Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Hybrid Advances
journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/hybrid-advances

Review Article

A literature review on an IoT-based intelligent smart energy management

systems for PV power generation
Challa Krishna Rao a, b, *, Sarat Kumar Sahoo b, Franco Fernando Yanine c
a
Aditya Institute of Technology and Management, Tekkali, Andhra Pradesh, India
b
Parala Maharaja Engineering College, Berhampur, Affiliated to Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Rourkela, Odisha, India
c
School of Engineering of Universidad, Finis Terrae, Providencia, Santiago, Chile

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Renewable energy is the most dependable and universally acknowledged way of meeting the world’s expanding
Solar forecasting energy needs. In order to optimize solar energy generation, particular focus must be paid to both application and
IoT maintenance. IoT-based solar monitoring system proposals have been made in order to collect and analyze solar
Smart energy management
data, which will allow for performance prediction and reliable power output. Demand-side energy management’s
Smart plug
primary objective is to maximize the economical utilization of renewable resources without sacrificing overall
Cloud computing
energy efficiency. In areas where energy use is strongly reliant on the grid, an intelligent energy management
system may effectively regulate energy usage. With cloud computing, the opportunities and problems driven out
by growing energy grids may be successfully handled.
This study examines the role that energy management systems play in both research and practical industrial
practises, acknowledging both as stakeholders in this undertaking. The research investigation closely looks at a
number of IoT-related topics in relation to solar energy production. In addition to providing guidance for up­
coming academics in the field, it also lists possible future uses for IoT, inspiring them to further the field’s present
understanding and provide new ideas. Providing a thorough analysis of energy management in smart archi­
tecture is the purpose.

1. Introduction models [5,6]. Grid-tied versions without storage components, however,

Emerging trends and difficulties are expected in the generation,
transmission, and use of energy in the near future. In order to address
this issue, there is an increasing need to incorporate renewable energy
sources and other dispersed electrical energy sources. Additionally,
demand-based intelligent electrical energy management systems must
be used to ensure optimal energy utilization [1–3]. It is emphasized how
important renewable energy is to reducing the world’s dependency on
fossil fuels, satisfying rising consumer demand, and guaranteeing a
reliable and reasonably priced supply of electrical energy (see Table 6, 8,
9 and 12, Fig. 16).
The installation of modest rooftop photovoltaic (PV) systems by
residential customers has become important in metropolitan settings.
These PV systems can function alone or as a component of a hybrid
network [4]. Since grid-connected PV systems can provide continuous
electricity for longer periods of time, they have become more popular
than independent PV systems, especially when combined into hybrid
have difficulties since exporting irregular power to the grid can be
difficult, particularly in developing countries that are vulnerable to
infrastructure breakdowns [7]. A hybrid network architecture that in­
corporates components of both grid systems is becoming more and more
acknowledged as a workable solution to these problems.
The efficiency of the grid-connected system depends on how elec­
trical demands are arranged according to priorities and how storage
efficiency is maximized while taking the solar systems and the grid’s
power availability into account [8,9]. Additionally, in order to antici­
pate photovoltaic production, a robust prediction system must be
developed that takes into account characteristics like irradiance in­
tensity, weather, and external influences. The capacity to predict the
future becomes essential for maintaining a reliable and effective energy
supply when the power system experiences volatility as in Table 1.

* Corresponding author. Aditya Institute of Technology and Management, Tekkali, Andhra Pradesh, India.
E-mail addresses: krishnarao.challa@gmail.com (C.K. Rao), sksahoo.ee@pmec.ac.in (S.K. Sahoo), fyanine@uc.cl (F.F. Yanine).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hybadv.2023.100136
Received 21 November 2023; Received in revised form 7 December 2023; Accepted 23 December 2023
Available online 29 December 2023
2773-207X/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
C.K. Rao et al. Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

Table 1 Table 2
Research papers based on the review of a selected search string. Contrasting survey studies with current research.
S. Website E-content Keywords Papers Sl. Reference Scope of the Article
No Reviewed No

