Literary movements
when thought about carefully, could
In literature, the term "movement" refers to a division of
written works. They are separated out into their
similarities and features.
A periods of time in which groups of writers, artists, and
intellectuals share similar ideas, themes, and styles in
their creative works. These movements often arise in
response to cultural, social, political, or philosophical
shifts and can have a significant impact on literature and
other forms of artistic expression.
Literary Movements
1. Metaphysical
2. Symbolists
3. Harlem Renaissance
4. The Beats
5. Confessional
6. New York School
7. Black Arts Movement
1. Metaphysical
 Within poetry, the metaphysical centres around
the exploration of abstract ideas and
philosophical concepts. 'Meta' means beyond,
and 'physics' refers to our physical world, so
Metaphysics means beyond our world or outside
of the ordinary.
 The term 'Metaphysical poets' was coined by
Samuel Johnson in 1779 to categorize a loose
collection of seventeenth-century poets that
shared similar characteristics.
 Metaphysical poetry is a style of poetry that
flourished in the 17th century in England,
characterized by its use of complex metaphors,
intellectual or philosophical concepts, and often
playful or paradoxical language to explore the
human experience.
 Metaphysical poetry often explores themes
related to religion, morality and love, and it's
known for its highly intellectual and imaginative
nature, and for its use of metaphysical conceit,
which employs elaborate and extended
metaphors to connect seemingly unrelated
things or ideas.
Main Key Characteristics
1. Intellect-
 One of the features of metaphysical
poetry is the use of wit, complex
philosophy, and paradoxes. A paradox
is a statement that seems to lack
common sense and contradict itself, but
actually be true.
 "Busy old fool, unruly sun, Why dost
thou thus, Through windows, and
through curtains call on us?"- John
Donne, The Sun Rising, Line 1-3
 "Thine age asks ease, and since thy
duties be. To warm the world, that's
done in warming us. Shine here to us,
and thou art everywhere: This bed thy
centre is, these walls, thy sphere."
2. The use of conceit
 The metaphysical poets made the
conceit popular, using it so regularly that
the technique was harshly criticised as
drawn-out and unnecessary. A conceit is
an extended metaphor that commonly
lasts for the entirety of a poem. They are
often complex, far-fetched, and
unconventional.
 "If they be two, they are two so. As stiff
twin compasses are two. Thy soul the
fixed foot, makes no show to move, but
doth, if the other do. And though it in the
centre sit, Yet when the other far doth
roam, It leans, and hearkens after it,
And grows erect, as that comes home."
John Donne, A Valediction: Forbidden
Mourning, Line 25-32
3. Abstract ideas versus the physical world
 A key characteristic of metaphysical
poetry is the idea that the physical,
spiritual, and emotional world are
interconnected. Metaphysical poets will
often draw unusual comparisons
between physical ideas and abstract
concepts.
 "As lines, so loves oblique may well.
Themselves in every angle greet; But
ours so truly parallel, Though infinite,
can never meet. -Andrew Marvell,
The Definition of Love, Line 25-28
Metaphysical Poets
1. John Donne
 Donne was born in England in 1572 to Roman
Catholic parents. He is the defining metaphysical
poet and is known for his intellectual,
philosophical wit and his depiction of the
paradoxes of love and religious faith. His work
commonly includes conceits that force
seemingly incompatible concepts together.

2. Andrew Marvell
 Born in Yorkshire in 1621, Marvell studied at
Cambridge before becoming a tutor and
eventually an influential politician. His poems did
not receive much recognition in his lifetime, and
it was not until 1681, three years after his death,
that his collection of Miscellaneous Poems was
published. Some of his most famous works, 'To
His Coy Mistress' (1681), The Definition of Love'
(1681), and 'The Mower' (1681) include the wit,
intricate comparisons and philosophical
discussions associated with metaphysical
poetry, leading to him being grouped with the
likes of Donne, Vaughan and Herbert.
