CP01sem3ProductionTechnology2020

DIPLOMA IN TOOL
ENGINEERING AND
DIGITAL
MANUFACTURING
CP01
SEMESTER 3
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY -
MASTERFILE
Prepared by: Mr. Rahul E M

Modified by: Mr. Fernandas A S
Verified by: Mr. Jayaraj B Manu George
Rev No : 0 SME: Mr. Fernandas A S
Released Date: 02/01/2020
TABLE OF CONTENTS
14.0 MILLING II ................................................................................................................................... 2
14.1 Cutting speed – Feed – Depth of cut – Machining time ..................................................................... 3
14.2 Indexing ............................................................................................................................................ 11
15.0 GRINDING II............................................................................................................................... 16
15.1 Taper grinding................................................................................................................................... 16
15.2 Grinding wheel ................................................................................................................................. 17
15.3 Dressing of wheel ............................................................................................................................. 23
15.4 Machining time calculations ............................................................................................................. 26
15.5 Tool and cutter grinder ..................................................................................................................... 26
16.0 BROACHING .............................................................................................................................. 29
16.1 The process of broaching.................................................................................................................. 29
16.2 Different types of broaching tools.................................................................................................... 31
17.0 JIG BORING AND JIG GRINDING .................................................................................................. 34
17.1 Jig boring & Jig grinding .................................................................................................................... 34
18.0 SUPER FINISHING PROCESS ........................................................................................................ 39
18.1 Honing............................................................................................................................................... 39
18.2 Lapping ............................................................................................................................................. 42
19.0 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINES ............................................................................................... 47
19.1 Electric discharge machining (EDM) ................................................................................................. 47
19.2 Electrode........................................................................................................................................... 50
20.0 MANUFACTURING PROCESS....................................................................................................... 54
20.1 Casting .............................................................................................................................................. 54
20.2 Mechanical working of metals.......................................................................................................... 64
20.3 Powder metallurgy ........................................................................................................................... 73
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NTTF_DIPLOMA IN TOOL ENGINEERING & DIGITAL MANUFACTURING_SEMESTER 3_PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY PAGE 1
14.0 MILLING II
Introduction
The efficiency of a milling operation depends upon the cutting speed, feed, and
depth of Cut used during the machining operation.
Cutting speed is defined as the speed at which the work moves with respect to the
tool (usually measured in meter per minute).
The cutting speed, must not be confused with the spindle speed of the lathe which
is expressed in RPM.
To obtain uniform cutting speed, the lathe spindle must be revolved faster for
workplaces of small diameter and slower for workplaces of large diameter.
The proper cutting speed for a given job depends upon the hardness of the
material being machined, the material of the tool bit, and how much feed and
depth of cut is required.
Feed rate is defined as the distance the tool travels during one revolution of the
part.
Cutting speed and feed determines the surface finish, power requirements, and
material removal rate.
The primary factor in choosing feed and speed is the material to be cut. However,
one should also consider the material of the tool, rigidity of the workpiece, size
and condition of the lathe, and depth of cut.
The depth of cut is the distance that the tool bit moves into the work.
Usually measured in thousandths of an inch or millimetres. General machine

practice is to use a depth of cut up to five times the rate of feed.
14.1 Cutting speed – Feed – Depth of cut – Machining time
The cutting speed for a milling cutter is the speed at which the cutting edge or
tooth cuts into the workpiece.
It is expressed in meters per minute.
The following important factors must be considered when determining the proper
revolutions per minute at which to machine metal.
 Type of work material

 Cutter material
 The diameter of the cutter
 Surface finish required
 Depth of cut being taken
 The rigidity of the machine and work set up.
Since different types of metals vary in hardness, structure, and machinability

different cutting speeds must be used for each type of metal and various cutter
materials.
Calculation
Cutting Speed V = πDN m/min

1000
N (r.p.m) = V X 1000
πXD
Since only a few machines are equipped with a variable speed drive that allows
them to be set to the calculated speed, a simplified formula can be used to
calculate the revolution per minute.
Then (π value 3.14) on the bottom line of the formula will divide 1000 of the top
line approximately 320 times. This results in a simplified formula that is close
enough in most milling operations.
V (m) x 320
N (r.p.m.) =
D (mm)
Where 'D' is the diameter of the cutter.
Example
Calculate the revolutions per minute required for Ø75mm high speed steel cutter
when cutting machine steel (V = 30 m/min.)
N (r.p.m) = V X 1000
πXD
= 30 x 1000
3.14 x 75
= 127.4
Milling feeds and depth of cut
The two other factors which affect the efficiency of a milling operation are the
milling feed or the rate at which the work is fed into the milling cutter and the
depth of cut taken at each pass.
Feed
Feed is the rate at which the work moves into the revolving cutter.
It is measured in millimeters per minute (mm/min.)
The feed is expressed in milling machines by following three different methods.
Feed per tooth
The feed per tooth is defined by the distance the work advances in the time
between engagements by two successive teeth.
It is expressed in mm/tooth of the cutter.
Feed per cutter revolution
Feed per cutter revolution is the distance the work advances in the time when the
cutter runs through one complete revolution.
It is expressed in mm/revolution of the cutter.
Feed per minute
Feed per minute is defined by the distance the work advances in one minute.
It is expressed in mm/minute.
The rate of feed affects the life of the cutter. An increase in feed, using the same
cutting speed and depth of cut will reduce the amount of wear of the cutter.
In general-we can say that the:
 Cutting speed should be reduced when feed is increased.
 Cutting speed should be increased when feed is reduced.
The feed rate on a milling machine depends on a variety of factors
 Width and depth of cut

 Type of cutter
 The sharpness of the cutter
 Workpiece material
 Strength and uniformity of the workpiece
 Type of finish and accuracy required
 Power and rigidity of the machine
Calculation
The formula used to find the work feed is,
Feed mm/min (S) = N x Cpt x r.p.m.
Where N = number of teeth in milling cutter
Cpt = chip per tooth for a particular cutter
r.p.m = Revolution per minute of the milling cutter.
Example
Calculate the feed in mm/min. for an Ø75, six-tooth helical carbide milling cutter
when machining a cast iron workpiece (V = 60 and Cpt = 0.18).
First, calculate the r.p.m. of the cutter
N (r.p.m) = V X 1000
πXD
= 60 x 1000
3.14 x 75
= 254.78
Feed mm/min (S) = N x C.p.t x r.p.m.
= 6x0.18x254.78 = 275 mm/min.
Depth of cut
The depth of cut is the depth to which

the cutter penetrates the workpiece
surface during a given cut.
It is the perpendicular distance measured between the original and the final
surface of the workpiece.
Where a smooth and accurate finish is needed, it is a good practice to take

roughing and finishing cuts.
Roughing cuts should be deep with a feed as heavy as the work and machine will
permit with low cutting speed Heavier cuts may be taken with helical cutters
having fewer teeth than with those having many teeth.
Cutters with fewer teeth are stronger and have great chip clearance than cutters
with more teeth.
Finishing cuts should be light with a fewer and fine feed than is used in roughing
cuts. The depth of cut should be at least 0.4 mm.
Light cuts and extremely fine feeds are not advisable since the chip taken by each
tooth will be thin and the cutter will often rub the surface of the work.
When a fine finish required, the feed should be reduced rather than the cutter
speed; more cutters are dulled by high speed than by high feeds.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NN3vOblJQQ8
Machining time for milling
Importance of machining time
Time means money. Any engineering product should be manufactured in

the shortest time possible to the required accuracy and quality. Machining time is
one of the main factors for the cost estimation of a product. It is always good to
plan how much time is needed for a particular milling operation. This will also
enable you to plan for the appropriate machine the right type of cutters, selection
of speed, feed, etc. To save time and increase productivity.
The total machining time depends on:
 The length of the workpiece to be machined
 The method of milling employed i.e. rough or finish milling
 The size of the cutter.
The selection of a milling cutter should be such that the width of the job is covered
by the cutter in one pass.
If the width of the workpiece is more than the width of the cutter, machining has
to be done by more than one pass.
The total time, therefore, depends on the number of passes also. The total time
required to mill a surface for any milling operation is calculated from the formula
Total travel of the cutter (L)

Total time for milling (th) =
Feed per revolution (S)
The total travel of the cutter 'L' is equal to l + la + lx
Where l = length of workpiece to be milled
la = run up travel of the cutter from the start of cut to go to the full given
depth
Ix = run over the minimum distance the cutter has to move away from the
work after the cut is taken.
Calculation of (la)
By Pythagoras Theorem,
We have
Where d = cutter diameter
a = cutting depth
Calculation of 'U'
Feed per tooth = Sz in mm
Feed for revolution S = Sz X Z mm
Feed for n revolutions u = Sz X Z X n mm/min
Where 'U' = total feed per minute
Z = number of teeth of the cutter
n = r.p.m. of the cutter.
Calculation of 'th'
CD = Depth = 'a'
OB = Radius of cutter = d/2 BC = AD = la
To determine the milling time, the total travel of the cutter L is calculated and it is
equal to l + la + lx where I is the length of work, la is the run up to be calculated as
equal to a (d - a) and Ix will be the known value.
Example
A milling cutter of 80 mm diameter has nine teeth. It is to mill a 240 mm long
workpiece. The run over is 4 mm and the depth of cut is 5 mm. Cutting speed of 12
meters/min and feed per tooth of 0.15 mm have been selected. Determine the
milling time.
14.2 Indexing
Indexing is the operation of dividing the periphery of a

workpiece into any number of equal parts. While cutting the
spur gear, equal spacing of the teeth on the gear blank is
performed by indexing.
The indexing head can also be used for producing a square or

hexagonal bolt, cutting splines on shafts, fluting drills, taps,
reamers, etc. This operation is performed on a milling machine
using an indexing attachment which is called indexing head or
the diving head.
Types of indexing heads
The most common types of indexing heads are
 Direct indexing head
 Simple indexing head
 Angular indexing head
Direct indexing head
The direct indexing is also called rapid

indexing, and it is used when a large number
of pieces are indexed with a small division.
The required number of divisions on the work
is obtained using the rapid index plate which
is fitted at the front end of the spindle nose.
The plate has 24 equally spaced holes. The
spring-loaded pin can be pushed into any of
the holes to lock the spindle with the frame.
For indexing, the pin is taken out first and then spindle is rotated by hand, and
after the required position is reached it is again locked by the pin.
When the plate is turned through the required part of the revolution, the diving
head spindle and the work are also turned through the same part of the
revolution. With a rapid indexing plate of 20 holes, it is possible to divide the work
into an equal division of 2,3,4,6,8,12 and 24 parts which are all the factors of 24.
To find the indexing movement, find the total number of holes in the direct index
plate by the number of divisions required in the work.
If N is the number of divisions required on the work then,
Index crank movement = No. of holes in the index plate