1 www.acm. Access a variety of Explore topics such as 82 1 [7] Applications for IoT and associated issues; Considerable
org publications, IoT and its differentiation of recent research; Emphasis on IoT
including Applications, applications and contributions from various references.
Proceedings, Communication 2 [8] IoT technology applications, communication networks, and
Conferences, Techniques, privacy issues; Comparative research on communication data
Journals, Challenges, and Issues. technology in diverse IoT applications; Future techniques and
Transactions, areas for improvement.
Databases, 3 [9] Factors necessary for IoT communication; Cloud server
Magazines, Articles, synchronization with IoT; Appraisal based on various factors;
Reports, and more. Simulation and trial-and-error approaches.
2 www.ieeex – – 275 4 [10] Various IoT applications throughout history; Challenges
plore.org encountered in IoT projects; Utilization of advanced
3 www. – – 118 technology to overcome difficulties; Possibilities for
scienced modernization and enhancement.
irect.com 5 [11] Application domains and components for IoT; Predictable use
4 www. – – 130 of sensors and actuators in IoT; Highlights of proposed
scholarg research.
oogle.com 6 [12] IoT-supporting architectures; IoT communication
5 www.onl – – 85 technologies; Categorization of sensors and actuators based on
inel their use in IoT; Time series for the development of IoT
ibrarywil communication technology.
ey.com 7 [13] Architecture, protocols, elements, and communication
6 www. – – 92 standards in IoT; Classification of IoT objectives based on
springe architecture; Challenges and techniques used to resolve them.
rlink.com 8 [14] Challenges in IoT; Various IoT applications and core
7 www. – – 141 parameters.
know 9 [15] IoT advancements in waste management; Comprehensive
ledge.com coverage of smart city applications; Challenges in IoT.
8 www.els – – 64 10 [16] IoT middleware problems and issues; In-depth exploration of
evier.com IoT in the present day.
9 No of – – 995 11 [17] Use of different symmetric and asymmetric cyphers for secure
papers communication in IoT; Distinct aspects and challenges in
reviewed communication technology.
12 [18] Real-time IoT analytics methodologies and challenges;
Problems during real-time data collection; Exploration of
2. The necessity of the Internet of Things advanced RT/SB approaches for various applications.
13 [172] Smart switches for grid-based demand response management
systems; Synchronization with solar power; Monitoring energy
Data communication was confined to speech or text transmissions use and other criteria.
via phone lines in the middle of the 1980s. The Internet of Things (IoT) is 14 [170] Data gathering in energy sector using IoT; IoT integration for
the result of the gradual transition from analogue to digital communi­ user tracking; Advances in data collection, remote monitoring,
cation over the years [10–12]. Since its creation, the Internet of Things and control.
15 [173] IoT gaining traction with internet-connected items;
(IoT) has seen major improvements, highlighted by the integration of
Decentralized network with scalable, lightweight, low-power
devices that enable remote control. Originally, the IoT was envisioned as nodes; Energy harvesting and subsystems for IoT networks;
a system that connected active resources over the internet. There are Prospect plan problems and solutions.
several stages in the development of IoT. Prior to the internet, people 16 [163] Sensor characteristics and transmission in an electronic
communicated using landlines and SMS. Later, as online material module; Implementation of voltage and current sensors in real-
time; Application in solar energy generating systems.
became available, people could send lengthy emails and attachments 17 [164] Smart socket for collecting and transferring data; Analysis by
[15–18]. The internet then developed into a platform for electronic the system and generation of control commands for connected
applications, such as e-commerce and tools for productivity. The most devices.
recent stage, which is often called the "Internet of Everything," consists
of large-scale connections made possible by open methods, such as those
techniques for energy management in Internet of Things-based grids,
seen on Facebook, YouTube, and Skype [19].
demonstrating how cloud computing enables the distribution of energy
Researchers intending to accomplish automation with minimum
in a smart grid (Table 5). Key results include a thorough grasp of cloud
human interaction have a difficulty when integrating artificial intelli­
computing and smart electrical energy, an investigation of cloud
gence into these linked parts. With its hybrid model design, the smart
computing applications in the energy sector, and a focus on the
grid becomes an important tool for controlling the supply and demand of
increasing importance of cloud-dependent power dispatch in smart en­
different renewable energy sources. Demand Response, distributed
ergy systems [26–28].
generation supply, microgrids, power plants, home appliances, and
This review paper conducts a comprehensive evaluation of meth­
sensor nodes are all included in this model, which is based on a data
odologies employed by various researchers in the present studies,
communication network [20–22].
focusing on their publications regarding the application of energy
When installed on-site, smart metres provide real-time communica­
management approaches as shown in Fig. 1 and Table 1. These ap­
tion networks that allow effective data storage and use monitoring. The
proaches integrate PV Power Generation systems with the Internet of
paper investigates the incorporation of cloud apps for energy manage­
Things (IoT) in Table 2. The paper aims to provide an overview of
ment in the grid, as smart grids depend on IT for improved functioning
diverse strategies implemented for intelligent energy management in PV
[23]. Because communication networks and the grid are intertwined,
power-generating systems [27].
communication data systems are essential to the dynamic control of
The study recognizes the necessity to assess different configurations
electricity [24,25]. The study examines proactive cloud computing
of IoT-based systems to ascertain that an energy management approach

2
C.K. Rao et al. Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

Table 3 Table 4
Reviews of energy management in smart architecture. Reviewed on components and Methods used in Energy Monitoring System.
Reference Use of Energy Management Apparatus Needed Sl. Reference Components Used Energy Monitoring Outcome
System No Method