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4. Henry Vaughan
 Vaughan was born in Wales in 1621, and trained
to be a lawyer after a brief stint at Oxford
University. After being inspired by the work of
George Herbert, Vaughan returned to spirituality
and religion, and produced his most famous
works of religious poetry, which featured in Silex
Scintillians' (1650). Like many metaphysical
poets, Vaughan's work includes clever use of
metaphor and alliteration to create complex,
elaborate imagery.
2. Symbolists
 Symbolism began as a literary movement in
France in the 1880s during a period of enormous
change and upheaval in Europe. The term first
came into circulation in 1886 when the poet
Jean Moréas published his 'Symbolist Manifesto'
in the Parisian newspaper Le Figaro.
 Symbolist art shifted the emphasis from the
direct representation of nature to the world of the
imagination. Instead of describing something
with precise, realistic detail or stating facts they
used personal metaphors and symbols, evoking
a meaning or feeling.
Themes of Symbolism
 Mysticism and Spiritualism- Symbolist
literature often explored themes of mysticism,
spirituality, and the supernatural. Writers were
interested in transcending the material world and
accessing deeper, spiritual truths.
 Sensuality and Emotion Symbolist writers
focused on sensory experiences and emotions,
often conveying a sense of heightened
awareness and intensity.
 Escape from Reality- Symbolist literature was
characterized by a desire to escape from the
mundane realities of everyday life and access
realms of imagination, dreams, and the
subconscious.
 Synesthesia-Symbolist poets often employed
synesthetic imagery, blurring the boundaries
between different senses and creating a sense
of heightened perception.
Themes of Symbolism
Death: My Irony Surpasses all Else!, lithograph by
Odilon Redon, 1889; in the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C.
...(more)
Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.,
Rosenwald Collection, 1943.3.7381
Symbolist Writers
 Charles Baudelaire: Often considered a
precursor to the Symbolist movement,
Baudelaire's poetry in works like "Les Fleurs du
mal" ("The Flowers of Evil") explores themes of
urban alienation, decadence, and the spiritual
quest.
 Stéphane Mallarmé: A leading figure of the
Symbolist movement, Mallarmé's poetry is
known for its esoteric symbolism, linguistic
experimentation, and emphasis on the power of
language to evoke deeper meanings.
 Arthur Rimbaud: Rimbaud's poetry, particularly
in works like "Les Illuminations" ("The
Illuminations") and "Une Saison en Enfer" ("A
Season in Hell"), is celebrated for its visionary
language, surreal imagery, and exploration of
the limits of language and consciousness.
3. Harlem Renaissance
 The movement began after a period called 'The
Great Migration' during the 1910s when many
formerly enslaved people in the South moved
north in search of work opportunities and greater
freedoms after the Reconstruction Era of the late
1800s. In the urban spaces of the North, many
African Americans were allowed greater social
mobility and became part of communities that
created invigorating conversations about Black
culture, politics, and art.
  The Harlem Renaissance was an artistic
movement that lasted roughly from 1918 to 1937
and centred in the Harlem neighbourhood of
Manhattan in New York City. The movement led
to the development of Harlem as the heart of an
explosive revival of African American arts and
culture, including, but not limited to, literature,
art, music, theatre, politics, and fashion.
 Black writers, artists and scholars sought to
redefine 'the Negro' in the cultural
consciousness, moving away from racial
stereotypes created by a white-dominant
society. The Harlem Renaissance formed an
invaluable foundation for developing African
American literature and consciousness through
to the Civil Rights movement that happened
decades later.
Example
"We younger Negro artists who create now intend to
express our individual dark-skinned selves without fear
or shame. If white people are pleased we are glad. If
they are not, it doesn't matter. We know we are beautiful.
And ugly too."
('The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain' (1926),
Langston Hughes)
Great Authors
 Langston Hughes: Hughes was one of the
most prominent figures of the Harlem
Renaissance, known for his powerful poetry that
captured the joys, sorrows, and aspirations of
African American life. His works include "The
Negro Speaks of Rivers," "Montage of a Dream
Deferred, and "The Weary Blues."