No. of divisions required
= No. of holes in the index plate

N
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SzhLg121aZk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8pa2ZCvxq58
Example
If six slots are to be machined and the 30 circles located
Index crank movement = No. of hole s in the index plate

No. of divisions required
= 30 = 5
6
The pin is inserted in every fifth hole of the 30 holes circle.
Plain or simple indexing head
Simple indexing is also called as

plain indexing. It is more accurate
and has a large range of indexing
than direct indexing.
For indexing, the dividing head

spindle is turned by the index crank.
The worm shaft carrying the crank has a single threaded worm that meshes with
worm gear having 40 teeth. 40 turns of the crank are necessary to rotate the index
head spindle through one revolution. Therefore, one complete turn of the index
crank will cause the worm wheel to make 1/40 of a revolution.
To facilitate indexing to the fraction of a turn, an indexing

plate is used to cover practically all numbers. The index
plate with a circle of holes manufactured by the brown
and sharp company is.
Plate No.1 -15, 16, 17,18,19,20

Plate No.2 - 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33
Plate No.3 - 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49
The formula for simple indexing

40
Index crank movement =
N
'N' is the number of divisions required.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W_nh-ZIm6fQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MRA6d0fPqgI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NoHaCXS5n4g
Example
Find the number of turns of the crank required to index 12 divisions.
3 complete turns and 1/3 of a turn for each division.
To index the fractional part of a turn, select an index plate that has a circle of holes
exactly divisible by the denominator of the fraction. In this case. 3 - Assuming that
a plate is chosen to have a circle of holes equal to 24, then the number of holes
that the index pin would have to move for 1/3 of a turn would be.
Each-division would require three complete turns of the index crank and 8 holes
on the 24 holes circle.
Angular indexing head
The angular indexing is the process of

dividing the periphery of work in angular
measurements.
There are 360 degrees in a circle, and then

the index crank is rotated by 40 number of
revolutions, and the spindle rotates
through one complete revolution or 360
degrees, one complete turn off the crank
will cause the spindle and the work to
rotate through 360/40 = 9 degrees.
Therefore, to turn the work through a

required angle, the number of turns
required for the index crank can be
calculated by the number 9.
Angular displacement is expressed in minutes then the turn of the index

crank can be calculated by dividing the angle by 540. If it is expressed in
seconds then it is divided by 32400. When a result is a whole number, the
index crank is rotated through the full calculated number.
If the result is a fraction and a whole number, the part of the revolution of
the crank after turning the whole number is calculated by multiplying is
suitable for numbers to the numerator denominator of a fraction,
defecation to make the denominator of the fraction is equal to the number
of holes in the index plate circle and the now numerator number for holes
to be moved by the index crank.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Da3nrDD8KGA
Example
Turns of crank (T) = Degree to be indexed (D)
9
Index for 45°
T = D/9
= 45/9
= 5 complete turns.
Index for 122°
T = 122/9
= 13 5/9 turns
That is 13 complete turns and 5/9 of a turn. This is obtained by setting an index
plate with a circle of holes divisible by 9 and setting the sector arms of 5/9 of a
turn
15.0 GRINDING II
15.1 Taper grinding
Tapered surfaces are ground on cylindrical

grinding machines. One method of doing slow
tapers are by swivelling the machine table to
the required angle.
Large tapers having an angle beyond the

capacity may be dealt with on the universal
machine by swinging and feeding the wheel
head slide at the proper angle.
When the wheel head is twisted the wheel,

itself should be adjusted and trimmed so that
its face is parallel with the direction in which it
moves.
Gear tooth grinding
Gear grinding is the process of creating the teeth

or splines on a gear. The teeth of gears are ground
on gear grinding machines either by generating
process or by a forming process in which formed
wheels are used.
The generating process is illustrated in the figure.

Makes use of two saucer - shaped grinding
wheels, whereas in the formed wheel grinding of
gear a special fixture is used.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FHKjEMSYMIE
Wet grinding
An ordinary wet grinding machine uses a coolant box, which spreads a large
amount of coolant (more often soda water coolant) over the work, wheel, face,
and sides. This dissipates the heat normally generated during grinding. The
temperature is about 2000°c. Wet cutting, therefore, promotes long wheel life.
The cut itself is of high quality. Any burr which may be produced is light and easily
removed or maybe even washed away in the cutting.
Dry grinding
Dry grinding produces two undesirable effects discoloration and burring.

Discoloration, which is an indication of the excessive heat generated in cutting, is
particularly unacceptable when machine operations are to follow the cutting off.
This is an indication of surface or skin hardening, which in turn affects
machinability. Burring cannot be eliminated in dry grinding.
15.2 Grinding wheel
Specification of grinding wheels
A grinding wheel is specified by the
 Standard wheel markings

 The diameter of the wheel
 The bore diameter of the wheel
 The thickness of the wheel
 Type (shape) of the wheel
A recessed wheel is specified with all the above given particulars plus the diameter
of the recess and the depth of the recess.
Example: 32 A 46 H 8 V
250 X 20 X 32
Straight wheel
Abrasives
A grinding wheel consists of an abrasive that does the cutting, and a bond that
holds the abrasive particles together. There are two types of abrasives.
 Natural abrasives
 Artificial abrasives
Natural abrasives
There are a few examples of natural abrasives which include sandstone (solid
Quartz); emery; corundum and diamond.
Artificial abrasives
The main artificial abrasives are silicon carbide and aluminium oxide. Artificial
abrasives are preferred in manufacturing of grinding wheels because of their
uniformity and purity.
'Brown' aluminium oxide is used for general purpose grinding of tough materials.
Aluminium oxide is used for grinding die steels. 'Green' silicon carbide is used for
very hard materials with low tensile strength such as cemented carbides.
Bond
Bond is the substance which, when mixed with abrasive grains, holds them
together, enabling the mixture to be shaped to the form of the wheel, and after
suitable treatment to take on the form of the wheel and the necessary mechanical
strength for its work.
The degree of hardness possessed by the bond is called the 'grade' of the wheel,
and this indicates the ability of the bond to hold the abrasive grains in the wheel.
There are several types of bonding materials used for making wheels.
Types of Bonds and their uses
Vitrified bond (V)

This is the most widely used bond. It has a high porosity and strength which makes
this type of wheel suitable for high rate of stock removal. It is not adversely
affected by water, acid, oils at ordinary temperature conditions.
Silicate bond (S)

Silicate wheels have a milder action and cut with less harshness than vitrified
wheels. For this reason, they are suitable for grinding fine edge tools, cutlery, etc.
Shellac bond (E)

This is used for heavy duty, large diameter wheels where a fine finish is required.
For example, the grinding of mill rolls.
Rubber bond (R)

This is used where a small degree of flexibility is required on the wheel as in the
cutting of the cutting off wheels.
Resinoid bond (B)

This is used for high-speed wheels. Such wheels are used in foundries for dressing
castings. Resinoid bond wheels are also used for cutting off parts. They are strong
enough to withstand considerable abuse.
Grain size
It is also called grit. It is decided based on

the number of holes in one-inch length of
the sieve used to filter the abrasive
particles. A larger number indicates finer
grain sizes. On the basis of grain size
abrasive particles can be categorized in
four categories as given on the side.
Find and very fine grain size is used for

precision grinding, however, coarse and
medium grain size is used for rough
grinding.
Grade
Grade of a grinding wheel is indicative of hardness and tenacity of the bond of

abrasives. It is represented by capital letters of alphabet ‘A’ to ‘Z’ as described
below
Structure
This indicates the amount of bond present between the individual abrasive grains,
and the closeness of the individual grains to each other. Based on structure
grinding wheels are called dense or open grinding wheels.
In case of dense grinding wheels, abrasive particles are densely packed as

compared to open grinding wheels with larger porosity. An open structured wheel
will cute more freely. That is, it will remove more metal in a given time and
produce less heat. It will not produce such a good finish as a close structured
wheel.
Selection of an appropriate structure depends on the hardness of workpiece

material; The required quality of surface finish; and type of grinding operation.
Normally open structure wheels are recommended for rough grinding and softer
materials. Dense structured grinding wheels are recommended for hard and
brittle materials.
Different types of grinding wheels according to shape
Grinding wheels are made in different shapes and sizes for grinding different jobs
and for use in different machines. The size may differ in diameter, face width, and
bore dia. The following are the standard shapes of grinding wheels.
Straight wheel: Type 1 (Fig 1)
This type of wheel is used on cylindrical, surface

and centreless grinders for grinding cylindrical
and flat surfaces. Sometimes this type of wheel
is used on rough grinders for offhand grinding.
Cylinder: Type 2 (Fig 2)
This type of wheel is used on both horizontal and

vertical spindle surface grinders for the surface
grinding operations.
Tapered (both sides) Type 4 (Fig 3)
It is mainly used for rough grinding. The

tapered sides reduce the chance of breaking.
Recessed both sides: Type 5 (Fig 4)
It is used for cylindrical, surface and

centreless grinding. The recess provides
clearance for the flange
Straight cup: Type 6 (Fig 5)
It is used on surface grinders and on tool and

CL grinders to grind flat surfaces.
Recessed both sides: Type 7 (Fig 6)
Used on cylindrical, surface and centreless grinders.

