reported a promising hydrogen-
selective sensor operating at ambient temperature. The
sensor consisted of a thermoelectric thin film and a half
surface part of Pt film. When sensor was exposed to the
gas mixture of air and hydrogen gas, the selective catalytic
oxidation of hydrogen heats up the surface of Pt film, and
then thermoelectric voltage builds up along the hot and
cold region of the thermoelectric film. Such a sensor is
expected to be capable of detecting small concentration of
hydrogen molecules with high sensitivity[23].
Traditional gas sensors are becoming lagging to the
requirments of modern industry due to their weakness of
large size, weight, complexity, low selectivity to certain
1) D.T.S. GmbH, Infrared-sensors. http://www.dts-generator.com/sen-txe.htm, 2003.
4 Chinese Science Bulletin
gas (response to most inflamble gas), and slow action.
Furthermore, the sensitivity largely depends on operating
temperarue, which not only demands extra heat elements,
but also is a potential of fire,whereas thermoelectric gas
sensor owns merits of operating at room temperature,
small size, high selectivity and quick response. 1%
mixture of hydrogen gas and air can generate an output
voltage of 2 mV with a response time of 50 s. Fig. 5 gives
the measuring properties of voltage as a function of
hydrogen concentration.
Fig. 5. Hydrogen sensing properties to different hydrogen concentra-
tion of a thermoelectric sensor made in Japan.
D. T. S. GmbH. Company explored a micro infrared
sensor (IRS-235) based on its product of 235 thermopiles
aiming at detection of actively infrared radiation1). These
sensors do not need a filter window, possess a high re-
sponsibility, are not influenced by heat conduction and
heat convection of the surroundings, and are resistant
against high intensity of heat radiation. They can be used
for contactless temperature measurement and monitoring,
presence and motion detectors, electronic heat cost allo-
cators, IR-measurement equipment and so on. Fig. 6
shows the flexible foil IR sensors with a size of 5.6 mm×
3.1 mm×0.08 mm, and weight of 19 mg.
(ⅵ) Waste heat power generation. In recent years,
concerns are largely aroused by the large consumption of
fossil fuel and environmental damage caused by the extra
burning of fossil fuels. It has been realized that in situa-
tions where the supply of heat is cheap or free, efficiency
of the TEPG system is not an overriding consideration.
The use of waste heat as an energy source raises the
commercial competitiveness of TEPG[25]. Japanese gov-
ernment carried out “Recycle and Research on Solid
Waste Fuel Program” several years ago, aiming at gener-
ating electric power from waste heat through cogeneration
of TEPG and gas turbine system[26]. In 2003, DOE of USA
announced to support PPG Industries (Inc. of Pittsburgh),
Vol. 49 No. 11 March 2004
 ARTICLES
and other appendent parts of steam recycle.
By now, more and more attentions are focused on the
investigation of TEPG based on life garbage by developed
countries, such as USA, Japan, France, UK, Germany and
Italy[28]. In Fig. 8 an example of TEPG facing to garbage
incinerator was shown with a power density of 100 kW/m3.
The annual economical cost for garbage treatment is very
large in China. If involving the transmission and disposal
cost, it attained nearly 30 billion Yuan. In other words, 250
billion Yuan can be got if the garbage can be rationally
utilized[29]. In order to attract more concern from indus-
tries and factories, the State Department of China enacted
series of preferential policy to stimulate the R & D of
Fig. 6. Flexible foil (IRS-235 F) IR sensors produced by D.T.S. Com-
pany.
power generation from the integrated using of garbage.