 Zora Neale Hurston: Hurston was a pioneering
novelist, folklorist, and anthropologist known for
her vivid portrayals of African American culture
and folklore. Her most famous work, "Their Eyes
Were Watching God," is considered a classic of
American literature
 Claude Mekay: McKay was a Jamaican-born
poet and novelist whose work explored themes
of race, identity, and social justice. His poems,
such as "If We Must Die" and "Harlem
Shadows," are powerful expressions of
resistance and resilience.
 Jean Toomer: Toomer's novel "Cane" is a
groundbreaking work that blends poetry, fiction,
and drama to explore the lives of African
Americans in the rural South and urban North.
Significance
 The creative period of the Harlem Renaissance
seemed to decline after the 1929 Wall Street
crash and into the subsequent Great Depression
of the 1930s. By then, significant figures of the
movement had moved from Harlem to seek work
opportunities elsewhere during the recession.
The 1935 Harlem Race Riot can be called the
definitive end of the Harlem Renaissance.
 Even with the movement over, the legacy of the
Harlem Renaissance still stood as an important
platform for growing cries for equality in the
Black community throughout the country. It was
a golden period for the reclamation of African
American identity. Black artists began to
celebrate and proclaim their heritage, using it to
create new schools of thought in art and politics,
creating Black art that resembled the lived
experience more closely than ever before
 The Harlem Renaissance stands as one of the
most significant developments in African
American history, and indeed American history.
It set the stage and laid the foundations for the
Civil Rights movement of the 1960s. In the
migration of Black people in the rural,
uneducated South to the cosmopolitan
sophistication of the urban North, a revolutionary
movement of greater social consciousness
emerged, where the Black identity came to the
forefront of the world stage. This revival of Black
art and culture redefined how America and the
rest of the world and viewed African Americans
and how they viewed themselves.
4. The Beats
The term 'Beat Generation' was coined in a conversation
between Jack Kerouac and John Clellon Holme in 1948.
Kerouac used the word 'beat' to describe his post-war
generation, after hearing it used by Herbert Huncke, their
group's unofficial 'underworld' guide. The term caught on
after being used by Holme in the now famous 1952 New
York Times Magazine article, titled 'This Is the Beat
Generation'. The piece led to the mainstream use of the
term and the creation of the widely popular image of a
'beatnik'. A beatnik was portrayed as a young, rebellious
intellectual who wore turtlenecks and had a moustache.
This was not really in line with the reality of the writers
and poets of the Beat Movement.
Themes and Characteristics
 Rejection of Conformity: Beat writers rebelled
against the norms and values of mainstream
 society, advocating for personal freedom,
spontaneity, and nonconformity. They rejected
materialism, consumerism, and the pursuit of
traditional success.
 Spiritual Quest: Many Beat writers were
interested in Eastern philosophy, mysticism, and
spirituality. They sought transcendence and
enlightenment through experiences such as
meditation, drug use, and travel.
 Exploration of Taboos: Beat literature often
explored taboo subjects such as sexuality, drug
use, and unconventional lifestyles. Writers
challenged societal taboos and pushed the
boundaries of acceptable discourse.
 Spontaneous Writing: Beat writers embraced a
spontaneous, improvisational style of writing,
influenced by jazz music and Eastern haiku
poetry. They often rejected traditional literary
forms and structures in favor of free verse,
stream-of-consciousness, and automatic writing.
 Outside of recurring themes depicting the
rebellion against traditional values and an interest
in American and Eastern mythology, the Beat
Movement was also characterised by some
existing techniques such as stream of
consciousness prose. Inspired by Herbert
Huncke, the Romantics, and poets like Walt
Whitman and William Carlos Williams, they
emphasised the personal, free-thinking, and
spontaneous writing. Key characteristics also
included an interest in jazz rhythms and the
generalized rejection of academic formalism.
 The most famous example of a stream of
consciousness adaptation in a Beat Generation
novel by Jack Kerouac's On the Road (1957).
 Can you see how Kerouac uses the narrator's
stream of consciousness in the sentence below?