T recesses provide clearance for both flanges.
Flaring cup: Type 11 (Fig 7)
It is used on tool and cutter grinders mainly to sharpen

milling cutters and reamers.
Dish: Type 12 (Fig 8)
Used on tool and cutter grinders to sharpen milling

cutters with narrow slots like formed relieved cutters,
hobs, etc.
Saucer Wheels: Type 13 (Fig 9)
It is used for sharpening circular and hand saws. It is

also used for gashing milling cutter teeth.
Segmented wheels (Fig 10)
This type of wheels is formed by holding segments of

abrasives using a metal holder. This is mainly used on
a vertical spindle surface grinder.
Mounted wheels (Fig 11)
These are wheels with less than 50 mm dia.

formed on a steel shank to various shapes.
Mounted wheels are mainly used for die
grinding, deburring, and finishing operations.
Used on pneumatic or electric grinders.
Types of wheel faces (Fig 12)
To do different operations different types of wheel

faces are produced by manufacturers.
Standard marking system for grinding wheels (IS1249-1958)
Standard wheel markings specify all the important wheel characteristics. The
marking system comprises of seven symbols, which are arranged in the following
order.
15.3 Dressing of wheel
The dressing is the process of breaking

away the glazed surface so that sharp
particles are again presented to the work.
The common types of wheel dressers are
 Star dresser
 Diamond dressers
This minimizes vibration and improves
surface finish.
Truing
Truing is the process of changing the shape of the grinding wheel as it becomes
worn from an original shape, owing to the breaking away of the abrasive and
bond. This is done to make the wheel true and concentric with the bore or to
change the face contour for form grinding. Truing and dressing are done with the
same tools, but not for the same purpose.
The only satisfactory method of truing a wheel is by the use of a diamond tool
similarly as explained before. In turning a wheel with a diamond, the feed rate
must not exceed 0.02 mm, otherwise grooves may be cut into the wheel.
Balancing the wheel
Due to continuous used a grinding wheel may become out of

balance. It cannot be balanced either by truing or dressing.
Here it is important to explain the meaning of a
balanced wheel. It is the coincidence of center
of mass of wheel with its axis of rotation.
Wheels that are out of balance produce poor

quality of surface and put undue strains on the
grinding machine. Balancing of the wheel is
normally done at the time of its mounting on
the grinding machine with the help of moving
weights around a recessed flange.
Small wheels may be balanced by milling a short recess on the inside of the
flanges and filling with lead. Large wheels should be placed on a balancing stand
and balanced by moving weights around a recessed flange. Nowadays, grinding
wheel mounts are provided with devices to enable balancing to be done whilst the
wheel is running and between grinding operations.
Mounting the wheel
Great care must take in mounting the grinding wheels on the spindle because of
the high cutting speeds of the grinding wheel. Fig. illustrate s mounting the
grinding wheel.
1. Spindle,
2. Flange,
3. Intermediate layer,
4. Wheel,
5. Screwed joint
The following points are important in connection with mounting the wheel
1. All wheels should be closely inspected just before mounting to make

sure that they have not been damaged in transit, storage, or otherwise.
2. The wheel must first be subjected to the ringing test. For this purpose,
the grinding wheel is put on an arbor while it is subjected to slight hammer blows.
A clear, ringing, vibrating sound must be heard. If a grinding wheel contains fine
cracks, a discordant sound that fails to vibrate will be emitted. This test applies to
vitrified and silicate wheels. Shellac, resinoid, or rubber loaded wheels will not ring
distinctly.
3. The abrasive wheels should have an easy fit on their spindles or
locating spigots. They should not be forced on.
4. The hole of grinding wheels mostly is lined with lead. The lead liner
bushes should not project beyond the side of wheels.
5. There must be a flange on each side of the wheel. The mounting
flanges must be large enough to hold the wheel properly, at least the flange
diameter must be equal to the half of the grinding wheel diameter. Both the
flanges should be of the same diameter, other-wise the wheel is under bending
stress which is liable to cause a fracture.
6. The sides of the wheel and the flanges which clamp them should be
flat and bear evenly all round.
7. All flanges must be relieved in the center so that the flanges contact
the wheel only with the annular clamping area. If they are not properly relieved,
the pressure of the flanges is concentrated on the sides of the wheel near the
hole, a condition that should be avoided.
8. Washers of compressible materials such as cardboard, leather,
rubber, etc. not over 1.5 mm thick should be fitted between the wheel and its
flanges. In this way any unevenness of the wheel surface is balanced and a tight
joint is obtained. The diameter of washers may be normally equal to the diameter
of the flanges.
9. The inner fixed flange should be keyed or otherwise fastened to the
spindle, whereas the outer flange should have an easy sliding fit on the spindle so
that it can adjust itself slightly to give a uniform bearing on the wheel and the
compressible washers.
10. The nut should be tightened to hold the wheel firmly. Undue
tightness is unnecessary and undesirable as excessive clamping strain is liable to
damage the wheel.
11. The wheel guard should be placed and tightened before the machine
is started for work.
15.4 Machining time calculations
Machining time for cylindrical grinding

Machining time T = L x i x K min
Sxn
Where, L = Length of longitudinal travel in mm.
i = Number of pass.
S = Longitudinal feed in mm per revolution.
n = Speed of the workpiece in r.p.m.
K = coefficient depending on the specified grade of accuracy and class
of surface. (for rough grinding K=1 to 12, for finish grinding K=1.3 to 1.7)
15.5 Tool and cutter grinder
In a machine shop, much of the machining operations is done by single

point tools or multi-point tools called milling cutters. The cutting tools
become blunt due to constant use, and need re-sharpening for continued
production.
Such re-sharpening is done in tool rooms, where a tool and cutter grinder is
used for this purpose.
A universal tool and cutter grinder is used to re-sharpen reamers, taps,

single point tool and milling cutters, dies and punches.
Parts and construction of tool and cutter grinder
Base
It supports all the other parts of the machine. The body and frame are in one unit.
The driving and feed mechanism are fitted in the body.
Saddle
It is on the top of the body; it carries the table and traverses crosswise to the table
movement.
Table
It is on the saddle. It reciprocates and can be swivelled to the required angle.
Column It is on the back of the machine and it carries the wheel head, which
moves up and down for the depth of cut.
Wheel head
It has two grinding wheel s on both ends of the spindle and can be swivelled to the
required angle (360°).
Work head
It is a separate part and is fitted on the table for cylindrical works. It is driven by a
separate motor fitted with the work head. It moves along the table and can be
swivelled to any angle (180°). A tailstock is provided for supporting the mandrel
between centers.
Specification of tool and cutter grinder
 The maximum diameter of the wheel that can be held in the spindle
 The maximum height of the job that can be ground
 The maximum length of the job that can be ground.
 The maximum breadth of the job that can be ground.
 Type of drive
a. Hydraulic
b. Electrical.
 Type number.
Attachments
A tool and cutter grinding machine are also used as a surface grinding, cylindrical
grinding, and internal grinding machine with the help of certain attachments.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=odjF3deve34
Example
An MS block of 600mm length has to be ground. A grinding allowance of a 0.6mm
has to be ground in 4 cuts. The speed of the machine table is 2m/min. ∅ of the
grinding wheel is 150mm.
Calculate machining time.
L = l + over travel = l + ∅ of wheel

= 600 + 150 =750
Machining time tm = 2 x L x l
V x 1000
= 2 x 750 x 4
2 x 1000
= 3 minutes
16.0 BROACHING
Introduction
Broaching (Fig 1) is the process in which a cutting tool

called broach is pushed or pulled through a hole or a
surface to remove metal by axial force. Both roughing
and finishing can be done in a single pass.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAJx-6SLdP0
16.1 The process of broaching
Different types of broaching machines and its working principle
Three types of broaching machines are normally used.
 Vertical broaching machine
 Horizontal broaching machine
 Rotary Continuous surface broaching machine
Vertical broaching machine
The majority of the broaching machines used in industry are of the vertical type,
their main advantage being that minimum floor space is required. This machine
can be of pull-down, pull-up or push-down version.
Pull-up machines are available with capacities of 6 to 50 tonnes, strokes of up to

2m while pull-down machines come in the range of 2 to 50 tonnes with strokes of
up to 2.5m. Pull-down broaching is more common than pull-up broaching Modern
broaching machines generally have hydraulic drives
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6XIQy6Mon54
Horizontal broaching machine
This is invariably a pull-type. It is available with capacities ranging from 2 to 60

tonnes and strokes up to 3m. When the stroke required is large and the ceiling of
the building is limited, the horizontal version is preferred.
Heavy duty horizontal surface broaching machine available with capacities of up to

100 tonnes and s1 of up to 9m. Surface broaching can also be performed on
horizontal broaching machines using special fixtures.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S1njLLL0Rg0
Rotary continuous surface broaching machine
The work pieces are loaded on a series of work

holding fixtures that are mounted on a moving
endless chain. Thus, the work piece is fed to the
machine, guiding it accurately through a rigid
section of the stationary tool where broaching is
done.
For a very high production rate, this type of

machine is used. In this type of broaching, the work
piece must have one open side. Half rounds such as
connecting rod caps are best for chain-type
continuous broaching.
16.2 Different types of broaching tools
A broach is a cutting tool with a series of cutting edges. A broach has three cutting
zones such as roughing teeth, semi-finishing teeth, and finishing teeth. (Fig 2)
Broaches are mostly made of high-speed steel.
Elements of broaching tool
The broach tapers from the roughing teeth to the finishing teeth. Normally all the
finishing teeth are of the same size. Individual teeth have a land, cutting edge,
hook or face angle, gullet, and pitch.
The pitch of a broach is determined by
 The length of the cut

