The Faenza Codex: Music for Organ or for Lute Duet?

Author(s): Roland Eberlein

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Early Music, Vol. 20, No. 3 (Aug., 1992), pp. 460-466
Published by: Oxford University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3127707 .
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OBSERVATIONS
Roland Eberlein
The Faenza Codex: music
for lute duet?
One of the most important sources of instrumental
music of the late Middle Ages is a parchmentcodex of
the BibliotecaCommunaleof Faenzabearingthe signa-
ture 117.Sinceits rediscoveryin 1939severalminor stud-
ies and an extensive dissertationhave been devoted to
the FaenzaCodex. Its contents have been published in
both facsimileand modern transcription.'Nevertheless,
the question of the instrumentsfor which the music of
the FaenzaCodex was originallyintended has remained
controversial.In a recent discussion of this question,
Timothy McGee concluded' that the music was to be
playednot on a keyboard-as hadbeen assumedby Dra-
gan Plamenac, Willi Apel and most other musicolo-
gists3-but on two lutes or on harpand lute. Moreover,
McGeespeculatedon the possibilitythat the manuscript
was used either by LeonardoChitarino,lutenist at the
court of Ferrarain 1424,or by the lutenist Pietrobonode
Burzellis(c.1417-97).
As McGeeadmits,the two-lutehypothesisseemsto be
at variancewith the fact that the FaenzaCodex includes
settings of liturgicalchants, since there is absolutelyno
document proving that lute or lute duet fulfilledlitur-
gical functions in Italianchurchesin the firsthalf of the
15th century.The only instrument demonstrablyused
within the liturgy was the organ. Nevertheless,McGee
postulates that lutes were also used in a liturgical
context.
I wish to raisesome furtherobjectionsto the two-lute
hypothesis.
i. In many Faenza settings, the tenor or the treble
have to execute two notes simultaneously.Since in the
early15thcenturylutes wereplayedwith a plectrum,two
notes could not be pluckedat the same time. Thus, if we
want to maintain the two-lute hypothesis, we have to
assumethat notes writtenone beneaththe otherwere to
be played immediately one after the other. In other
words, we have to assume a deviation of the execution
from the written text; this should at least urge us on to
exercise proper caution with regard to the two-lute
hypothesis.
for organ or
2. In Faenzasettings,the tenor predominantlymoves
in very long notes, whereasthe treble performsa lot of
short notes. In many instances the treble executes
between 12 and 20 notes during one note of the tenor.
Sincethe sound of a pluckedlute stringdies awayaftera
short time, the tenor will be absent during most of the
notes of the treble.McGeeholds that this structureof the
Faenzasettingsis similarto that of intabulationsfor lute
duet by the early16th century.Indeed, in lute duets by
FrancescoSpinacino,for example,a rapidlymoving tre-
ble is given to the firstlute, whereasthe second lute exe-
cutes two lower voices moving predominantlyin longer
notes. But the treble never plays more than eight notes
againstone note of the lower voices. Usually,four notes
of the treblestandagainstone of the lowervoices.This is
considerablyfewerthan in the Faenzasettings.We have
at least to conclude that the Faenzatenors are far from
being optimally designed for a second plucked
instrument.
3. The most important objections to McGee's
hypothesis were put forwardby Dragan Plamenac as
early as 1951and result from the structureof the nota-
tion.4 Normally, 15th-centurymanuscripts notate the
voices of polyphonic music at separateplaces on the
page. In contrast, the Faenza manuscript uses score
notation. To be sure, the lattersort of notation is by no
means new: for example, organa and conductus of the
12th and 13th centuries are written in score, as were
pieces of the early 15th century composed in the so-
calledEnglishdiscantstyle.In thesecases,scorenotation
is either necessaryor at least has certain advantages.