"It seemed like a matter of minutes when we began
rolling in the foothills before Oakland and suddenly
reached a height and saw stretched out ahead of us the
fabulous white city of San Francisco on her eleven
mystic hills with the blue Pacific and its advancing wall of
potato-patch fog beyond, and smoke and goldenness of
the late afternoon of time."
 The term 'stream-of-consciousness' was coined
in William James theory of consciousness,
presented in his 1890 work Principles of
Psychology. This theory argued that our minds
work in a continuous, uninterrupted flow.
 William James (1842-1910) was an American
philosopher and psychologist, who is known as
the 'father of American psychology'. In literature,
stream-of-consciousness refers to a narrative
style that parallels the continuous flow of an
individual's mental processes
 The Beats' use of free verse tied into their
rebellion against the formal structures of prose
and poetry. It is also linked to their intercultural
appreciation of the improvisational approach of
bebop jazz, another form of rebellion against
classical structures.
 Example of free verse can be seen in Allen
Ginsberg's Beat poem Kaddish (1957). Written
after the death of his mother, Noami, it has no
rhyme scheme, irregular punctuation, and widely
varying line lengths, with run-on sentences.
Although it makes extensive use of many other
traditional poetic devices such as repetition,
overall the poem is in completely free form.
 "Strange now to think of you, gone without
corsets & eyes, while T walk on the sunny
pavement of Greenwich Village.
downtown Manhattan, clear winter noon, and
I've been up all night, talking, talking, reading the
Kaddish aloud, listening to Ray Charles blues
shout blind on the phonograph
the rhythm the rhythm" -Allen Ginsberg Beat
poem Kaddish
Beat Writers
 Jack Kerouac: Kerouac's novel "On the Road"
is perhaps the most famous work of the Beat
Generation. It chronicles the cross-country
travels of Kerouac and his friends, capturing the
spirit of spontaneity, adventure, and rebellion
that defined the Beat movement.
 Allen Ginsberg: Ginsberg's poem "Howl" is a
landmark work of Beat literature, celebrated for
its raw emotion, unfiltered language, and
powerful critique of American society. Ginsberg's
other notable works include "Kaddish" and
"America."
 William S. Burroughs: Burroughs' novel "Naked
Lunch" is a surreal, hallucinatory exploration of
addiction, sexuality, and control. His
experimental writing style and unconventional
subject matter made him a central figure in the
Beat movement.
 The Beat Generation had a lasting impact on
American literature and culture, influencing
subsequent literary movements such as the
counterculture of the 1960s and the punk
movement of the 1970s.
  Beat literature inspired generations of writers,
artists, and activists to challenge authority,
question societal norms, and seek alternative
forms of expression and existence.
 The Beat Generation's emphasis on
individualism, creativity, and rebellion continues
to resonate with audiences today, making it one
of the most enduring and influential literary
movements of the 20th century.
Confessional Poets
5. Confessional
 Confessional poetry is a movement that came to
prominence in the late 1950s and 1960s in the
United States. The confessional poets wrote
deeply personal poems, often tackling complex
subjects like mental health and sexuality. The
poems are described as confessional because
they explore the depths of human experience.
Rather than focus on the everyday aspects of
life, the confessional poets would often explore
life's darker moments.
 Some confessional poets discussed their failing
marriages, while others spoke of suicide
attempts. The openness of confessional poetry
was seen as a reaction to the conventional
ideals of domesticity held at the time.
 Confessional poets often used direct language
and intense imagery through metaphor to reflect
on their experiences. The language used is often
simple and colloquial when depicting traumatic
events. Some critics have described the style as
a form of lyric poetry, while others have argued
that it is an extension of the Postmodernism
movement.
Themes and Characteristics
1. Autobiographical Writing: Confessional poets
wrote from personal experience, often drawing
directly from their own lives, emotions, and
struggles. Their work was deeply introspective
and autobiographical.
2. Exploration of Taboo Subjects: Confessional
poetry delved into taboo subjects that were often
considered private or shameful, such as
depression, suicide, addiction, and dysfunctional
family relationships.