[41] Cloud-based IoT for smart home Internet Protocol (IP), AC 1 [48] SD3004 Integrated Wi-Fi Portable and easy
energy monitoring Voltmeter, Relay, LDR Sensor, PIR measurement chip, ESP8266 module installation
Motion Sensor PZEM-004T, and Arduino without affecting
[42] IoT-based energy control and Wi-Fi, ACS712 current sensor, sensors, Wi-Fi NodeMCU to warranty
monitoring devices LCD, RTC, relay ESP8266 module, measure electrical
[43] IoT-based Smart Power Metering Wi-Fi, ACS712, Current Sensor, Arduino NodeMCU energy
Relay, Transistor 2 [41] LDR Sensor, PIR Home Energy Prospects for
[44] Raspberry Pi-based IoT energy Wi-Fi, AC/DC 50A current sensor, Sensor, Wi-Fi, Management smart grid
usage monitoring and Relay module Voltmeter, Relay System (HEMS) for applications due
management data collection on to IoT and cloud
[45] IoT for sophisticated building Not specified (focus on energy usage computing
energy control implementation) developments
[46] Using IoT for reduced power Capacitor, load resistor, CT sensor 3 [48] Transistor, Wi-Fi Research on IoT enhances
consumption (YHDC SCT-013-000) module, ACS712 energy usage and ideas, makes the
[47] IoT Power Monitoring System LoRa, Transformer Sensor Current Sensor, consumption at world wiser, and
for Smart Environments Relay the plug level assesses energy
[48] Low-cost IoT-based energy Electrical energy measuring chip use
monitoring system SD3004 with CT sensors, PZEM- 4 [46] Burden Resistor, IoT for budget- IoT sensors share
004T YHDC SCT-013- friendly power use information to
[49] Real-time energy analysis model PZEM004T-100A module 000, CT Sensor and environmental the cloud for
using Open IoT platform friendliness effective energy
[50] IoT-powered electricity Not specified (focus on conservation
monitoring system communication protocol) 5 [42] LCD, RTC, Relay, IoT automation of Wi-Fi module
[51] IoT-focused and inexpensive Current sensors (focus on Wi-Fi, Current homes and solar transmits data to
energy monitoring platform communication protocol) Sensor energy monitoring the cloud for
using MQTT regulation and
[52] IoT-based digital kWh meter Wi-Fi module, LDR Sensor presentation on
monitoring system LCDs
[53] IoT-based Intelligent Energy Analog to Digital GSM Module, 6 [18] Implementation Unique data Creation of an
Tracking System Sensors for current and potential capturing modules IoT Energy
transformers developed using Platform for
[54] IoT-based Smart Energy Meters Light Dependent Resistor Python for site- managing IoT
[55] Integrating IoT devices with ZigBee & Spirit (focus on specific data energy data
Building Information Models communication protocol) 7 [52] LDR Sensor, Wi-Fi IoT applications Quick and
[56] IoT measuring system for ACS712 Hall Effect current sensor, module for smart grid affordable
monitoring household energy GSM SIM800L through wireless transfer
usage distributed energy of energy
[57] System Monitoring System for Electric current sensor ZMPT101B, plant meters consumer
buildings in Indonesia SCT 013-000 information
[58] Utilizing the Secure IoT platform Not specified (focus on 8 [53] GSM, ADC, Intelligent Sensors installed
to monitor electrical power implementation) Transformer sensor computer to control
[59] IoT-based domestic energy Wi-Fi module, lithium-ion battery, laboratory switching of
monitoring devices mixed signal microcontroller monitoring system electrical
[60] IoT-Based Smart Energy Meters Relay, Wi-Fi Module, Max 232, using IoT equipment based
GSM SIM900, Driver Circuit, on people’s
Signal Condition presence
[61] IoT-based energy meter reading WIFI ESP8266, LCD, Relay, 9 [54] Light Dependent Remote Automatic
system Buzzer, 555 monostable Resistor monitoring and counting of LED-
multivibrator operation of linked current
[62] IoT-based Smart Energy LCD display, buzzer, power supply, gadgets consumption
Monitoring Allegro ACS712 Current Sensor units
[63] Real-time data collection to Not specified (focus on 10 [49] PZEM004T-100A Sensing voltage, Accurate
improve energy efficiency implementation) module current, and recording of
[64] Real-time home energy NodeMCU, Optical sensor electrical electrical energy
monitoring system powered by characteristics for use with over 99
IoT instant energy use % accuracy
[65] Decentralized solar plant’s real- PV current and voltage, data
time cloud monitoring using temperature, humidity 11 [56] GSM SIM800L Arduino-based Adaptable system
Raspberry Pi IoT module, ACS712 energy for accurate
[66] Monitoring industrial processes Wi-Fi module ESP8266 & MAX485 Hall Effect current consumption rate energy use
using IoT IC sensor meter for monitoring
[67] Smart home concepts based on Not defined (focus on residential houses
IoT for power and security implementation) 12 [47] Sensor, LoRa, SMACS control Creation of a
management Transformer system for safety smart home
[68] Automating Smart Homes with Temperature, humidity, light- and monitoring appliance
IoT-based Sensing and dependent resistor, air quality household monitoring and
Monitoring Platforms sensors with LM35 appliances control system
[69] Smart Energy Meters using IoT Buzzer, Relay, Energy Meter, 13 [57] Voltage sensor, SCT Disclosing energy Energy
UART Communication 013-000 electric used and saved for monitoring
[70] Real-time monitoring of power Current sensors, Voltage sensors current, Sensor effective building systems for
amounts using IoT technologies ZMPT101B occupant behavior buildings being
costly and
structure-specific
(continued on next page)