Non-metricalorganaof the 12thcenturymust be written
in score to makeclearwhich notes areto be sung simul-
taneously.The voices of 13th-centuryconductus could
be writtenseparately(as could pieces in the Englishdis-
cant style), but since all voices sing the same text at the
sametime, scorenotation has the advantagethat the text
needs to be written below only one of the voices. The
scribe thus saves space on the page and, by this, costly
parchmentas well as time. By contrast,score notation,
EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1992 461
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1 Younglady playing on a positive. Detail of tapestry La dame atla licorne(Musee de Cluny, Paris).

460 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1992

if it wereused for chansonsor motets of the 14thand 15th
centuries,would consume more spacethan the notation
of voices at separateplaces on the page; a lot of room
would have to be left between single notes of the tenor,
since the upper voices sing many more notes. Notating
the voices separately saves space. Likewise, separate
notation of the voices of the Faenzasettings would be
space-saving:if the scribehad written the voices separ-
ately,the manuscriptwould havebeen reducedto nearly
half of its actualextent.Neverthelesshe wrote the music
in score, thus wasting parchment.He must have had a
good reason to notate the music in this unusual and
expensivewayand we should askhis reasonfor doing so.
I see no plausiblejustificationfor this extravaganceif
each of the two voices of the Faenzamusic was to be exe-
cuted by a different musician. The only convincing
reason is that both voices were to be read and executed
by one and the samemusician.This is possibleonly if the
music is written in score notation.
4. Another importantfeatureof the notation points
in the same direction:the manuscriptuses Italianmen-
sural notation, but substitutesthe intabulationbar for
the punctus divisionis.The former not only separates
units in the length of a breve,but helps in attachingthe
notes of the trebleto those of the tenor. Such an attach-
ment is indispensableif a singlemusicianhasto readand
execute both voices. In contrast,if each of the voices is
executed by a differentmusician, each must read only
the voice he is playing.He does not need to readwhathis
colleagueplays. Barswhich help in readingboth voices
at the same time are therefore not necessary.Indeed,
other earlyexamplesof score notation (e.g. organaand
conductusof the 13thcenturyor compositionswrittenin
the English discant style) do not show such bars. The
existenceof intabulationbars in the FaenzaCodex thus
shows that the music was intended to be executed by
only one instrumentalist.5
Next, we have to ask which instrumentwas meant.
McGee rightlyexcludesthe performanceby a solo lute-
nist:lutes were not playedpolyphonicallybeforethe late
15thcentury.Executionby a harpistis improbablesince
accidentalsin rapidfigurationsare very difficultto play
on a harp.Wind instrumentsandbowed instrumentsare
monophonic. This leavesonly keyboardinstruments.
McGee excludes keyboardinstruments, referringto
the factthat the performanceof the Faenzarepertoryon
single-manualinstrumentsposes great technical prob-
lems since the voices cross one another in many pass-
ages. This requires awkward and all but impossible
superimpositions of one hand over the other. Two-
462 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1992
manual instrumentscannot be a solution, since neither
two-manualorgansnor two-manualharpsichordswere
known in Italy in the early 15th century. On single-
manual organswith pedals the liturgicalsettings could
be executed,but in most of the other piecesthe rangeof
the tenor is far too great for pedals of the 15thcentury,
which covered only one octave. McGee thereforecon-
cludes that keyboardinstrumentswere not intendedby
the author of the Faenzamanuscript.
Nevertheless,on keyboardinstrumentsof today the
Faenzarepertorycan be performedverywell if eitherthe
treble is transposedup an octave or the tenor is trans-
posed down by the same interval.McGeedoes not con-
sider this simple method. Wasit realizableon keyboard
instrumentsof the early 15thcenturyor did the limited
manual range of these instrumentsprevent musicians
from undertakingsuch transpositions?