 The material being cut
 The size of the gullet
The length of the tool is determined by
 The amount of metal that must be removed

 The length of the machine stroke
 The required accuracy and the degree of finish
The size of the tooth gullet is related to the material to be cut and the type of
chips produced. The radius of the tooth root is designed so that the chips can be
carried away from the cutting edge. Chip breakers are provided to control the
chips.
Broaches are mostly made of high-speed steel. Some of the broaches have
inserted carbide cutting edges brazed on to the body of the broaching tool. The
beginning hole can be drilled or cored in a casting. The finished hole can be round,
square, rectangular, or of any required shape. (Fig 4)
Broaches can be used to cut single or multiple keyways in pulleys, gears, splines in
hubs and teeth in internal gears, ratchets, etc.
All machinable metals and non-metals can be broached.
External broaching can also be done. (Fig 5)
17.0 JIG BORING AND JIG GRINDING
17.1 Jig boring & Jig grinding
The jig boring machine is the most accurate of all machine tools. This was first
developed in the year 1910 in Switzerland and used as a locating machine. The
real jig borer was first built in the year 1917 by Pratt and Whitney
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3IubFcjy8-Y
Jig boring machines are now used for the production of jigs, fixtures, tools, and
other precision parts that require a high degree of accuracy. They are
characterized by provisions of highest accuracy through rigidity, low thermal
expansion, and precise means of measuring distance for accurately locating and
spacing holes.
The machining accuracy is very high, within a range of 0.0025 mm. A jig boring
machine resembles in, appearance to a vertical milling machine, but so far, its
operation and accuracy are concerned there cannot be any comparison between
the two.
The spindle and other parts of the machine are extremely rigid too, resist
deflection and the vibration are minimum. The spindle runs in preloaded
antifriction bearings, the spindle housings are made in invar having a very low
coefficient of linear expansion.
The jig boring machine requires to be operated in temperature-controlled rooms

where temperature can be maintained constant. This is essential to prevent
inaccuracy in the machine and in the work being manufactured due to the thermal
expansion of the metal.
Different types of jig boring machines
There are mainly two types of Jig boring machine.
 Vertical milling machine type
 Planer type
Vertical milling machine type
It resembles in construction to a vertical

milling machine. The spindle rotates on a
vertical column and the horizontal table rests
on the bed in front of the column. The
positioning of the work mounted on the table
may be obtained by compound movements of
the table, perpendicular, and parallel to the
column face.
Planer type
It consists of two vertical columns on the two sides of the table and is mounted on
the base. The table has a reciprocating movement for adjustment of the work. The
spindle is mounted on the cross rail bridging the two vertical columns. In a planer
type Jig borer, two co-ordinate movements for hole location are provided by the
longitudinal movement of the table and the cross movement of the spindle along
the cross rail.
Parts of a Jig borer
A jig borer has the essential elements of a vertical
spindle milling machine. For the sake of attaining
high accuracy, it is generally built lower to the floor
and is much more rigid and of accurate
construction. On the base of it, a saddle is
supported which moves in and out from the
operator to the column. To supplement the saddle
movement, a table is provided on it, which can
move to the right or left. It has a massive column
which supports the spindle housing and is capable
of moving up and down the column ways. Thus, the
third position adjustment is achieved.
The spindle moves inside a quilt and is supported by the housing or spindle head.
To add to the rigidity of the machine tool, the quill is made capable of moving up
and down inside the housing thus giving a telescoping mechanism. To eliminate
the lost motion for purpose of high accuracy and precision, the spindle quill and
housing are manufactured under extremely careful and exacting conditions and to
minimize the errors due to expansion, the housing is made of invar cast iron The
spindle is hardened, ground, stabilized and tapped and pre-loaded ball bearing are
used., The drying mechanism-provided is capable of giving speeds ranging from
about 30 to 1500 RPM. So that the best cutting speed is available for each size of
the hole. For aligning the job and centering it, use a dial indicator fitted on the
spindle is used. Usually, the operator located the points etc. from either a finished
edge or from a suitable hole while setting up for boring operation. The dial
indicator is used to pick up the surface and then with reference to it, the spindle
can be set.
Function
Jig boring machines are used for boring, drilling, countersinking, reaming, milling,
and other types of finishing in individual and small-scale production during the
manufacture of cutting and measuring tools, jigs, dies, and key components of
machines and instruments. Devices with stable and adjustable end gauges and
indicator sensing units are used on jig boring machines for precise measurements
also used are lead screws with dials and a Vernier which are equipped with error
elimination compensators and graduated shafts with optical measuring
instruments.
Jig grinding
The need for accurate hole locations in hardened material led to the development
of the jig grinder in 1940. While it was originally developed to position and grind
accurately straight or tapered holes, may other uses have been found for the jig
grinder over the years. The most important of these has been the grinding of
contour forms which may include a combination of radii, tangents, angles, and
fiats.
The advantages of jig grinding are.
 Holes distorted during the hardening process

can be accurately brought to the correct size
and position.
 Holes and contours requiring taper or draft
may be ground. Mating parts, such as
punches and dies can be finished to size,
eliminating the tedious Job of hand fitting.
 Because more accurate fits and better
surface finishes are possible, the service life
of the part is greatly prolonged.
 Many 'parts requiring contours -can be made
in a solid form, rather than in sections as was
formerly necessary.
Jig grinder Parts
The jig grinder is similar to a Jig borer, both having precision-ground lead screws
capable of positioning. The table within 0.002 mm accuracy over its entire length.
Both are vertical spindle machines and employ the same basic cutting principle
encountered in single-point boring. The main difference between these two
machines is in the spindles. The Jig grinder is equipped with a high-speed
pneumatic turbine grinding spindle for holding and driving the grinding wheel.
The spindle construction permits out feed grinding wheel. The spindle
construction permits out feed grinding and also the grinding of tapered holes. A
horizontal dovetail slide connects the grinding head to the main spindle of the jig
grinder. The grinding head may be offset from the center of the main spindle to
grind various size holes. The amount of eccentricity of the grinding head can be
accurately controlled by the internally threaded out feed dial which is mounted on
the non-rotating yoke at the top of the jig-grinding spindle. The dial is graduated in
steps of 0.002 mm permitting accurate control of the hole size during grinding.
Coarse adjustment of the grinding wheel position is obtained by a fine pitch
adjusting screw within the dovetail slide. This coarse-adjusting screw is accessible
only when the machine spindle is stopped.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l4yN8rIvVVk
Grinding Methods
The removal of material from a hole with a conventional

grinding wheel is carried out by two methods: out feed
and plunge grinding. Each method has its advantages, and
at times both can be used effectively to grind the same
hole. Small holes, less than 6.35 mm in diameter, can be
effectively ground by using diamond-charged mandrels.
Holes larger in diameter than the normal machine range
can be ground effectively if an extension plate is used
between the grinding spindle and the main spindle. With
the use of an extension plate, holes up to 228.6 mm
diameter may be ground.
Out feed Grinding
Out feed grinding is similar to internal grinding where the wheel is fed radially into
the work with passes as fine as 0.002 mm at a time. The cutting action takes place
with the periphery of the grinding wheel. Out feed grinding is generally used to
remove small amounts of stock when high finish and accurate hole size are
required.
Plunge Grinding
Plunge grinding with a grinding wheel can be compared to the cutting action of a
boring tool. The grinding wheel is fed radially to the desired diameter and then
into the work. Cutting is done with the bottom comer of the wheel only. It is a
rapid method of removing excess stock, and if the wheel is properly dressed, it
produces satisfactory finishes for some jobs. The sharp cutting action which results
from the small contact area of the wheel keeps the work cooler than outfeed
grinding.
18.0 SUPER FINISHING PROCESS
Introduction
Super finishing is an operation using bonded abrasive stones in a particular way to

produce an extremely high quality of surface finish in conjunction with an almost
complete absence of defects in the surface layer. A very thin layer of metal (0.005
to 0.02 mm) is removed in super finishing. This operation may be applied for
external and internal surfaces of parts made of steel, cast iron, and non-ferrous
alloys, which have been previously ground or precision turned. It is most
frequently used to obtain a very fine surface finish.
18.1 Honing
Honing is a super finishing process carried out using abrasive sticks for the removal
of stock from metallic and non-metallic surfaces.
Purpose
 Produces high surface finish

 Corrects the profiles of a cylindrical surface
 Removes taper
The process of honing
The honing tool with abrasives mounted on it is held on the spindle of a machine
which can be rotated in its axis. As the spindle rotates, a reciprocating motion is
also given to the tool. The surface produced will have a cross-hatched pattern.
(fig1 & fig2). This pattern of the surface texture provides better lubrication in
cylindrical bores.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TyZL90po6bg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Az-El3QHSlE
Application
Honing is used for finishing of bores in ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
Honing can be done in the hardened or un-hardened state.
Bores of any size, length, blind, or through, tandem, or interrupted surfaces can
also be honed.
Methods of honing
Manual stroking/Power stroking
Manual stroking is preferred for large quantities when tolerances are extremely
close. Many operators prefer this because of the flexibility in operation. This
eliminates the use of expensive fixtures to hold the work. Jobs can be quickly
changed from one type to another.
Jobs can be reversed from end to end for accurate honing and correction. The
stroke length can be altered depending on the actual requirement of the individual
workpiece. Power stroking is used for honing all types of workpieces. Power
stroking may prove to be economical particularly in the case of small parts.
Sometimes for final finishing, manual stroking is employed after power stroking.
The tools used for manual stroking consist of a mandrel, an abrasive stone with
holder, and a pair of shoes made of wear-resistant material with respect to
workpiece materials. (Fig 3)
The wedge controls the feeding of the abrasive
stone. The shoes stabilize and guide the tool in the
workpiece.
Power stroke tools will have abrasive stones
at an equal distance all around the circumference of
the tool. For feeding the abrasive stones, expanding
cones are provided. The tools are usually of a self-
aligning type with a double universal joint.
Honing stones
Honing stones consist of particles of aluminium oxide,

silicon carbide, or diamond bonded together with vitrified
clay, cork, carbon, or metal. The honing stones have a
porous structure and this helps for chip clearance.
The grit size of abrasives used ranges from 36 to 600 but

the most commonly used sizes are 120 to 320.
Uses of different abrasives
Aluminium Steel
Silicon carbide Cast iron & non-ferrous

Diamond metals Tungsten, ceramics
etc.
Cutting fluids
Cutting fluids are used while honing. The mineral oil commonly used in machining
operations is diluted in the proportion of one part of the oil with four parts of
kerosene before it is used for honing.
Advantages
 Variety of materials can be chosen

 Good surface finish
Dis advantages
 Equipment cost is quite high

 Tool wear is quite high
18.2 Lapping
Lapping is a precision finishing operation carried out using fine abrasive materials.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6doeORtYeU4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z6togIVqC4M
Purpose
 Improves geometrical accuracy.