3
C.K. Rao et al. Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

Table 4 (continued ) Table 4 (continued )

Sl. Reference Components Used Energy Monitoring Outcome Sl. Reference Components Used Energy Monitoring Outcome
No Method No Method

14 [60] Driver Circuit, Choosing Anticipation of 28 [64] NodeMCU, Optical Economical IoT-based apps
ESP8266, Signal connection substantial sensor modification to gaining
Condition, Max solutions based on growth as utility current meters popularity for
232, GSM SIM900, factors like cost, firms seek precise practical
Relay, Wi-Fi security, and and timely data solutions
power 29 [50] Communication IoT gadget with Building’s energy
consumption Protocol modbus protocol management
15 [59] Lithium-ion Urgent need for a Domestic users for digital energy system for
battery, portable kWh assume energy meters optimizing
MSP430F6736 meter meters are energy use
Mixed Signal correct without 30 [55] Communication Software ICT crucial for
Microcontroller, verification Protocol, ZigBee framework for developing a
Wi-Fi Module controlling and sustainable
16 [69] UART Smart energy Monitoring and modeling energy society and
Communication, meters using ESP controlling behaviors in minimizing
Buzzer, Relay, 8266 12E for energy usage is a buildings greenhouse gas
Energy Meter calculating and key objective of emissions
controlling energy the smart grid 31 [44] ACS DC8A, Relay, Raspberry Pi Data gathered
use Wi-Fi, Current power usage from current
17 [62] Power supply, Microcontroller- Effective energy Sensor, AC/DC 50A tracker for energy meters for
Current Sensor, based smart utilization is recording and local storage and
ESP8266, LCD, energy meters for crucial for the sending data analysis
Buzzer regulating and smart grid to
calculating energy expand
use effective for one PV Power Generation system may not be optimal for
18 [63] Implementation IoT-enabled sensor Focus on others. Multiple energy management strategies presented in the
technologies for increasing energy
decreasing energy efficiency in the
reviewed publications were subjected to testing to identify the most
usage food industry effective ones. Section 2 examines papers that propose specific energy
19 [58] Implementation Observing data in Monitoring management techniques within their IoT-based energy solutions. Sec­
a secure cloud electricity usage tion 4 delves into energy management techniques employed in smart
service for analysis in a commercial
grids, encompassing sources for PV Power Generation. Section 5 reviews
greenhouse
20 [67] Implementation Tracking electrical Remote papers advocating for the use of IoT-based control functions to govern
energy usage in monitoring and energy flow in PV power generation systems.
homes using Intel control of
Galileo 2nd electrical
version switches and 2.1. Methodology for reviewing
devices
21 [51] Modern sensors Open energy Increasing To give an interpretive analysis of the most recent literature in a
monitoring system attention to
based on MQTT energy efficiency
specific area of interest, this study employs the critical review technique
messaging and innovative [28]. This is done to identify concepts, theories, research methodologies,
standard technical or conclusions that have benefits, drawbacks, contradictions, conflicts,
solutions inconsistencies, or other significant issues. After a thorough evaluation
22 [65] Relative humidity, Analog/Digital Unique technique
in which significant keywords are identified and looked for across
PV, Solar radiation Converter for live-tracking a
Embedded System decentralized groups in peer-reviewed articles, the critical assessment takes place. The
for real-time solar power various search terms employed in the online articles database’s relevant
tracking system peer-reviewed journals are shown in Fig. 1. The terms in group 1 were
23 [50] Communication IoT device with Building’s energy selected to correspond with important study components, particularly
Protocol modbus protocol management
for interfacing system to
"energy management system" and "energy sources." The
with digital energy optimize energy keyword-generating strategy took into account both the internal pro­
meters use grams and the energy management system’s surroundings [29]. The
24 [66] Wi-Fi module, IoT platform for IoT applications keyword list is then enlarged to generate group 2 based on the outcomes,
MAX485 IC, high-speed real- creating smart
which is composed of related terms or expressions that are often used to
ESP8266 time applications environments
with data sharing the group 1 category keywords used in the first database search.
25 [65] Solar radiation, High-resolution IoT platform Reviewing the abstract was the next stage, after which the study was
Relative humidity, time source for features for real- either approved or refused for more research and analysis. The appro­
PV, Ambient reference in steady time applications priateness of the data from the online database was afterward examined
temperature and transient
scenarios
and assessed. The identified work was then subjected to an interpreta­
26 [61] 555 mono stable Arduino-based Providing a tive analysis and review to determine its advantages and disadvantages
multivibrator, WI- energy meter simple ease concerning its stakeholders, performance, execution, and several other
FI, ESP8266, LCD, reading system system for elements [30]. As a result, the limitations and benefits of past research
Relay, Buzzer reading energy
are highlighted in this critical review study, which also offers advice to
meters
27 [68] LM35 sensor, IoT-based sensing Monitoring and academics working on energy management system research on how to
humidity sensor, and monitoring maintaining further explore and examine the area [31].
LDR, Air Quality system for characteristics
Sensor automated smart within a tolerable
homes range 2.2. Contributions