McGeehas provideda list of the voice rangesin all 46
pieces of the Faenza manuscript.6This shows that the
Faenzarepertoryuses an overallcompassof the 32 notes
Bb-f". Octavetranspositionof one voice would lead to a
compass of 44 notes-Bb-f"' or B' b-f". But we should
notice that only 42 or 44 keysarenecessaryfor the execu-
tion of the music with transposedtenor or treble,since
c# is avoidedaltogetherand B is used only once-in bar
204 of the setting tumpes (no.21 according to the
numberingof Plamenac).7The latterB mightbe a scribal
error:it is immediatelyfollowedby a custos on the same
line, but since the custos is erroneouslywrittenone line
too low it might be that the note precedingthe custos
was subjectto the same type of line error;if it was, the
number of keys can be reducedto 42.
In earlier times keyboards frequentlyomitted keys
which were seldom used. For example, many organs
built in the 18thcenturydid not havethe C? key.More-
over,on many organsof the 16thand 17thcenturiesnot
only was C? absent, but also Eb, PF and G:. The key-
boards of such organs with a so-called 'short-octave'
seem to startwith E, but in fact the keys E,, FFP and G:
producethe notes C, D, E and F.It is possiblethat in the
15thcenturykeyboardsexistedwhich omitted the notes
B and c#.
Unfortunately,we know the number of keys of only
one organ from late 14th-centuryItaly. In 1379 Fra
Domenico of Sienabuilt an organ in SS. Annunziatain
Florencewhichhad a manualof 41 keysand 12pedalkeys
coupledto the lowestkeys of the manual.8No less a per-
son than FrancescoLandinidesignedthe disposition of
this organ.Wedo not know which notes this instrument
possessed. If these 41 notes had been Bb, c, d-e'", the
octavetransposedexecutionof all Faenzasettingsexcept
two which require the note f' (octave transposedf'")
would have been possible.
We do not know the compass of any Italianorgan of
the early15thcentury,but we know thatof the organof S.
Petronio in Bologna built in 1470-74 by Lorenzo da
Prato-5o keys A"-c"' without B"b and b"b.9 Even
greatercompassesare known from Italianorgansof the
16th century. In Italy the historical trend was toward
largermanual compasses.
We are better informed about manual compasses of
organsin Francein the early15thcentury.In 1401-6Fre-
deric Schambantzbuilt a great organ in Notre Dame,
Paris."'The manual comprised 46 keys; the lowest key
was B".An unknownnumberof pedalkeyswerecoupled
to the lowest keys of the manual. The great organ of
Notre Dame in Amiens built in 1422-6 likewise had 46
keys in the manual and a pedal of 13keys trackingthe
lowest keys of the manual."Not only great organs had
manuals covering more than 40 keys, but also small
church organs. The organ of Notre Dame de Valkrein
Sion, Switzerland,built in 1435and partiallypreserved,
originallyhad a manual of 43 keys, B-f"'."1
Muchinformationaboutkeyboardinstrumentsin the
firsthalf of the 15thcenturyis givenby a treatiseof Henri
Arnautde Zwolle,written c.1440in Dijon.'3The treatise
describesin some detailseveralchurchorgans,two por-
tatives, a harpsichordand a clavichord.According to
Arnaut'sdescription,the 'old' organ of Notre Dame in
Dijon (possiblybuilt in the middle of the 14thcentury)
had a manualof 47 keys,B'-d'. Anotherorgandescribed
in the treatise-perhaps the new organ of Notre Dame
in Dijon built by Jehan de Mexe before 1447-had 47
keys covering the notes F, G, A-f". The somewhat
smallerorgan in Salinshad 43 keys, startingwith b and
ending withf The absolutepitch of the keys is not clear.
The greatestpipe presumablyhad a length of approxi-
mately 4', so the organ would have had the pitch range
B-f"'.14
In contrastto Italianand Frenchorgans,the manuals
of Germanorgansof the 15thcenturycomprisedonly 31
notes, B-f" at best,'5since the 12lowest notes were given
to the pedal.