 Refines surface finish.
 Assists in achieving a high degree of dimensional accuracy.
 Improves the quality of fit between the mating components.
Lapping process
In the lapping process, small amounts of

material are removed by rubbing the work
against a lap charged with a lapping
compound (Fig 1).
The lapping compound consists of fine
abrasive particles suspended in a ‘vehicle’
such as oil, paraffin, grease, etc.
The lapping compound is introduced between the workpiece and the lap chips
away from the material from the workpiece. Light pressure is applied when both
are moved against each other. Lapping can be carried out manually or by machine.
Hand lapping of flat surfaces
Flat surfaces are hand-tapped using lapping plates

made out of close-grained cast iron. The surface of
the plate should be in a true plane for accurate
results in lapping.
The lapping plate generally used in tool rooms will have

narrow grooves cut on its surface both lengthwise and
crosswise forming a series of squares. These grooves are
usually about 12 mm apart.
While lapping, the lapping compound collects in the serrations and rolls in and out
as the work is moved. Before commencing the lapping of the component, the cast
iron plate should be charged with abrasive particles.
This is a process by which the abrasive particles are embedded on to the surfaces
of the laps which are comparatively softer than the component being lapped. For
charging the cast iron lap, apply a thin coating of the abrasive compound over the
surface of the lapping plate.
Use a finished hard steel block and press the cutting particles into the lap. While
doing so, rubbing should be kept to the minimum. When the entire surface of the
lapping plate is charged, the surface will have a uniform grey appearance.
If the surface is not fully charged, bright spots will be visible here and there. The
surface of the flat lap should be finished true by scraping before charging. After
charging the plate, wash off all the loose abrasives using kerosene.
Then place the workpiece on the plate and move along and across, covering the
entire surface area of the plate. When carrying out fine lapping, the surface should
be kept moist with the help of kerosene.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ATG_UYYfx7w
Machine Lapping
It is used to finish a large number of similar

parts. This machine involves a rotating
lapping plate and conditional rings.
Conditional rings provide sits for work piece.
These rings rotate and rubbed the work
piece against the lapping plate. Abrasive
particles are provided with a suitable
medium like liquid or in powder form. This
rubbing remove metal in the form of
microchips and provides super finishing.
Wet and dry lapping
Lapping can be carried out either wet or dry. In wet lapping, there is surplus oil
and abrasives on the surface of the lap. As the workpiece, which is being lapped, is
moved on the lap, there is a movement of the abrasive particles also.
In the dry method, the lap is first charged by rubbing the abrasives on the surface
of the lap. The surplus oil and abrasives are then washed off. The abrasives
embedded on the surface of the lap will only be remaining. The embedded
abrasives act like a fine oilstone when metal pins to be lapped are moved over the
surface with light pressure.
However, while lapping, the surface being lapped is kept moistened with kerosene
or petrol. Surfaces finished by the dry method will have a better finish and
appearance. Some prefer to do rough lapping by a wet method and finish by dry
lapping.
Lap materials and lapping compounds
The material used for making laps should be softer than the workpiece being
lapped. This helps to charge the abrasives on the lap. If the lap is harder than
the workpiece, the workpiece will get charged with the abrasives and cut the
lap instead of the workpiece being lapped.
Laps are usually made of

 Close grained iron
 Copper
 Brass or lead.
The best material used for making lap is cast iron, but this cannot be used for all
applications. When there is excessive lapping allowance, copper and brass laps are
preferred as they can be charged more easily and cut more rapidly than cast iron.
Lead is an inexpensive form of lap commonly used for holes. Lead is cast to the
required size on the steel arbor. These laps can be expanded when they are worn
out. Charging the lap is much quicker.
Lapping abrasives
The commonly used abrasives are:

 Silicon carbide
 Aluminium oxide
 Boron carbide and
 Diamond
Silicon carbide
This is an extremely hard abrasive. Its grit is sharp and brittle. While lapping, the
sharp cutting edges continuously break down exposing new cutting edges. Due to
this reason, this is considered as very ideal for lapping hardened steel and cast
iron, particularly where heavy stock removal is required.
Aluminium oxide
Aluminium oxide is sharp but tougher than silicon carbide. Aluminium oxide is
used in un-fused and fused forms. Un-fused alumina (aluminium oxide) removes
stock effectively and is capable of obtaining high quality finish. Fused alumina is
used for lapping soft steels and non-ferrous metals.
Boron carbide
This is an expensive abrasive material that is next to diamond in hardness. While it
has excellent cutting properties, it is used because of the high cost only in
specialized applications like dies and gauges.
Diamond
This being the hardest of all materials, it is used for lapping tungsten carbide.
Rotary diamond laps are also prepared for accurately finishing very small holes
which cannot be ground.
Lapping vehicles
In the preparation of lapping compounds, the abrasive particles are suspended in
vehicles. This helps to prevent the concentration of abrasives on the lapping
surfaces and regulates the cutting action and lubricates the surfaces.
The commonly used vehicles are:

 Water soluble cutting oils
 Vegetable oils
 Machine oils
 Petroleum jelly or grease
 Vehicles with oil or grease base used for lapping ferrous metals.
Metals like copper and its alloys and other non-ferrous metals are lapped using
soluble oil, bentonite, etc.
In addition to the vehicles used in making the lapping compound, solvents like
water, kerosene, etc. are also used at the time of lapping.
Advantages
 The extreme accuracy of dimensions
 Correction of minor imperfections of shape
 Refinement of surface finish
 Producing a close fit between mating surfaces
Dis advantages
 It is a slow process
 It is an expensive process
19.0 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINES
19.1 Electric discharge machining (EDM)
Electro-discharge machining, commonly known as EDM or spark erosion involves a

controlled erosion of electrically conductive materials by the initiation of rapid and
repetitive spark discharge between the electrode tool (usually cathode) and
workpiece (anode) separated by a small gap of about 0.01 to 0.5mm known as a
spark gap. EDM electrodes may be made from metal or carbon (graphite) and
shaped by moulding or machining to the desired geometry (shape of the
workpiece).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L1D5DLWWMp8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kSIFiWSRpBw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UAvshdSXnKU
Dielectric fluid
The spark gap is either flooded or immersed under the dielectric fluid. This
dielectric fluid may be a light lubricating oil or kerosene and this fluid should be a
poor or non-conductor of electricity. The spark discharge is produced by the
controlled pulsing of the direct current between the work piece and the tool.
The fluid in the spark gap is ionized under the pulsed application of the direct
current, thus enabling a spark discharge to pass between the tool and the work
piece. Each spark produces enough heat to melt and vaporize a tiny volume of
work piece material, leaving a small crater on its surface.
Process of sparking
The workpiece and the tool are electrically

connected to a DC electric power. The work
piece is connected to the positive terminal of the
electric source so that it becomes the anode.
The tool is the cathode. A gap known as 'spark
gap ' in the ranges of 0.00 5 to 0.05 mm is
maintained between the workpiece and the tool,
and suitable dielectric slurry, which is non-
conductor of electricity is forced through this
gap at a pressure of 2 kgf/cm2 or less. When a
suitable voltage in the range of 50 to 450 V is
applied, the dielectric breaks down, and
electrons are emitted from the cathode and the
gap is ionized. In fact, a small ionized fluid
column is formed owing to the formation of an
avalanche, of electrons in the spark gap where
the process of ionization collision takes place. When more electrons collect in the
gap the resistance drops causing electric spark to jump between the workpiece
surface and the tool. Each electric discharge or spark causes a focused stream of
electrons to move with a very high velocity and acceleration from the cathode
towards the anode and ultimately creates compression shock waves on both the
electrode surface, particularly at high spots on the workpiece surface, which are
closest to the tool. The generation of compression shock waves develops a local
rise in temperature.
The whole sequence of operation occurs within a few microseconds. However, the
temperature of the spot hit by the electrons is of the order of 10,000° centigrade.
This temperature is sufficient to melt a part of the metal. The forces of electric and
magnetic fields caused by the spark produce a tensile force and tear off particles
of molten and softened metal from this spot on the workpiece. A part of the metal
may vaporize and fill up the gap. The metal is thus removed in this way from the
workpiece. The electric and magnetic fields on the heated metal cause a
compressive force to act on the cathode tool so that metal removal from the tool
is at a slower rate than that from the workpiece. Hence, the workpiece is
connected to the positive terminal and tool to the negative terminal. The current
density in the discharge of channel is of the order of 10000 A/cm2; the power
density, of the order of 500M/cm2.
Electro hydraulic servo control it is usually preferred. The servo gets its input signal
from the difference between a selected reference voltage and the actual voltage
across the gap. The signal is amplified and the tool, as it wears a little, is advanced
by hydraulic control; a short circuit across the gap causes the servo to reverse the
motion of the tool until the correct gap is established.
Spark generator
The spark generating circuit may be one of the following types
 Relaxation – generator
 Pulse-generator
The spark generator supplies current to a condenser, the discharge from which
produces the spark. The workpiece alternatively becomes a positive electrode
(anode) or a negative electrode (cathode) respectively. On each reversal of
polarity, the tool is eroded more than the workpiece. Hence, the tool wear is
greater with this type of arrangement.
The introduction of pulse generators has overcome the drawbacks of relaxation