3. Raw Emotion: Confessional poets expressed
raw, intense emotions in their work, often with a
sense of urgency and immediacy. Their writing
was characterized by emotional honesty and
vulnerability.
4. Use of Symbolism: While Confessional poetry
was deeply personal, it also employed
symbolism and metaphor to explore universal
themes of human experience, such as love, loss,
and identity.
5. Breaking Down Barriers: Confessional poets
sought to break down the barriers between the
personal and the public, challenging societal
taboos and norms surrounding mental health,
sexuality, and identity.
 W. B. Snodgrass Despite disliking the title, W.
B. Snodgrass is considered the 'father' of
confessional poetry. Snodgrass was born in
Pennsylvania, USA, and studied under fellow
confessional poet Robert Lowell. His first
collection, Heart's Needle (1959), was a deeply
personal account of his detachment from his
daughter following a divorce. It was considered
one of the first examples of confessional poetry
and won Snodgrass the Pulitzer Prize.
 Robert Lowell was born on 1st March 1917, in
Boston, Massachusetts, USA. In the 1940s,
Lowell wrote more traditional forms of poetry
using rhyme and meter. Towards the end of the
1950s, he began writing more personal poetry.
Lowell's collection Life Studies (1959) was
another early example of confessional poetry.
The collection used less traditional techniques
and explored the psychological and familial
struggles he faced at the time.
 Sylvia Plath Born on 27th October 1932 in
Boston, Massachusetts, USA, Sylvia Plath is
perhaps the most well-known of the confessional
poets. Plath could be considered more famous
for her troubled personal life, which is reflected
in her poetry. Plath wrote poems about her
struggles with mental health and often
referenced her suicide attempts. She also wrote
about her fractious relationship with her
husband, the poet Ted Hughes, and her father.
Plath committed suicide in 1962, at the age of
30.
 Although confessional poetry came to
prominence in the 1950s and 1960s, the style
remains popular in modern poetry. Marie Howe
and Sharon Olds are two popular poets who
often publish highly personal poems that are
considered contemporary confessional poetry.
 Olds' poetry often tackles themes such as
sexuality and gender discrepancies. Olds'
personal poems have won her acclaim
internationally, winning both the Pulitzer Prize in
the United States and the T.S Eliot prize in the
 United Kingdom. Marie Howe's collection What
the Living Do (1997) is a highly personal account
of her brother's death from an HIV-related
illness.
Confessional Poets Examples
 "Daddy" (1965) Sylvia Plath's poem was written
in 1962 and at a tumultuous period in the poet's
life. Plath wrote the poem not long after she
separated from the poet Ted Hughes and not
long before she took her own life. The poem
speaks of Plath's difficult relationship with her
father, Otto. The poem compares Otto Plath's
oppressive nature of her husband. The poem
consists of 16 quintains and has no consistent
meter or rhyme scheme.
 "Night Sweats"(1964) Robert Lowell's poem
'Night Sweats' is from his collection For the
Union Dead (1964). The poem is a highly
personal account of a writer's anxiety and fear of
an incapacity to write. Robert Lowell had
difficulties with mental health and anxiety which
are reflected in this biographical poem. The
poem depicts the sometimes crippling nature
anxiety can hold in the night.
 The poem has a unique form of two sonnets put
together to make one 28-line poem. Lines 1-14
are in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet
followed by the Petrarchan form in the remaining
lines. The poem follows the rules for each form
and therefore has two rhyme schemes; the
opening quatrain has a rhyme scheme of ABBA
and the following two a rhyme scheme ABAB
with a rhyming couplet for lines 13-14. The
following Petrarchan half has a rhyme scheme of
ABAB CAAC DEF FED. TCL
 "Her Kind" (1960) From the collection To
Bedlam and Part Way Back' (1960), Anne
sexton's poem has a speaker who takes on the
persona of various witch-like characters. Each of
these women rejects traditional views of
womanhood and find themselves ostracized for
it. The speaker then goes on to say how these
women can find kinship with each other and
strive to live outside the patriarchy. The poem is
made up of three septets and told in free verse,
perhaps to reflect the wild nature of the
characters.