From this data we must conclude that on Italianand
Frenchchurchorgansof the early15thcenturyall Faenza
settings could be performedwith transposedtreble or
tenor. But we should notice that the setting no.2o,
Rosettachenon canci,could be performedon only one of
the above-mentionedorgans since it requiresBb. One
organ described by Arnaut possessed a manual range
coveringF, G,A-f" and thus includedBb,whereasmost
otherorgankeyboardsstartedwith B, so Bbwas missing.
But, of course, this setting was certainlynot to be per-
formed on church organssince it is secularmusic. Per-
haps it was to be performed on so-called
positives-small mobile organs used in secularrooms.
Intabulationsof secularmusic like Rosettaconstitute
the majorpart of the Faenzarepertory.We should there-
fore look for the manual range of positives in the early
15thcentury.Unfortunately,we have little information
about the compass of positives. Arnaut'streatise only
describesa Riickpositiv, possiblythat of the old organ of
Notre Dame, Dijon. This had 36 keys and comprisedthe
notes g-f"'.16
f, Museo Civico Correr,Venice, a positive by
In the
Lorenzo de Pavia dating from 1494 is partially pre-
served." This originally had 48 keys, F-f". But we
should notice that the instrumentshows featuresof the
late 15thcenturyand thereforecannot be seen as repre-
sentativefor positives of the early15thcentury.
Iconographicevidence supplies us with furtherdata.
On the famous altar-piecein the Church of St Bavo in
Ghent, paintedby Janvan Eyckbefore1432,a positive is
depictedverycarefully(illus.2).Twenty-onepipes stand
at the front of the instrument.A second row of pipes of
similar diameter and length stand behind. As Pierre
Hardouin has pointed out,'18both rows of pipes surely
belong to a single rank,since the position of the visible
part of the keyboardsuggeststhat the numberof keys is
at least 35.Takingboth rows of pipes together,we arrive
at 42 notes. The manual seems to begin with B, and the
greatest pipe could be approximately 4'. Thus, the
instrument presumablycomprises42 notes, B-e"'. On
this positive, all sacredand secularsettingsof the Faenza
manuscript except three requiringthe notes f" or Bb
could be performedwith transposedtreble.
Another ratherpreciserepresentationof a little posi-
tive is given on the tapestryLa dame a la licorne,dating
from c.1500oo and today housed in the Mus&ede Cluny,
Paris(illus.i). The tapestryis much laterthan the Faenza
manuscript,but the instrumentdepicteddoes not show
any late-15th-centuryfeaturesand could well be repre-
sentative of instrumentsof the early 15thcentury.The
pipes of the positivearearrangedin two rows,but form a
singlerank,with 34 pipesvisible.At leastone furtherpair
of pipes is probably hidden by the flanking wooden
board. The last key at the right end of the keyboard
seemsto be the note e. The overallcompassof the instru-
ments could thus be f-e"'.
Evenon this little positive many of the secularFaenza
EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1992 463
 settings may be performed with octave-transposed
treble.In 19of the 38 secularsettings,the tenor does not
descend below f, whereas the treble does not ascend
above e" (or, transposed,e"'). Indeed,the author of the
Faenzasettingsseems to have expectedtwo sorts of key-
boards: those starting with c or B and others starting
withf. Wecan deducethis from the factthat in most set-
VIP tings either c (14settings)or f(17 settings)arethe lowest
notes, whereasd, e and g are much less often the lowest
notes (d, 9 settings;e, 1setting;g, 3 settings).Yetanother
detail shows that the author of the Faenzasettings was
expecting two different keyboard ranges: setting
no.3-an intabulation of A discortsont desir-trans-
poses the chanson a 5th upwardeven though the chan-
son does not contain any note lower than the c so often
used in other settings. PerhapsA discortsont desirwas
written for that type of keyboardsstartingwith f.
I 4ra
As mentioned above, setting no.20o,Rosettache non
cangi,makesuse of Bb and is thus not executableon key-
boardsstartingwith B. A solution of this problemmight
LZw:
0
A be thatthe authorof the Faenzasettingsplayeda positive
in which a Bb pipe was substitutedfor the B pipe. Such a
substitutionof one pipe by a slightlydifferentone would
,aN not pose any technicalproblems.