The study contrasts residential Demand Response (DR) designs from

4
C.K. Rao et al. Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

Home Energy Management Systems (HEMS), providing an analysis of Table 6

primary and secondary microgrid control mechanisms [32]. While Arduino_Uno details [64].
omitting consideration of potential dangers associated with solar and Specifications Rating
wind-powered energy generation, the paper thoroughly investigates
Voltage 5V
energy management techniques applicable to sun- and wind-driven Clock Rate 16 MHz
water pumping systems. In Ref. [33], seven HEMS techniques, Digital Input and Output Pins 14
including their forecasts, are techno economically evaluated. The study Analogue Input Pins 6
reveals limitations in the practical application of these strategies due to PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Pins 6
UART (Universal Asynchronous Routing Technology) 1
assumptions made in the modeling of various Energy Management Asynchronous Universal Receiver and Transmitter Dependent
Systems (EMSs) [34]. Another critique of EMS for microgrids, along with
insights into potential fixes and communication requirements, is pre­
sented in Ref. [35].The paper argues that the most effective and secure power quality management, DR, and Demand Side Management (DSM).
solutions for sustainable energy use integrate modern controllers with The paper’s contributions are summarized, covering the description of
the Internet of Energy (IoE) [36]. However, the adoption of IoE-based Smart Energy Management Systems (SEMS) in smart grids, stakeholders’
Building Energy Management Systems (BEMS) faces challenges related roles, DER behavior, analysis of DR and uncertainty management, crit­
to scalability, cost, weather, and data access security [37]. Explores the ical examination and comparison of SEMS solution methods, and iden­
role of multi-agent systems for distributed microgrid EMS and analyzes tification of implementation challenges and difficulties [40].
various optimization methods for linked multi-microgrids (MMGs). The The organizational structure of the review, presented in Fig. 2, in­
study assesses research on EMS in microgrids and current decentralized cludes sections on goals, architecture, and EMS types at the distribution
optimization strategies. level (Section 2), stakeholders and players (Section 3), DER behaviors
In [38], several forecasting models, including load demand, heat (Section 4), uncertainty quantification techniques and EMS programs
pump, photovoltaic (PV), and plug-in electric vehicle (PEV), are thor­ (Section 5), alternative EMS solution approaches (Section 6), critical
oughly analyzed and contrasted [39]. Examines the functional modules assessments on challenges during EMS deployment (Section 7), and final
of various HEMS designs. The paper includes a table listing works on observations (Section 8). The "Introduction" and "Conclusion" of Sec­
energy management strategies, detailing contributions to kinds, archi­ tions 1 and 7, respectively, are not detailed in Fig. 3.
tecture, components, stakeholders, problem-solving methods, and pro­
grams. This review uniquely focuses on Distributed Energy Resource
(DER) behavior, duties, and roles in EMSs for smart grid settings. It
evaluates uncertainty and various programs adopted by EMS, including

Table 5
Demand response options and goals.
Integrated System DSM Method/Technique Operation Supervisory Outcome Reference
Mode Control

Hybrid system using solar power and Model predictive control Grid- Centralized Reduced customer’s portion of the power bill. 97
batteries program for DR connected Maximized usage of battery storage and solar energy.
Wind-powered industrial microgrid DR scheme Grid- Centralized Wind turbines cut carbon emissions by 88 %, DSM 98
with energy storage system connected resulted in an additional 30 % cut. Reduced power
costs overall by 73 %
Photovoltaic panel, wind turbine, and DR scheme utilizing the linear Grid- Decentralized Decreased energy needs by 16 %. 10 % reduction in 99
energy storage system in a residential programming approach connected energy consumption and CO2 emissions throughout
microgrid all operating hours. 74 % decrease in renewable
supply usage.
Microgrid system with photovoltaic Combined with an artificial Grid- Decentralized Reduced operation’s cost by 3.06%. 100
panels, wind turbine, diesel engine, neural network and DSM connected
battery bank, and water delivery mechanism
system
Photovoltaic installations throughout Energy management Grid- Centralized Assured consumer comfort while lowering electricity 101
homes algorithm based on online connected costs.
events for load scheduling
SG network using dispersed, green Parallel autonomous Grid- Centralized Decreased power bill and electricity producing costs. 102
power sources optimization for the DR connected
scheme
Microgrid system includes radial load DR scheme Grid- Centralized Reduced peak load on the grid tie line. Achieved ideal 103
feeders, wind turbine, fuel cells, solar connected battery and diesel generator scheduling.
panels, and micro turbines
Renewable generators and energy DR scheme Isolated Centralized Achieved optimum peak load dispatch and electricity 104
storage in a microgrid generation.
SG network with significant wind DR scheme Isolated Centralized 30 % cost reductions attained. Over 56 % of demand 105
penetration altered.
SG network and energy storage system DR scheme Grid- Centralized Reduced peak demand and lower customer energy 106
connected costs.
Microgrid system combining solar and DR scheme Grid- Decentralized Decreased operating expenses and carbon emissions. 107
wind power connected
Wind farm and the SG network DR scheme Grid- Centralized Achieved 24-h energy production and consumption 108
connected timing that was ideal.
Photovoltaic system, wind turbine, and Mixed-integer linear Isolated Decentralized Peak load and operational costs decreased by 17.2 and 109
batteries in a microgrid programming and the DR 36.8 %, respectively.
technique
SG network including a PV system DR scheme Grid- Decentralized Over the course of a year, the load factor is examined 111
connected and raised.