generators. Pulse generators are available, fitted with transistorized pulse-
generator circuits in which reverse pulses are eliminated. These generators consist
of electronic switching units that let the current pass periodically. Modem pulse
generators possess the means of accurate control over discharge duration, pause
time, and the current. These factors determine the overcut and hence the
accuracy and surface finish. The tool wear is also greatly reduced.
Overcut
The shape of the area of the cavity produced in the workpiece should theoretically
be the same as that of the tool. This, however, is not exactly true because of the
overcut. Overcut is the distance the spark will penetrate the work piece from- the
tool and remove metal from the workpiece. Theoretically, it is slightly larger than
the gap between the end of the tool and the workpiece. The overcut is generally
0.025 to 0.2 mm, on all surfaces.
Over-cut causes internal comers on the workpiece to have fillets with radii equal
to the overcut. Another effect of overcut is to cause the radius of the cavity in the
workpiece slightly larger than the corresponding radius of the tool nose and also
to cause the radius of projection on the workpiece to be slightly lesser than the
radius of the cavity of the tool. This overcut is a function of the voltage of the
spark. The overcut increases with higher current and decreases with higher
frequency.
19.2 Electrode
The shape of the tool will be basically the same as that of the product desired
except that an allowance is made for side clearance and overcut. For broaching
small holes, solid rods may be used but for larger ones, hollow tools are preferred.
Dielectric may then be pumped through hollow tools. If an object is having a
geometric shape or is having some symmetry about some axis, a tool equal to only
a part of an object will be sufficient for complete machining of the object. Such
segmented tools are especially useful for machining complex shapes that do not
require close accuracy, it may sometimes be convenient to use a series of simpler
tools rather than a complex single tool to produce a particular cavity,
The material used for the tool influences the tool wear and the side clearance and
hence, in turn, it has considerable influence on the rate of metal removal, finish
obtained, and the production rate. Copper, yellow brass, zinc, graphite, and some
other materials are used for tools. Low wearing tools include silver-tungsten,
copper tungsten, and metalized graphite. For commercial applications, copper is
best suited for fine machining, aluminium is used for die-sinking, and cast Iron for
rough machining. One of the advantages of EDM is due to the fact that a tool
made of a material softer than the workpiece material and which is a good
conductor of electricity can be used to machine material of any hardness.
The wear of the tool in the EDM process due to electron bombardment is
inevitable. The tool wear rates to determine the machining accuracy, tool
movement, and the-too! consumption. The tool wear is a function of the rate of
metal removal, the material of the workpiece, current setting, machining area, gap
between the tool, and the workpiece and the polarity of the tool. It has been
found that the higher the too! material melting point, the less the tool wear.
Wear is best defined as. Wear ratio = Volume of work material removed/ Volume
of electrode consumed. This is often simplified to. Wear ratio = Depth of cut /
Decrease in the usable length of the electrode.
The wear ratio of carbon electrodes is up to 100:1. Other wear ratios (for cutting
steel) are copper 2:1; brass 1:1; copper tungsten 8:1. Thus, a piece of copper
cutting 25 mm deep into steel will wear 12.5 mm. These ratios are approximate
and will vary considerably.
Dielectric fluids
The essential requirements of dielectric fluid to be used in the EDM process are
that they should.
 Remain electrically nonconductive until the required breakdown voltage is

reached, i.e., they should have high dielectric strength.
 Breakdown electrically in the shortest possible time once the breakdown
voltage has been reached.
 Rapidly quench the spark or deionize the spark gap after the discharges
have occurred.
 Provide an effective cooling medium.
 Be capable of carrying away the swarf particles, in suspension, away from
the working gap.
 Have a good degree of fluidity.
 Be cheap and easily available.
Light hydrocarbon oils seem to satisfy these requirements best of all. The common
dielectrics used are kerosene, paraffin, transformer oil, or their mixture and
certain aqueous solutions. Water is an electrical conductor, gives a metal removal
rate of only about 40 percent of that obtained when using paraffin as a dielectric.
The dielectric should be filtered before reuse so that chip contamination of the
fluid will not affect machining accuracy. This is usually accomplished by filtration.
Metal removal rate (MRR)
The metal removal rate is generally described as the volume of metal removed per
unit time. The machining rate during roughing of steel with a graphite electrode
and 50A generator is about 400 mm/min and with a 400A generator. It is about
4800 mm/min.
For precision machining with low amperage and high frequency, the material
removal rate is as low as 2 mm^/min. It is, therefore, evident that the MRR - is
proportional to the working current value. The material being cut will affect the
MRR. Experiments indicate that the MRR varies inversely as the melting point of
the metal.
Accuracy
Tolerance value of + or - 0.05 mm could be easily achieved by EDM in normal

production. However, by close control of the several variables a tolerance of
±0.003 mm could be achieved, A typical taper value is about 0.005 to 0.05 mm per
100mm depth. The tapered effect decreases substantially to zero after about 75
mm penetration.
An overcut of 5 to 100 microns is produced, depending upon finishing or roughing.

The best surface finish that can be economically achieved on steel is 0.4 micron. In
'no wear machining, using a graphite electrode a surface finish within 3.2 microns
can be achieved.
Applications of EDM
The electrical discharge machining is used for the manufacture of tools having
complicated profiles and a number of other components. The decision to use EDM
process for either of these broad applications is usually based on one or more of
the basic characteristics inherent in the process.
The EDM provides an economic advantage for making stamping tools, wire
drawing and extrusion dies, header dies, forging dies, intricate mould cavities, etc.
It has been extremely used for machining of exotic materials used in aerospace
industries, refractory metals, hard carbides, and hardenable steels.
Delicate workpiece like copper parts for fitting into the vacuum tubes can be
produced by this method. The workpiece in this case is fragile to withstand the
cutting tool load during conventional machining.
Advantages
The extremely high popularity of the EDM process is due to the following
advantages
 The process can be applied to all the electrically conducting metals and
alloys irrespective of their melting points, hardness, toughness, or
brittleness.
 Any complicated shape that can be made on the tool can be reproduced on
the workpiece.
 Highly complicated shapes can be made by fabricating the tool with split
sectioned shapes, by welding, brazing, or by applying quickly setting
conductive epoxy adhesives.
 Time for machining is less than the conventional machining process.
 EDM can be employed for an extremely hardened workpiece. Hence, the
distortion of the workpiece arising out of the heat treatment process can be
eliminated.
 No mechanical stress is present in the process. It is due to the fact that the
physical contact between the tool and the workpiece is eliminated. Thus,
fragile and slender workpieces can be machined without distortion.
 Cratering type of surface finish automatically creates accommodation for
lubricants causing the die life to improve.
 Hard and corrosion resistant surfaces, essentially needed for die making, can
be developed.
Disadvantages
The following disadvantages of the process limit its application
 Profile machining of complex contours is not possible at required tolerances.

 Machining times are too long.
 Machining heats the workpiece considerably and hence causes a change in
surface and metallurgical properties.
 Excessive tool wear.
 High specific power consumption
20.0 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
20.1 Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mould where
it solidifies in the shape of the mould cavity. The term casting also applies to the
part made in the process
Steps in casting
 Melt the metal
 Pour it into a mould
 Let it freeze
Advantages of casting
 Can create complex part geometries
 Can create both external and internal shapes
 Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net shape
 Can produce very large parts
 Some casting methods are suited to mass production
Disadvantages of casting
 Limitations on mechanical properties
 Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes; e.g., sand
casting
 Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
 Environmental problem
Types of casting
Sand casting
Sand casting mould terms