The secularFaenzasettingsmay thus be intended for
two typesof positivesdifferingin size: (1) largepositives
having 42 keys, Bb, c, d-f'", perhapslooking similarto
that shown by van Eyck;(2) little positives having 36
keys,f-e"', perhapssimilarto that shown on the tapestry
.".?rj La damea la licorne.It should be pointed out that both
types of instrumentsare tiny in comparisonto mobile
chamber organs of the 17th and 18th centuries, which
contain 300 pipes or more, the greatestpipe being of a
similarsize as that of the largertype of 15th-centuryposi-
tives. There can be no doubt that the 15th-century
instrumentscould be carriedveryeasily.Certainly,they
could be broughtto any room wherethey were needed,
e.g. to rooms for festivities,but perhapsalso to princely
chapelspossessingno organ.
Concerning the compass of other keyboardinstru-
ments, we can rely on data given by Henri Arnaut,who
gives the keys of two different portatives as B-f" and
B-a";however,the diametersof the pipes show thateach
key sounds an octavehigherthan written.'9The harpsi-
chord describedby Arnautcoveredthe notes B-a" and
the clavichordB-b".2oNone of these compasses is suf-
2 Angelsmakingmusic.Detailof thealtar-piece
ficient for transposition of the treble or the tenor of
TheMystic
Lambin the Churchof St Bavo,Ghent,paintedby Janvan Faenzasettings.Only those settings in which the voices
Eyck.(Anotherpanel of the altar-pieceis reproducedon do not crosscould be performedon these instruments.If
p.452.) the Faenza music is really intended for keyboard

464 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1992

instruments-and the notation clearlyspeaksin favour
of this assumption-the instrumentsused for execution
of the pieces must primarilyhave been church organs
and variouskinds of mobile organswhich in early15th-
centuryItalyand Francehad a greatercompass than all
other keyboardinstruments.
We should now direct our attention to furtherprob-
lems which might arise from octave transpositionsof
only one voice. Theoretically,such transpositionscould
lead to violations of rules of counterpoint:if the treble
originallystands a consonant 5th below the tenor, the
transpositionof the treblewill result in a dissonant 4th
above. This is insignificantif the treble moves quickly,
but it may become noticeableif the intervalis sustained
for a long time. In a few passageswithin the Faenzarep-
ertory-probably no more than four-the treble sus-
tains a 5th below the tenor. Two of these passagesare
shown in ex.i (furtherexamplesmay be found in no.4,
Ex.i (a) Le ior, bars 9-11; (b) Setting no.23 (no name), bars
179-81
(a)
(b)
Honte, paour, bar 25, and no.11, Le ior, bar 51). After
transpositionof the treble,these exampleswould clearly
violate the 14th-centuryrule that dissonancesshould be
short and leading to consonances."Indeed, the author
of the Faenzasettingsnowherewrotea 4th of suchlength
and prominent position. On the other hand, he did not
care very much about contrapuntal rules: a great
number of parallel5ths and octavescan be found in his
settings.It is not at all clearwhethera few falselytreated
4ths were of any importanceto him.
In fact, upward-directedoctave transpositionsof the
highestvoice must havebeen a common process.As has
been substantiatedby Howard MayerBrown,22instru-
mental ensembles shown by 15th-century pictures,
especially ensembles of soft instruments, did perform
chansons,even though such ensemblesare nevershown
playing from written music. Portatives are often
depicted together with string instruments-McGee's
articlecontainsa beautifulpictureof such an ensemble.23
If these soft ensembles performed chansons, the por-
tative must have transposed the highest voice by an
octave,since in most chansonsthe treblevoice descends
belowthe lowest b of portatives.This is confirmedby the
fact that Arnautdenotes the keys of portativesan octave
lower than the pipes actuallysound.