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C.K. Rao et al. Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

Table 8

Raspberry Pi
Specifications of the NodeMCU [163].

2 GB, 4 GB,

Mid-range/
Cortex-A72

Higher-end
4 Model B

Bluetooth
1.50 GHz

Micro SD
2x Micro
Detailed specifications Value

USB-C
Wi-Fi,

HDMI
8 GB

Yes
MCU (Microcontroller Unit) 32-bit Tensilica L106

40
2
Frequency of Occurrence 80–160 MHz
Raspberry Pi

I/O (Input/Output) 13xDIO

3 Model B+
Cortex-A53

Micro USB

Mid-range
Bluetooth
1.40 GHz Analog-to-digital Pin (ADC) 1 × 10 bit

Micro SD
Voltage 3.0~3.60V

Wi-Fi,

HDMI
1 GB

Yes
Programming Memory 4.0 MB

40
4
Internet Access IEEE 802.11
Sleep Presently

Mini HDMI

Micro USB

Affordable
<10E-6A
Raspberry
Pi Zero W

Bluetooth

Micro SD
Inactivity Presently
1.0 GHz

512 MB
ARM11

<10E-3A
Wi-Fi,

No

GPIO Pins 40
1
Raspberry Pi

USB Ports
Processor

Table 9
Ethernet
Wireless
STM32F767ZIT6 Feature

Storage
Output

Supply
Power
XBee parameters [164].
Speed

Video

Price
RAM
CPU

Parameter Rating
ARM Cortex-M7

Voltage of Operation 3.3 V

Pins for Input (I/P) 20
Higher-end
216.0 MHz

Yes (High-
512.0 KB

Pins for Digital Input/Output (I/O) 12

2.0 MB

Speed)

Pins for Analog Input (A/I) 4

3.30V

Large
144

Clock Rate 2.4 Gigahertz

24

85 mm × 56 mm x 88 mm × 58 mm x –

UART (Universal Asynchronous Routing) 1

Asynchronous Universal Receiver/Transmitter Dependent
STM32F030F4P6

Yes (Full-Speed)
ARM Cortex-M0

Affordable
48.0 MHz

19.5 mm
16.0 KB

Table 10
4.0 KB
3.30V

Small

RFID frequency range [78].

16

RFID Frequency Range

Yes (High-Speed)
STM32F103C8T6 STM32F407VGT6 STM32F429ZIT6

ARM Cortex-M4

Medium/Large

Low Frequency 126.0–135.0 kHz

Higher-end
180.0 MHz

High Frequency 14.560 MHz

256.0 KB

Ultra High Frequency 861.0–960.0 MHz

2.0 MB

17 mm
3.30V

Super High Frequency 2.550 GHz

168

24

65 mm × 30 mm
Yes (Full-Speed)
ATmega2560 AT91SAM3X8E ARM Cortex-M3 ARM Cortex-M4

2.3. The application of smart energy management systems in photovoltaic

generation
168.0 MHz

Mid-range
512.0 KB
192.0 KB

Medium
3.30V

The decline in the use of fossil fuels has underscored the importance
82

16

of renewable sources in meeting the increasing energy needs of con­

sumers and ensuring a reliable and cost-effective energy supply in the
power sector [41] (see Fig. 4). Establishing a new grid-connected system
Affordable
72.0 MHz

requires a modest amount of photovoltaic (PV) storage capacity. Har­

64.0 KB
20.0 KB
STM32

3.30V

nessing the potential advantages of renewable energy sources is made

Small
No
37

10

difficult by their intermittent and highly unpredictable nature [33]. To

–

tackle this issue, a sophisticated system for daily planning and accurate
Arduino Due

energy availability forecasting is being conceived and developed

Native USB

Mid-range
84.0 MHz
Different Types of Microcontrollers used in IoT Applications [78–98].