6. New York School
 The New York School originated in New York
City. This movement is not associated with a
literal school, instead it refers to a creative
community with similar artistic styles and
subject matter. A group of poets who lived in
New York City and produced modernist poetry
during the 1950s and 1960s.
 The New York School was focused on everyday
events and topics, featuring references to
popular culture, conversational language, and
humour. As a sub-genre of the post-modernist
literary movement, the New York School sought
to break away from traditional styles associated
with academia. This movement can be
considered the antithesis of confessional
poetry, discussing contemporary issues in a
light-hearted rather than serious manner.
Famous Poets
First Generation
Frank O'Hara, James Schuyler, Kenneth Koch, and John
Ashbery were all early members of the New York School
of poets. They moved to, and lived in New York during
the 1950s.
 At this time, events such as the Second Red
Scare and the Korean War were influencing the
American political culture and social discourses.
The fear of communism, generated by the
Second Red Scare led to censorship and
intellectual suppression. Through their poetry,
this group of writers attempted to find their
own escape from the suppressive culture of the
time, creating pieces that reflected on Current
issues and broke traditional poetic conventions.
Second Red Scare- A period of ten years (1947-1957) in
the United States of America, during which the
widespread fear and persecution of communism was
promoted by the government.
Korean War - A conflict between the Communist North
of Korea, backed by the Soviet Union, and the
Democratic South of Korea, backed by the United States
of America, which lasted from 1950 to 1953.
Frank O'Hara - was an American poet and curator at the
Museum of Modern Art who lived from 1926 to 1966.
 O'Hara wrote poetry about his own personal
experiences. Through his work he sought to
capture the rhythms and realities of everyday
life and present them in a life-like way to
readers, stating that poetry should be 'between
two persons instead of two pages.'
John Ashbery was a critically acclaimed American poet
who lived from 1927 to 2017. During his lifetime he won
multiple awards including the Pulitzer Prize, the Yale
Younger Poets Prize, and a MacArthur Genius' Grant.
 He is best known for his 1975 collection Self-
Portrait in a Convex Mirror, for which he won a
Pulitzer Prize.
 Ashbery's poetry is characterised by how it
pushed the boundaries of typical structures in
verse. For instance, The Tennis Court Oath
(1962) contained multiple poems which broke
away from traditional forms and expectations.
The longest poem in the collection, Europe',
was divided into three sections, and contained
references to the 1917 novel Beryl and the
Biplane by William Le Queux, among other
popular media.
James Schuyler-was a poet who lived from 1923 to
1991. In 1981, Schuyler was awarded a Pulitzer for
his poetry collection The Morning of the Poem
(1980), prior to this, Schuyler received the Longview
Foundation Award in 1961 and the Frank O'Hara
Prize for Poetry in 1969. As he was producing a
number of poetry collections, Schuyler worked as a
curator at the Museum of Modern Art and wrote for
the publication Art News.
The first generation of the New York School was
influenced by the abstract expressionism art movement.
This influence can be linked to many of the School's
prominent poets working in art galleries. For instance,
both Frank O'Hara and James Schuyler worked at the
Museum of Modern Art.
Second Generation
 The second generation of the New York School
was not as tightly linked to New York City as the
first generation. For instance, Alice Notley, Ted
Berrigan and Bill Berkson all studied at the
University of Tulsa in Oklahoma.
 Similar to the first generation, these poets
broke the traditional rules of poetry. It has been
argued that the second generation was more
influenced by the pop-art movement than by
abstract expressionism
Alice Notley - was one of the prominent poets of the
New York School's second generation. Born in 1945,
Notley has published a total of 40 poetry collections
during her lifetime, her work added another aspect to
the New York School, exploring aspects of womanhood
in everyday life. Notley's poetry collections include; 165
Meeting House (1971), When I Was Alive (1980), and
The Descent of Alette (1996).