So far we have shown that in certain cases octave
transpositionsof single voices in a polyphonic context
must have taken place. But do we have any indications
that organplayerstransposedjust the treble,leavingthe
tenor untransposedor vice versa?In my opinion, the
fact that Italianand Frenchchurchorgansand positives
had a manual compass exceedingthe compass G-f" of
all written music of that time by approximatelyan
octave constitutes a strong argumentin favourof such
transpositions.What was the musical value of such a
wide compassif not to offerthe possibilityof simplifying
the performanceof intabulationsby execution of the
voices in differentoctave registers?Moreover,we have
evidence of such octavetranspositionsof single partsin
the tabulationsfor organ of Adam Ileborghof Stendal,
written down in 1448.24 Whereasnone of Ileborgh'sset-
tings denoted with manualitershow any crossing of
voices, voice-crossing is frequent in all other settings,
which were probably executed with double pedal and
righthand, the left hand sometimesenrichingthe three-
part texture by a fourth voice.25 Since pedal keys of
organsin north-easternGermanyand on the isle of Got-
land had their own pipes since at least the 14thcentury
and sounded an octave below the lowest octave of the
manual,26the lowervoices of Ileborgh'scomposition for
pedal organ must have sounded an octave lower than
notated, whereasthe treble must have been executedat
the notatedpitch, at least if the manualwas based on an
8'-rank. If the manual was based on a 4' -rank, the
lower voices must have sounded as notated and the
treble must have been transposedto the higher octave.
Presumablythe authorof the Faenzamanuscriptinten-
ded just the same transpositions, the sole difference
from Ileborghbeingthat he playedthe tenorwith the left
hand, since positives did not have a pedal.
Finally,we may ask why the author of the Faenza
Codex did not simply write the music at the desired
pitch. I presume he did not do so because this would
necessitatea lot of subsidiarylines. The resultingnota-
tion would be difficult to read. We should perhaps
remind ourselvesthat even today this is the reason for
octave-transposed notation of certain treble instru-
EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1992 465
ments, such as the descant recorder. No notational sign
indicates this transposition!
We can conclude, first, that the Faenza repertory is
primarily intended for execution on church organs and
positives of two different sizes, and second, that either
the tenor was executed an octave lower or the treble an
octave higher than notated, at least in those settings
which contain crossings of tenor and treble. Since secu-
lar settings were performed on positives with B (or per-
haps Bb) or f as the lowest note, the tenor in these
settings must have been performed at the notated pitch,
whereas the treble in most cases sounded an octave
higher than notated. The liturgical settings were played
either on positives with a lowest note of B or on church
organs. The latter often sounded an octave lower than
positives. In this case, the treble was executed at the
notated pitch level and the tenor was transposed down
by an octave.
RolandEberleinis scientificassistantat the Musicological
Instituteof the Universityof Cologne.
`0C.Clutton, 'Arnault'sMS',GSJ,v (1952),PP.3-8;E. A. Ripin, 'The
'For facsimileeditions see MusicologicalStudiesand Documents,x Early Clavichord', MQ, liii (1967), pp.518-38
(American Institute of Musicology, 1961), and Musica disciplina, "K.-J.Sachs, Der Contrapunctusim 14. und 15.Jahrhundert(Wies-
xiii-xv (1959-61). For a modern transcription see Keyboard Music of the
LateMiddleAgesin CodexFaenza117,ed. D. Plamenac,CorpusMen-
surabilisMusicae,Ivii(1972).Forstudiesof the manuscriptand its con-
tents see C. van den Borren,'Lecodex de JohannesBonadiesmusicien
du XVesickle',Revuebelged'archeologieet d'historiede l'art,x (1940),
pp.251-61; D. Plamenac, 'Keyboard Music of the 14th Century in Codex
Faenza 117',JAMS, iv (1951), PP.179-201; M. Kugler, Die Tastenmusik im
CodexFaenza,MiinchnerVer6ffentlichungenzur Musikgeschichte,xxi
(Tutzing, 1972).