512.0 KB

[42–45].
96.0 KB
3.30V

Large

As part of this initiative, an Intelligent Energy Management System

54

12

(ISEMS) has been designed with a specific focus on renewable energy to

Yes (Type-B)

efficiently control energy demand within a smart grid environment

Higher-end
16.0 MHz
256.0 KB

[46–48].The demand-side energy management architecture of ISEMS

Arduino

8.0 KB

Large
Mega

enables the effective utilization of renewable energy sources [49]. An

5.0V

54

16

Internet of Things (IoT) the environment to collect consumer data on

–

energy usage and consumption, a forecast-based intelligent energy

ATmega328P ATmega328P

management system, and data collection for solar energy generation

16.0 MHz

Yes (Mini

Compact
Arduino

32.0 KB

friendly
Budget-
2.0 KB

make up ISEMS. The objective is to build an intelligent, integrated

Nano

USB)
5.0V

14

system that maximizes the use of renewable energy sources, supporting

8

resilience and sustainability in the power industry [50].

Arduino Uno

Yes (Type-B)

Affordable

Through the use of components like microchips, controllers, trans­

16.0 MHz

Standard
Arduino

32.0 KB

ceivers, data, and communication protocols, the Internet of Things (IoT)

2.0 KB
5.0V

enables effortless interaction of commonplace items like computers,

14

smartphones, sensors, and actuators [51]. In the context of renewable

Digital I/O Pins

energy, an IoT-connected system offers efficient monitoring and control

Microcontroller

Flash Memory

USB Interface
Analog Input

Clock Speed

capabilities for photovoltaic (PV) systems in large and isolated fields,

Dimensions
Operating
Voltage

surpassing human inspection operations [52]. The described system is

Feature
Table 7

Pins

SRAM

Price
Type

designed to monitor various parameters, includes the voltage, current,

Size

6
C.K. Rao et al. Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

temperature, and amount of direct sunlight that solar cells receive
[53–55]. Data captured by Arduino is transmitted to the internet using
the NodeMCU wireless communication transceiver [56].The data is
uploaded to the ThinkSpeak, an open-source IoT cloud platform, which
compiles sensor data and presents it to users for analysis when an
internet connection is available [57]. Fig. 6 illustrates the system block
diagram, showcasing the integration of the Arduino kit, Wi-Fi device,
and ThinkSpeak platform [58]. The platform allows users to register an
account, create channels for measuring different parameters, and view
information in the form of images [47–49]. The advantage lies in the
system’s ability to provide easily accessible output data of solar cells
from anywhere with an internet connection as in Table 2.
The article emphasizes the importance of forecasting in managing
renewable solar PV electricity production, acknowledging its inherent
variability. Accurate forecasting is crucial for optimizing the use of solar
resources and meeting the rising energy demand of consumers [59]. The
integration of an IoT ecosystem in the energy sector enables trustworthy
data collection, remote monitoring, and control. In the context of PV
generation, the article underscores the increasing reliance on standalone
solar PV generation as concerns about fossil fuel usage grow. Accurate
estimation of PV production data and efficient load/appliance operation
planning at the consumer end become critical for optimal utilization
[60]. The Smart Energy Management (SEM) unit, depicted in Fig. 7,
serves as the system’s brain, while the smart socket module regulates
appliances using XBee modules for two-way communication as in
Table 3 and Table 4.
The Smart Socket Module functions as an interface between the SEM
unit and selected appliances, offering power management capabilities
such as control, communication, data collection, and processing [61].
The article outlines the specific roles of different modules within the
smart socket, including data collection and processing, control, and
communication as in Table 5. The overall IoT environment with the
energy monitoring system is presented, allowing users with proper login
credentials to access the web portal and retrieve power parameters
through the internet [62]. The system’s architecture and functionality
contribute to enhanced efficiency, affordability, dispatchability, and
effectiveness in managing renewable energy.
3. Design of remote monitoring system for PV power generation
The development of a solar monitoring system with remote accessi­
bility for comprehensive tracking of energy parameters and records re­
quires careful consideration of several aspects. These include the
selection and specification of components, the formulation of a circuit
diagram [63–99]. Furthermore, this involves deliberations on the choice
of a microcontroller and its specifications, along with the discussion of
sensors tasked with gathering voltage, current, and other relevant data
for accurate power calculations [67].
3.1. Component specification
In this section, we delve into the specifications of various compo­
nents employed in diverse work system designs. Detailed discussions
encompass the LCD specifications, Wi-Fi module selection, and specifi­
cations, coupled with comprehensive insights into cloud computing
details [68]. The subsequent exploration involves a breakdown of the
components integrated into the circuit diagram of IoT-based smart en­
ergy management systems with PV Generation.
3.1.1. Smart plug
A pivotal element in our system is the smart plug, designed for
monitoring and managing various electrical equipment within the
electrical network. This device offers solutions for energy optimization
techniques, aligning with the rapid expansion of IoT, which has
heightened awareness in the current consumer marketplace [69]. As an
innovative solution, the smart plug facilitates timed on/off switches for
numerous household appliances, promoting electricity savings while
meeting user demands. In response to the evolving landscape of intel­
ligent devices, many household appliances now incorporate timed
switches for energy efficiency. However, certain appliances fall short of
meeting these specifications. To bridge this gap, the smart socket is
introduced [70–72]. Distinguished by several sensors, the smart socket
can be intelligently toggled on and off based on environmental condi­
tions [73]. This feature enhances adaptability and responsiveness,
contributing to a more efficient and sustainable energy management
system.
3.1.2. Current sensor
Another critical component in our system is the current sensor,
which plays a crucial role in monitoring electrical currents. This device
generates signals mirroring the electrical current by detecting the flow
through a material’s associate. These signals, commonly in analog or
digital form, are harnessed by the ammeter to measure the current
accurately [74,75]. The utilization of such a sensor contributes to the
precision and reliability of the system’s current measurements, ensuring
effective and responsive monitoring of electrical parameters within the
smart energy management framework.
3.1.3. Voltage sensor
Integral to the system is the voltage sensor, an instrument adept at
converting voltage variations in an external circuit into a physical
signal. This physical signal is instrumental in measuring the voltage
level distinction between two points [76]. By providing a reliable means
of capturing and interpreting voltage changes, the voltage sensor en­
hances the system’s ability to monitor and assess voltage parameters
accurately, contributing to the overall effectiveness of the smart energy
management system with PV Generation [77].