Michigan Technological University, and Pacific Northwest

National Laboratory to perform high-effciencythermoele-
ctric energy conversion materials and technology to re-
cover waste energy from exhausted gas and other infra-
structure heat discharged by industrial processing plants1).
(1) Industrial waste heat. The great development of
industrialization accelerates the emitting of vast amounts
of waste heat from factories, industries, manufacturing
plants and power utilities, such as chemical plants, oil
refineries, paper rice mills, sugar mills. Industrial waste
heat is released in gases or liquids media at temperature (<
450 K) that is too low for use in conventional power gen-
erating units. TEPG offers an alternative of electricity
generation powered by low temperature waste heat, and at
the same time partly solves the worldwide energy con-
straint. The replacement of by-heat boiler and gas turbine
by thermoelectric devices makes it capable of largely re-
ducing capital cost, increasing stability, saving energy
source, and protecting environment[27]. Fig. 7 shows an
example of TEPG used in natural gas field to produce
power for cathodic protection of the well and gas line2).
(2) Garbage incinerator. The treatment of large
amounts of living garbage generated everyday is a serious
problem aroused by the highly extension of cities and
greatly increment of population. Organic combustible ma- Fig. 7. A TEPG produced power for cathodic protection of the well and
terials contained in garbage are regarded as the sec- gas line, which used the temperature difference between hot and cold
ond-class energy which owns large amounts of heat. For legs of glycol natural gas dehydrator cycle.
example, burning 200 tons garbage can generate 2000 kW
electricity3). Generating electricity from garbage will bring (3) Waste heat from automobile.The recovering of
series of advantages, including exploiting of new energy heat from exhaust gases in automobiles is a typical appli-
source, lowering power cost, and reducing air pollution. A cation of electricity generation using TEPG. Automobiles
common prototype is a cogeneration of TEPG with gar- bring us advantages such as efficiency and convenience, at
bage incinerator by placing thermoelectric modules on the same time result in the environment pollution and
walls of the furnace’s funnels. This construction can great consumption of fuel. The electrical power used in
eliminate the by-heat furnace, gas turbine automobiles is generated using part of the energy con-

1) Office of industrial technologies, U.S.a. DOE selects 32 new projects to improve energy efficiency in U.s. industry. http://www.
oit.doe.gov/cfm/fullarticle.cfm/id=782,2003.
2) Hi-Z Technology. Power from waste heat in gas production field. http://www.hi-z.com/websit14.htm, 2003.
3) Electric from garbage- The bright future of power generation from garbage. http://www.china.com.cn/chinese/huanjing/247355.htm, 2002.

Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 49 No. 11 March 2004 5

ARTICLES
for power generation to operate between the air and
ground temperatures with a daily average electrical energy
of 100 mW (Fig. 10). Advantages of this system involve
long service life (0—10 years), no acoustic emissions, low
visibility (half air, half ground), significant nighttime
power production and ruggedness. This design is proposed
to be commonly used in gas pipeline instrumentation,
spacecraft power, weather station instrumentation, envi-
ronmental or military monitoring and others. The common
heat sources include combustion of hydrocarbon fuels,
radioisotope materials, waste process heat, and solar en-
ergy.

Fig. 8. TEPG produced by the Japanese Energy Conservasion Center,

which used waste heat as energy source to generate an electric power
density of 100 kW/m3.

verted into a driving force with an alternator. The central

problem of the energy transformation is that only part of
the energy flow supplied by the fuel is converted into
brake power output. The energy dissipated is lost by
transmission to the environment through exhaust gas,
cooling water, lubrication oil and radiation[30]. For in-
stance, in a gasoline engine, about 30% of the primary
gasoline energy is discharged as waste heat in the exhaust Fig. 9. Mack truck equipped with a 1 kW TEPG with drive shaft in-
gases. If approximately 6% of the waste heat could be creased by 3—5 horsepower.
converted into electrical power, the fuel consumption
around 10% would be possible to be reduced1). This is the
reason why TEPG can be profitable in the automobile
industry.
Japan has developed a small type of TEPG using the
exhaust gas heat from automobiles to produce an electric
power of 100 W, and save 5% of the gasoline consump-
tion[31]. USA recently declared its production of a 1 kW
TEPG used on a diesel truck[32,33]. Fig. 9 is the Mack truck
equipped with this TEPG running out of Chandler, Ari-
zona. The generator looks like the truck's vertical muffler,
which it replaces. This TEPG can be employed as a sub-
stitute for the truck engine alternator. Power to the drive
shaft increases by three tofive horsepower, which in-
creases fuel efficiency and reduces emissions.
(4) Natural source. Solar radiation, temperature
difference between air and ocean/ground are endless Fig. 10. Schematic of Ground-source thermoelectric generator.
natural heat source. Traditional power generators based on
natural heat demand heat engine, dynamotor, or steam (5) Dispersed heat. Rowe[35] at the School of Engi-
turbine to act as impulsion engine. With such a complex neering at Cardiff University made a demonstration of
structure the application of generator has to be restrained electricity generation by using low temperature waste heat.
merely to large power generation considering the eco- With the experimental set-up, he showed that the amount
2)
nomical benefit. Steven[34], from the Mississippi State of heat contained in the water left after a bath was suffi-
University of USA used a commercially available TEPG cient to provide the electricity needed to power a color

1) Vázquez, J., Sanz-Bobi, M. A., Palacios, R. et al., State of the art of thermoelectric generators based on heat recovered from the exhaust
gases of automobiles. http://www.iit.upco.es/palacios/thermo/EWT02-Exhaust_gases.pdf.
2) Stevens, J. W., Energy harvesting: A ground-source thermoelectric generator. http://www.darpa.mil/dso/trans/energy/briefings/18Steve.PDF,
2000.