2T.J. McGee, 'Instrumentsand the FaenzaCodex',EM,xiv (1986),
pp.480-9o
Timothy J. McGee
Once again, the Faenza Codex
A replyto RolandEberlein
The Faenza Codex presents a continuing puzzle to mod-
ern scholars because of its odd combination of repertory
and extraordinary technical demands. Dr Eberlein is not
alone in voicing reservations about my solution to the
problem of the intended instrument or instruments;
others have expressed similar hesitations both in person
and in print. He rightly points out several problems with
the solution I have proposed, and presents a novel and
very interesting theory of his own. While in the end I
466 EARLY MUSIC AUGUST 1992
3Plamenac, 'Keyboard Music . .. in Codex Faenza 117' p.185; W.
Apel, Geschichteder Orgel- und Klaviermusikbis 1700 (Kassel,1967)
pp.25-9
4Plamenac,'KeyboardMusic... in Codex Faenza117,p.185
5Kugler,Die Tastenmusik,
p.38
6McGee,'Instrumentsand the FaenzaCodex',p.488
7KeyboardMusic.. . in Codex Faenza 117
8R.Lunelli,Der Orgelbauin Italienin seinenMeisterwerken
vom 14.
Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart (Mainz, 1956), pp.49-51
'Lunelli,Der Orgelbauin Italien,p.11
,oP.Hardouin,Legrandorguede NotreDame de Paris(Tours,1973),
pp.1, 8
"G. Durand, Les orgues de la cathedrale d'Amiens (Paris, 1903),
p.17
zu Sitten',Val-
'2E.Schiess,'Die gotischeOrgelin der Valeria-Kirche
lesia, x (1955), pp.89f.
'3G.Le Cerfand E.-R.Labande,Lestraitesd'Henri-Arnautde Zwolle
et de divers anonymes (Paris, 1932)
14K. Bormann, Die gotische Orgel zu Halberstadt(Berlin, 1966),
pp.163-6; N. Dufourq, Esquisse d'une histoire de l'orgue en France du
XIlle au XVIIIe sikcle (Paris, 1935), p.71
5'M.Praetorius,Syntagmamusicum,ii: De organographia (Wolfen-
biittel, 1619/R Kassel, 1958), pp.109-113
16Bormann, Die gotische Orgel zu Halberstadt, pp.169-70
'7M.Tiella, 'The Positive Organ of Lorenzo da Pavia (1494), The
Organ Yearbook,vii (1976), pp.4-15
'"8pHardouin, 'TwelveWell-known Positive Organs: Useful Evi-
dence or Difficult Problems?', The Organ Yearbook,v (1974), pp.20-29
'gBormann, Die gotische Orgel zu Halberstadt, pp.154-9
baden, 1974), PP.140-50
"H. M. Brown, 'Instrumentsand Voices in the Fifteenth-Century
Chanson',CurrentThoughtin Musicology,ed. J. W. Grubbs (Austin,
1976), pp.89-137
23McGee, 'Instrumentsand the FaenzaCodex',p.481
24W. Apel, 'Die Tabulaturdes Adam Ileborgh',Zeitschriftfiir Mu-
sikwissenschaft, xvi (1934), PP.193-212
2SKeyboardMusic of the Fourteenthand FifteenthCenturies,ed. W.
Apel, Corpus of Early Keyboard Music, i (1963), pp.28-32
26H.Klotz, Uberdie Orgelbaukunst derGotik,derRenaissanceunddes
Barock (Kassel, 1975), PP.1, 12, 33
cannot agree with his solution, I thank him for pres-
enting some new data about 15th-centuryorgans and
welcome the opportunityto re-addressthe problem. I
would like first to answerthree of his stated objections
and then to deal with his main thesis.
Point i. The numberof occasionswhen two notes are
called for simultaneouslyin either the trebleor tenor is
verysmall,but when it does occur it is eitheron the first
note of a phrase (as in no.26, bar 45), or at a cadence;