Mould consists of two halves:
Cope = upper half of mould
Drag = bottom half
Mould halves are contained in a box, called a flask
The two halves separate at the parting line.
Forming the mould cavity
Mould cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern, which has the shape of
the part. When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity has the desired shape
of the cast part.
The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal as it solidifies and
cools. Sand for the mould is moist and contains a binder to maintain shape.
Cores in the mould cavity
The mould cavity provides the external surfaces of the cast part.
In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces, determined by a core, placed
inside the mould cavity to define the interior geometry of the part. In sand casting,
cores are generally made of sand.
Gating system
Channel through which molten metal flows into the cavity from outside of mould.
Consists of a down sprue, through which metal enters a runner leading to the main
cavity. At top of the down sprue, a pouring cup is often used to minimize splash
and turbulence as the metal flows into down sprue.
Riser
A reservoir in the mould which is a source of liquid metal to compensate for
shrinkage during solidification. The riser must be designed to freeze after the main
casting in order to satisfy its function.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pwaXCko_Tkw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_JMTySBvrC8
Investment casting
 One-piece mould
 Dried in the air
 Heated to 90 – 175 C
 Held inverted for 12 hrs. to melt out the wax
 The mould is then heated to 650 – 1150 C for about 4 hrs. depending on the
metal to be cast to drive off the water of crystallization
 After the metal has been poured the mould is broken up and the cast is
removed
 A number of patterns can be joined to make one mould called a tree which
increases production rate.
 Small parts
 The tree can be inserted on to a flask and filled with slurry investment
 The investment is then placed into a chamber and evacuated to remove air
bubbles
 Next, it is placed in a vacuum drawing machine to produce fine detail
 Not a cheap process
 Produces fine details
 Few or no finishing operations
 Can produce intricate parts from parts weighing 1g – 35Kg
Investment die casting examples.
Schematic illustration of investment casting
Wax injection
Wax replicas of the desired castings are produced by injection moulding. These
replicas are called pattern
Assembly
The patterns are attached to a central wax stick, called a sprue, to form a casting
cluster or assembly.
Shell building
The shell is built by immersing the assembly in a liquid ceramic slurry and then into
a bed of extremely fine sand. Up to eight layers may be applied in this manner.
Dewax
Once the ceramic is dry, the wax is melted out, creating a negative impression of
the assembly within the shell.
Conventional casting
In the conventional process, the shell is filled with molten metal by gravity
pouring. As the metal cools, the parts and gates, sprue, and pouring cup become
one solid casting.
Knockout
When the metal has cooled and solidified, the ceramic shell is broken off by
vibration or water blasting.
Cut-off
The parts are cut away from the central sprue using a high-speed friction saw.
Finishing castings
After minor finishing operations, the metal castings--identical to the original wax
patterns--are ready for shipment to the customer.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=npHQPXGGkgI
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KIS1xXDTGfc
Centrifugal casting
Utilizes the inertial forces caused by rotation to distribute the molten metal into
the mould cavities. First used in the 1800’s
Three types of centrifugal casting
 True centrifugal casting
 Semi centrifugal casting
 Centrifuging
Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners, and
similarly shaped parts can be cast with this process.
Semi centrifugal casting process
(a) Schematic illustration of the semi centrifugal casting process. Wheels with
spokes can be cast by this process.
(b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The moulds are placed at the
periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the moulds by
centrifugal force.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NIPM2pnL9bQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZxVA-htTunU
Die casting
Molten metal is forced into the die cavity at pressures ranging from 7MPa –
700MPa. A further example of permanent mould casting Hand tools, Toys,
Appliance components
There are two basic types of die casting machines
Hot-chamber - involves the use of a piston to push molten metal into the die
cavity
Cold-chamber - molten metal is poured into the injection chamber & the shot
chamber is not heated.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1543I_5XMJo
Hot chamber die casting process

1) The die is closed and the piston rises, opening the port and allowing molten
metal to fill the cylinder.
2) The plunger moves down and seals the port pushing the molten metal
through the gooseneck and nozzle into the die cavity, where it is held under
pressure until it solidifies.
3) The die opens and the cores, if any, retract. The casting remains in only one
die, the ejector side. The plunger returns, allowing residual molten metal to
flow back through the nozzle and gooseneck.
4) Ejector pins push the casting out of the ejector die. As the plunger uncovers
the filling hole, molten metal flows through the inlet to refill the gooseneck, as
in step (1).
Cold die casting process

1} The die is closed and the molten metal is ladled into the cold-chamber shot
sleeve.
2) The plunger pushes the molten metal into the die cavity where it is held under
pressure until solidification.
3) The die opens and the plunger advances, to ensure that the casting remains
in the ejector die. Cores, if any, retract.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_LlRof0K0OQ
20.2 Mechanical working of metals
Hot working
Hot working involves deformation of preheated material at temperatures above
the re-crystallization temperature.
Advantages
Big amount of forming is possible
Lower forces and powers are required
Forming of materials with low ductility
No work hardening and therefore, no additional annealing is required.
Disadvantages
Lower accuracy and surface finish
Higher production cost, and
Shorter tool life.
Cold working
Cold working is metal forming performed at room temperature.
Advantages
Better accuracy
Better surface finish
High strength and hardness of the part
No heating is required.
Disadvantages
Higher forces and power
Limitations to the amount of forming
Additional annealing for some material is required and
Some materials are not capable of cold working.
Types of hot working
Rolling
Forging
Piercing
Drawing
Spinning
Extrusion
Rolling
It is a compressive deformation process in which
the thickness of a plate is reduced by squeezing
it through two rotating cylindrical rolls.
Important Applications: Steel Plants, Raw stock
production (sheets, tubes, rods, etc.), screw
manufacture, etc.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6xnKmt_gsLs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JIM_t9QH8J8
Forging
The work-piece is compressed between two opposing dies so that the die shapes
are imparted to the work.
Types of forging
According to the degree to which the flow of the metal is constrained by the dies
there are three types of forging:
Open-die forging
Impression-die forging
Flash less forging
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XTU0Z-FkhtU&NR=1
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jF7G0feKMSA
Piercing
Hot piercing is also known as seamless tubing or roll piercing process. The process
setup is shown in the figure. It is used for making thin walled round objects.
Seamless tube forming is a popular and economical process in comparison to
machining because it saves material wasted in boring parts.
Hot piercing includes rotary piercing to obtain a formed tube by piercing a pointed
mandrel through a billet in a specially designed rolling mill. The rotary piercing can
be performed either on a two-high rolling mill or on a three-high rolling mill.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ztcEyel47Kg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5O2OL5I10fI&feature=related
Drawing
The diameter of a wire or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die opening (bar
drawing) or a series of die openings (wire drawing).
The principle of this procedure consists of reducing the thickness of a pointed,
tapered wire by drawing it through a conical opening in a tool made of hard
material.
The wire will take shape of the hole. Drawing improves strength and hardness
when these properties are to be developed by cold work and not by subsequent
heat treatment
This process is widely used for the production of thicker walled seamless tubes and
cylinders, shafts, spindles, and small pistons and as the raw material for fasteners
such as rivets, bolts, screws.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9W6gDAgwa8k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QKAg1yMZIpY
Spinning
Spinning is a process in which pressure and
plastic flow are used to shape the material.
Spinning may be either hot or cold and is
generally carried over a spinning lathe. In
both cases, the metal is forced to flow over
a rotating shape by the pressure of a blunt
tool as shown in the figure. The amount of
pressure of the blunt tool against the disc
controls the generated heat, which helps in
forming processes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E7CSg5nFVS0
Extrusion
A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired cross-section. Any solid
or hollow cross-section may be produced by extrusion, which can create
essentially semi-finished parts. The metal can force through a die in the same
direction or opposite direction.
chamber die
extruded shape
hydraulic
stock
piston
chamber
The cross-sections that can be produced vary from solid round, rectangular, to L
shapes, T shapes.
Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or
semi-continuous (producing many pieces). Extrusions can be done with the
material hot or cold.
Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, and foodstuffs.
Direct extrusion
A metal billet is located in a container, and a ram compresses the material, forcing
it to flow through one or more openings in a die at the opposite end of the
container.
Indirect extrusion
The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the container.
One advantage of the indirect extrusion process is that there is no friction, during
the process, between the billet and the container liner.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y75IQksBb0M
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=743fHkOvOkA
Types of cold work

Cold rolling
Cold drawing
Bending
Squeezing
Peening
Spinning
Cold rolling
Cold rolling process setup is similar to hot rolling. Bars of all shapes such as rods,
sheets, and strips are commonly finished by rolling. Foil is made of the softer
metals in this way. Cold rolling metals impart smooth bright surface finish and in
good physical and mechanical properties to cold rolled parts.
If the objective is only to give a clean, smooth finishing metal, only a superficial
amount of rolling will be needed. On the other hand, where it is desirable that the
tensile strength and stiffness be increased substantially, the section thickness is
significantly reduced, and then higher roll pressures and deeper kneading are
necessary. Cold rolling also improves machinability in the cold rolled part by
conferring the property of brittleness, a condition, which is conducive to a smooth
tool, finishes with broken chips.
Cold drawing
Like hot drawing, it also involves the forcing of metal through by means of a tensile
force applied to the exit side of the drawing die. Most of the plastic flow is
accomplished by the compressive force which arises from the reaction of metal
with die. It is the operation in which the metal is made to flow plastically by
applying tensile stresses to the metal. The blank of calculated diameter is placed
on a die and held of it by a blank holder and the bottom is pressed into the die by
a punch and the walls are pulled in as shown in the figure.
The efficiency of operation depends upon the blank size, reduction factor,
drawing pressure, blank holding pressure, punch and die diameters, type of
lubricant, die material, etc. Therefore, this process is generally used for making
cup shaped parts from the sheet blanks, without excessive wrinkling, thinning, and
fracturing. It can undertake jobs of nearly any size. It is a process of managing a
flat pre-cut metal blank into a hollow vessel. Utensils of stainless steel are
generally made by this process.
Bending
It is employed for bending into desired shapes various stock materials like sheets,
rods, wires, bars, pipes, tubes, and various structural shapes. Formed dies are used
for bending the articles and the operation is usually performed in many stages. For
bending in all sheet material are stressed beyond the elastic limit in tension on the
outside and in compression on the inside of the bend. There is only one line, the
natural line which retains its original length.
The neutral axis lies at a distance of 30 to 50% of the thickness of the sheet from
the inside of the bend. Stretching of the sheet metal on the outside makes the
stock thinner. Bending is sometimes called forming which involves angle bending,
roll bending, and roll forming and seaming and spinning. Well-designed fixtures
are also used where mass bending of such components is required. Bending occurs
when forces are applied to localized areas, such as in bending a piece of metal into
a right angle, and forming occurs when complete items or parts are shaped.
Squeezing
Material is deformed (cold) to the desired shape by rolling or forcing into or
through a die. Process Characteristics are identical to hot-working counterparts.
The primary reason for cold deforming is better dimensional accuracy and surface
finish. Equipment must be more powerful due to material starting strength and
effects of strain hardening
Peening
Peening is a cold working process in which the surface of the component is
deliberately deformed, in the basic method, by hammering.
It is a process of increasing the hardness and fatigue strength on parts surfaces.
During peening, the surface layer attempts to expand laterally but is prevented
from doing so by the elastic nature of the sub-surface, bulk material. This results in
the development of beneficial, compressive residual stresses in the surface layer,
which is balanced by tensile residual stresses elsewhere.
The layer of compressed surface material produced by peening resists the
development and propagation of cracks and increases resistance to fatigue failure,
corrosion fatigue, stress corrosion, and cavitation erosion.
The main peening techniques are:
Shot
Roto (flail)
Needle
Hammer
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AgPsxoZnEa0
Spinning
Shaping thin sheets by pressing them against a form with a blunt tool to force the
material into the desired form.
The cold spinning process is similar to hot spinning except that the metal blank is
worked at room temperature this method is generally best suited for thin plates
and sheets of aluminium and other soft metals.
Cold spinning produces parts such as light reflectors, cooking utensils, liquid
containers, radial engine cowling, domestic use hollow parts, etc.
20.3 Powder metallurgy
It is a metal processing technology in which parts are produced from metallic
powders. Typically used when large amounts of small, intricate parts with high
precision are required. Little material waste and unusual mixtures can be utilized.
Used for parts in the automotive industry, household appliances, and recreational
equipment Commonly used metals in Powder Metallurgy are Iron, Tin, Copper,
Aluminium, and Nickel.
It is a completive process with forging and machining. Parts can weigh as much as
little as 2.5Kg or up to 50Kg.
Powder metallurgy is the process of blending