6 Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 49 No. 11 March 2004


television set for an hour. Because this is waste heat,
which would normally not be harnessed at all, the input
energy is effectively free. It is estimated that if this system
can run smoothly for 3 years, the overall cost for the elec-
tricity it generates is approximately the same as that of
normal electricity power supplier.
3 Efficiency improvement of thermoelectric genera-
tion
Three tasks around TEPG have been intensively
working onimproving of efficiency, reducing the capital
cost, and employing TEPG over a wide rangeof applica-
tions. The major problem today is the poor efficiency of
TEPG (6%—11%), which is limited by the properties of
available thermoelectric materials. Maximizing the elec-
tricity output for a given heat source through deep study
of the material used and exploration of new type materials
is regarded as the main point.
The efficiency of TEPG lies ona dimensionless pa-
rameter ZT, where T is the operating temperature, and Z
characterizes the material’s electric and thermal transport
properties.
Z = S 2σ / κ .
Here S is the Seebeck coefficient or thermopower, σ is the
electrical conductivity, κ is the total thermal conductivity.
Apparently, the thermoelectric material’s performance
influences the conversion efficiency of TEPG. Effective
thermoelectric materials should have a low thermal con-
ductivity but a high electrical conductivity. Today's best
thermoelectric materials, such as Bi2Te3, have a ZT value
of about 1, a value that has remained the upper limit for
more than 30 years. Several applications only become
practical for ZT > 2. And at a ZT of 2—3, TEPG would
become competitive with other power generation systems.
Because the thermal and electrical conductivity correlate
with the charge carriers, new means must be introduced in
order to conciliate the contradiction between high electri-
cal conductivity and low thermal conductivity.
In 1995, Slack[36] (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute)
suggested that a good thermoelectric material should have
the electronic properties of a crystalline material and the
thermal properties of a glass, which is asserted as “pho-
non-glass/electron-crystal”. Then he characterized mate-
rials as “holey” or “unholey”, depending on how good
electrical conductivity and poor thermal conductivity were
achieved in the same material. Based on Slack’s work,
several classes of materials are currently under investiga-
tion, including adding different elements to
“half-Heusler” alloys which show very favorable elec-
trical properties but exhibit large thermal conductivity
values to lead to mass-fluctuation scattering of the pho-
nons[37], improving the electronic property of
“quasi-crystals” that exhibit glasslike thermal conductiv-
ity[38], lowering dimension to increase the scattering of
Chinese Science Bulletin Vol. 49 No. 11 March 2004
ARTICLES
phonons[39,40], and increasing the effective mass of charge
carriers[41].
The diversity methods for material synthesis, im-
provement of the precision of analysis instrument, and the
increase of computational capabilities enhance the fabri-
cation feasibility of several complex structured materials.
New synthetic routes have led to engineered complex
crystal structures with the desired phonon-glass elec-
tron-crystal behavior. These results have led to intensified
scientific efforts to identify, design, engineer and charac-
terize novel materials with a high potential for achieving
the value of ZT much greater than 1 near room tempera-
ture through several ways: intercrossing of thermal insu-
lated layers and electrical conducting layers[42], optimiza-
tion of electrical charges for certain structured layers and
spins[43,44], and nanostructured engineering[45].
4 Summary
TEPG is a solid state technology which converts heat
directly to electricity with distinct merits of compactness,
light-weight, silence, and low maintainence. It has been
used in almost all fields such as milltary operation,
aerospace, industrial and commercial products, and
tel-communication and navigation. On the other hand, the
low conversion efficiency and high cost are the current
shortcomings which confined its application. In recent
years, concerns aroused from climate warming and
shortness of fuel source makes TEPG becoming “hot”,
especially in situations where the heat source is cheap or
free. With the advances of materials synthesis techniques,
computational capabilities, and new construction of
thermal-electric cogeneration, TEPG could bring a
breakthrough to a wider range of applications and soon or
later make a revolution in the power industry.
According to the art-to-state research status of China,
a concerted effort is suggested where by-action should be
taken to fabricate small/mini scale sensors based on low
power TEPG so as to satisfy the requirements for high-
tech, millitary use and those for industrial applications.
Another effort is the exploration of intermediate power
range energy generation using waste heat from industry or
garbage.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Excellent Young
Teacher Foundation of the Ministry of Education of China (2003).
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(Received February 25, 2004; accepted April 22, 2004)
Vol. 49 No. 11 March 2004