"Why I Am Not A Painter" (1957)
 Frank O'Hara's use of simple language, direct
speech, and free verse in his poem Why I Am
Not a Painter' causes his work to appear more
as a piece of prose than verse. The poem takes
a conversational tone, exploring why O'Hara is a
poet, not a painter. For instance, in the poem
second stanza O'Hara's makes use of direct
speech contributing to the sense that this poem
is a piece of prose rather than verse:
Second Generation
Ted Berrigan - was an American poet and the husband
of Alice Notley up until his death in 1983. Berrigan's
work was heavily influenced by the Beat Generation,
taking an expressionist style. He believed that poetry
should not be limited to expressing one idea or subject
but instead should follow the mind's stream-of-
consciousness. Berrigan's most famous work, The
Sonnets (1964), was privately published at first, before
being reissued in 1966 by Grove Press.
 "Why I Am Not A Painter"(1957)
  Direct speech is commonly used in novels rather
than poems. By utilising this technique in his
poem O'Hara produces a conversational tone,
reflective of everyday life and experiences.
 "Wrong Train" (1971)
 Ted Berrigan's poem 'Wrong Train' presents
the experience of someone waiting for a train to
the afterlife. The poem's narrative is structured
to portray the speaker's steady realisation that
they're waiting for a train to the afterlife.
Berrigan makes use of caesura and enjambment to
create a fragmented rhythm, as though the speaker is
noticing aspects of the scene around them.
Wrong Train" (1971)
Caesura - A break in a line of verse created with
punctuation
Enjambment - When a sentence carries on from one
line of verse onto another
"Wrong Train" (1971)
Here the caesura of 'Says. Shut up. & like that' creates
notable pauses in the rhythm, indicating that the 'fat
guy' is speaking in a harsh and blunt tone. The use of
enjambment between 'we cross a river' and 'into the
Afterlife' continues Berrigan's use of pauses, emphasize
the speaker's realization that they are journeying to 'the
Afterlife.
Poetry Characteristics
Witty Tone
A witty and humorous tone characterised poems
produced by the New York School. This style of poetry
developed in opposition to the traditional, melancholic,
and serious approach taken by World War Two poets
when discussing current events. Although poems from
the New York School dealt with serious issues, they did
so in a conversational way, with moments of humour.
Experimental Punctuation
"May I never be afraid especially of myself but
Well you're being true aren't you and
you talk so wonderfully in your body
that protects you with physique of voice
raps within dance
Muhammed Ali are you telling May I never be afraid."
('30th Birthday', Lines the truth? 1-10)
7. Black Arts Movement
The Black Arts Movement was the name given to a
group of politically motivated black poets, artists,
dramatists, musicians, and writers who emerged in the
wake of the Black Power Movement. The poet Imamu
Amiri Baraka is widely considered to be the father of the
Black Arts Movement, which began in 1965 and ended
in 1975.
3 Groups
1. the Revolutionary Nationalists, who were
best represented by the Black Panther Party,
and
2. the Cultural Nationalists.
3. the creation of poetry, novels, visual arts,
and theater to reflect pride in black history and
culture.
There was also collaboration between the cultural
nationalists of the Black Arts Movement and
mainstream black musicians, particularly celebrated jazz
musicians including John Coltrane, Thelonious Monk,
Archie Shepp, and others. Cultural nationalists saw jazz
as a distinctly black art form that was more politically
appealing than soul, gospel, rhythm and blues, and
other genres of black music.
The movement began to fade when Baraka and other
leading members shifted from Black Nationalism to
Marxism in the mid-1970s, a shift that alienated many
who had previously identified with the movement.
Additionally Baraka, Nikki Giovanni, Gil Scott-Heron,
Maya Angelou, and James Baldwin achieved cultural
recognition and economic success as their works began
to be celebrated by the white mainstream.
OVERVIEW_________________________
TRADITIONAL CRITICISM
Traditional Literary Criticism is an approach to study
literature. It evaluates an author's biographical
information: their culture, background, and history.
Traditional critic's aim is to discover author's biography
and how his past is shown in his works.
Traditional Criticism is above all criticism, it was used
throughout the world in different countries and
cultures, such as in Asia and Greece. It has been around
as far as ancient times, it was mostly used in describing
arts, and poetry such as Shakespeare, but evolved to
the various literary criticisms we see today.