fine powdered materials, compacting the
same into a desired shape or form inside a
mould followed by heating of the compacted
powder in a controlled atmosphere, referred
to as sintering to facilitate the formation of
bonding of the powder particles to form the
final part.
The simplified flow chart of the basic powder
metallurgy process is shown in the above
figure.
Figure shows examples of typical parts made by powder-metallurgy processes
Process
Steps in powder metallurgy
Powder production
Blending
Compaction
Sintering
Finishing operations
Methods of powder production

The majority of commercial powder is produced by some form of melt
atomization.
The Atomization is a process where liquid metal is fragmented into small droplets
that cool and solidify into particles.
Two methods for producing metal powders: (a) melt atomization and (b)
atomization from a rotating consumable electrode.
Additional methods of powder manufacturing are
Chemical reduction of particulate compounds
Electrolytic deposition  Pulverization or grinding
Thermal decomposition of particulate hydrides
Precipitation from solution
Condensation of metal vapours
Atomization method is used for producing powders of both ferrous and non-
ferrous powders like stainless steel, super alloys, and Ti alloy powders.
The reduction of compounds method is used for producing iron, Cu, tungsten,
molybdenum.
The electrolysis method is used for producing for making Cu, iron, silver powders.
Powders along with additives are mixed using mixers. Lubricants are added prior
to mixing to facilitate easy ejection of compact and to minimize wear of tools;
Waxes, metallic stearates, graphite, etc.
Blending of powders
Blending powders is the second step in the powder metallurgy process.
A single powder may not fulfil all the requisite properties and hence, powders of
different materials with wide range of mechanical properties are blended to form
a final part.
Blending is carried out for several purposes as follows.
1. Blending imparts uniformity in the shapes of the powder particles.
2. Blending facilitates the mixing of different powder particles to impart wide
ranging physical and mechanical properties.
3. Lubricants can be added during the blending process to improve the flow
characteristics of the powder particles reducing friction between particles
and dies.
4. Binders can be added to the mixture of the powder particles to enhance the
green strength during the powder compaction process.
Powder compaction
The principle goal of the compaction process is to apply to pressurize and bond the
particles to form a cohesion among the powder particles. This is usually termed as
the green strength.
The compaction exercise imparts the following effects.
 Reduces voids between the powder particles and enhance the density of the
consolidated powder.
 Produces adhesion and bonding of the powder particles to improve green
strength in the consolidated powder particles.
 Facilitates the plastic deformation of the powder particles to conform to the
final desired shape of the part.
 It enhances the contact area among the powder particles and facilitates the
subsequent sintering process.
 Compaction is carried out by pouring a measured amount of metallic
powder into the die cavity and applying pressure by means of one or more
plungers. To improve the uniformity of pressure and reduce porosity in the
compacted part, compressive forces from both the top and the bottom sides
are necessary.
The requisite compacting pressure depends on the specific characteristics

and initial shape of the particles, the method of blending, and the
application of the lubricants. Extremely hard powders are slower and more
difficult to press. Some organic binder is usually required to hold the hard
particles together after pressing until the sintering process is performed.
The figure below shows a schematic view of the powder compaction process
to manufacture a typical bushing.
Compaction of metal powder to form a bushing
Powder sintering
Sintering refers to the heating of the compacted powder perform to a specific
temperature (below the melting temperature of the principle powder particles
while well above the temperature that would allow diffusion between the
neighbouring particles).
Sintering facilitates the bonding action between the individual powder particles
and an increase in the strength of the final part.
The heating process must be carried out in a controlled, inert, or reducing
atmosphere or in vacuum for very critical parts to prevent oxidation. Prior to the
sintering process, the compacted powder perform is brittle and confirm to very
low green strength.
The nature and strength of the bond between the particles depend on the
mechanism of diffusion and plastic flow of the powder particles, and evaporation
of volatile material from the in the compacted preform.
Bonding among the powder particles takes place in three ways: (1) melting of
minor constituents in the powder particles, (2) diffusion between the powder
particles, and (3) mechanical bonding.
The time, temperature, and the furnace atmosphere are the three critical factors
that control the sintering process.
Sintering process enhances the density of the final part by filling up the incipient
holes and increasing the area of contact among the powder particles in the
compact perform. Figures below schematically show the sintering process by solid-
state diffusion process and liquid-phase transport of powder particles.
Schematic illustration of sintering of compact preform using solid-state diffusion

between powder particles.
Schematic illustration of sintering of compact preform using liquid-phase transport
between powder particles
Secondary and finishing operations
After sintering, some finishing operations such as re-pressing (to impart
dimensional accuracy) and machining are carried out to further improve the
quality of the final part.
Parts made through the powder metallurgy-based processes are also subjected to
other finishing operations such as heat treatment, machining, and finishing
depending on the requirements.
Infiltration is a secondary operation to infiltrates the pores of a sintered part to
produce a stronger part and produces a pore free part
Other finishing operations
 Heat treating
 Machining
 Grinding
 Plating
Design consideration for powder metallurgy
 The shape of the compact must be simple and uniform
 Provision must be made for the ejection of the part
 Wide tolerances should be used whenever possible
 Provision must be made for the ejection of the part
 Wide tolerances should be used whenever possible
Advantages
 Efficient material utilization
 Enables close dimensional tolerances – near net shape possible
 Manufacture of complex shapes possible
 Hard materials used to make components that are difficult to machine can
be readily made – tungsten wires for incandescent lamps
 Environment friendly, energy efficient
 Suited for moderate to high volume component production
 Powders of uniform chemical composition => reflected in the finished part
 Wide variety of materials => miscible, immiscible systems; refractory metals
 Parts with controlled porosity can be made
Disadvantages
 The high cost of powder material & tooling
 Less strong parts than wrought ones
 The less well-known process
Limitations of powder metallurgy
 Tooling cost is generally and can only be justified in mass production
 Raw material cost is very high
 Mechanical properties of the parts are of low quality as compared to cast or
machined parts
 In some cases, the density of different parts of the final product can vary
due to uneven compression
 The size of products that can be manufactured is generally limited to 2-20
kg.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qe716-5JimQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MgukjCT9o80
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HoiQbDUe4A8

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DIPLOMA IN TOOL

Prepared by: Mr. Rahul E M

Usually measured in thousandths of an inch or millimetres. General machine

It is expressed in meters per minute.

 Type of work material

Since different types of metals vary in hardness, structure, and machinability

Cutting Speed V = πDN m/min

Where 'D' is the diameter of the cutter.

Milling feeds and depth of cut

Feed per tooth

Feed per minute

In general-we can say that the:

 Cutting speed should be reduced when feed is increased.

 Cutting speed should be increased when feed is reduced.

The feed rate on a milling machine depends on a variety of factors

 Width and depth of cut

The formula used to find the work feed is,

Feed mm/min (S) = N x Cpt x r.p.m.

Cpt = chip per tooth for a particular cutter

r.p.m = Revolution per minute of the milling cutter.

First, calculate the r.p.m. of the cutter

Feed mm/min (S) = N x C.p.t x r.p.m.

= 6x0.18x254.78 = 275 mm/min.

The depth of cut is the depth to which

Where a smooth and accurate finish is needed, it is a good practice to take

Machining time for milling

Importance of machining time

Time means money. Any engineering product should be manufactured in

The total machining time depends on:

 The length of the workpiece to be machined

 The size of the cutter.

Total travel of the cutter (L)

The total travel of the cutter 'L' is equal to l + la + lx

Where l = length of workpiece to be milled

Feed per tooth = Sz in mm

Feed for revolution S = Sz X Z mm

Feed for n revolutions u = Sz X Z X n mm/min

Where 'U' = total feed per minute

Z = number of teeth of the cutter

n = r.p.m. of the cutter.

OB = Radius of cutter = d/2 BC = AD = la

Indexing is the operation of dividing the periphery of a

The indexing head can also be used for producing a square or

Types of indexing heads

The most common types of indexing heads are

 Direct indexing head

 Simple indexing head

 Angular indexing head

Direct indexing head

The direct indexing is also called rapid

If N is the number of divisions required on the work then,

Index crank movement = No. of holes in the index plate

= No. of holes in the index plate

Index crank movement = No. of hole s in the index plate

Plain or simple indexing head

Simple indexing is also called as

For indexing, the dividing head

To facilitate indexing to the fraction of a turn, an indexing

Plate No.1 -15, 16, 17,18,19,20

The formula for simple indexing

'N' is the number of divisions required.

3 complete turns and 1/3 of a turn for each division.

Angular indexing head

The angular indexing is the process of