APPROACHES
HISTORICAL- BIOGRAPHICAL
Critics see works as the reflection of an author’s life and
times. It is believed that it is necessary to know about
the author and the political, economical, and
sociological context of his/her times in order to
understand his/her works. This approach assumes that
the significance of a particular piece of literature is
inextricably linked to its historical context.
MORAL-PHILOSOPHICAL
Critics believed that the larger purpose of literature is to
teach morality and to prove philosophical issues. Moral-
philosophical critics evaluate literary works based on
the moral statements and judgments the characters and
author express throughout the literary text.
SOCIOLOGICAL CRITICISM
Evaluates literature based on its relationship to society.
The sociological criticism method examines the author’s
status in their society as well as the effect that the
literary work had on its audience within the society.
One form of sociological criticism is Marxist criticism,
which examines how a specific work of literature affirms
or rejects oppression within class systems.
PRACTICAL CRITICISM
This study of literature encourages readers to examine
the text without regard to any outside context—like the
author, the date and place of writing, or any other
contextual information that may enlighten the reader.
READER-RESPONSE
Reader-response criticism is rooted in the belief that a
reader’s reaction to or interpretation of a text is as
valuable a source of critical study as the text itself.
SEVERAL INFLUENTIAL FIGURES
1. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) - Often regarded as one
of the earliest literary critics, Aristotle's
"Poetics" laid the foundation for analyzing
elements like plot, character, and spectacle.
2. 2. Samuel Johnson (1709–1784) - Known for
his critical essays and work on the "Lives of the
Poets," Johnson's contributions helped shape
the canon of English literature in the 18th
century.
3. 3. Matthew Arnold (1822–1888) - An influential
critic in the Victorian era, Arnold's essay "The
Function of Criticism at the Present Time"
emphasized the role of criticism in elevating
literature.
4. 4. T.S. Eliot (1888–1965) - Renowned poet and
critic, Eliot's essays, such as "Tradition and the
Individual Talent," explored the importance of
tradition and the collective literary past.
5. 5. I.A. Richards (1893–1979) -A key figure in the
Practical Criticism movement, Richards focused
on reader response and the analysis of
individual reader interpretations.
6. 6. F.R. Leavis (1895–1978) - Leavis, a prominent context in which a literary work was produced.
literary critic, co-founded the critical movement It examines the social, political, and cultural
known as Leavisism, which emphasized close influences that may have shaped the work and
reading and moral engagement with literature. its reception.
7. 7. E.M.W. Tillyard (1889–1962) - Tillyard,
associated with historical criticism, explored the
relationship between literature and history in
works like "The Elizabethan World Picture.
8. 8. Harold Bloom (1930–2019) - Known for his
theories on the anxiety of influence and the
concept of the "canon," Bloom had a significant
impact on literary criticism in the latter half of
the 20th century.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRADITIONAL CRITICISM

1. Close Reading - Traditional literary criticism

focuses on close reading of the text, examining
its language, structure, themes, and symbols. It
emphasizes a detailed analysis of the literary
elements and techniques used by the author.
2. 2. Author-Centric - Traditional criticism often
places significant importance on the author's
intentions, biography, and historical context. It
aims to understand the author's message,
purpose, and artistic choices in creating the
work.
3. 3. Objective Analysis - Traditional criticism
strives for objectivity and impartiality in
evaluating literary works. It emphasizes the use
of evidence from the text to support
interpretations and judgments.
4. 4. Canonical Works - Traditional criticism tends
to focus on works that are considered classics or
part of the literary canon. These works are
often seen as representative of a particular time
period, genre, or literary tradition.
5. 5. Emphasis on Meaning and Interpretation -
Traditional criticism seeks to uncover the
meaning and significance of a literary work. It
explores different interpretations and
perspectives, aiming to understand the deeper
themes and messages conveyed by the author.
6. 6. Historical and Cultural Context - Traditional
criticism considers the historical and cultural