3.1.4. Light sensor

At least one of the Arduino analogue pins is tightly coupled to the

Table 11
Communication Technologies used in IoT [125–136].
Communication Technologies Standard Year Downlink or Uplink Range (meters) Operating Frequency (MHz)

RFID Wi-Fi 1973 100 kbps 2.0 0.125–05876

WSN Communication through packets 1970 1.370 Mega bps 0300 0900
Bluetooth Wi-Fi 1994 720 Kbps 10.0 2450
IEEE 802.15.4 6loWPAN 2003 250.0 Kbps 30.0 826.0 and 915.0
Z-Wave Wireless 2013 100.0 Kbps 30.0 868.42 and 908.420
LTE 3GPP, LTE and 4G 1991 100.0 Mbps 35.0 400 to 1900
NFC ISO 18092 2004 106, 212 or 424 Kbits <0.2 13.560
UBW IEEE 802.15.3 2002 11 to 55 Mbps 10 to 30 2400
M2M All communication protocols are accepted 1973 50 to 150 Mbps 5 to 20 1 to 20
6loWPAN Wi-Fi 2006 250.0 Kbps 30.0 915.0
5G Wireless (Wi-Fi) 2019 20 gigabits per second Tens to Hundreds of meters 1 GHz–6 GHz

7
C.K. Rao et al. Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

light sensor, as seen in Fig. 8. Functioning as an essential element, this

sensor provides real-time insights into the light intensity within the
room, taking into account factors such as time, season, and the fluctu­
ating power value [78]. Through this mechanism, the system can
dynamically adjust the need for artificial lighting by utilizing a voltage
divider [79].Employing SEN11302P as the sensing element, as depicted
in Fig. 5, the resistance of the Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or pho­
toresistor decreases with an increase in ambient light, as illustrated in
Ref. [80]. This feature enables the system to adapt to changing envi­
ronmental conditions, promoting energy efficiency in the smart energy
management system with PV Generation [81] (see Fig. 9).

3.1.5. Temperature sensor

Interconnected with the corresponding Arduino analog pin, the
temperature sensor serves as a vital component in the system. This
sensor provides crucial information about the approximate temperature
of the room [82]. When integrated with additional data, such as seasonal
variations, weather conditions, typical consumption patterns, and dy­
namic electricity ratings [83–85], it enables the system to make
informed decisions regarding temperature regulation. The relationship
between thermostat resistance and room temperature is directly pro­
portional; as the thermostat resistance increases, the room temperature
decreases [76]. This functionality empowers the smart energy man­
agement system with PV Generation to dynamically adjust temperature
settings for enhanced efficiency and user comfort.
3.1.6. Arduino Uno
A vital component in the system’s integration of several sensors and
relay actuators is the Arduino Uno, facilitating the observation and
control of diverse components [86–88]. Its functionality extends to the
collection of pertinent data from various nodes within the fields,
disseminating causal information to different nodes. Utilizing
open-source libraries and diverse programming instructions across
different languages, the Arduino Uno is a versatile platform employed in
numerous IoT-based applications [89].Its adaptability and accessibility
contribute significantly to the system’s capability to efficiently monitor,
analyze, and act upon data, underscoring its importance in the smart
energy management system with PV Generation.
3.1.7. NodeMCU
In the realm of IoT operations, a microcontroller is imperative for the
functioning of the Wi-Fi module (see Fig. 10). This microcontroller
Fig. 1. A pie chart illustrating the distribution of publications identified in the
literature review.
transmits information to a predefined network server via a dedicated
Wi-Fi connection [90,91]. The NodeMCU, depicted as a developmental
board, seamlessly integrates the functionality of each I/O port, serving
as a bridge between microcontrollers and connection boards. It relies on
the Wi-Fi module ESP8266 and is programmed within the Arduino
environment [86,87]. While the microcontroller handles computations,
the ESP8266 facilitates communication with Wi-Fi networks. The
NodeMCU pin diagram, featured in Fig. 11 [92–94], provides a visual
guide to its configuration and connectivity, underscoring its significance
in enabling wireless communication within the smart energy manage­
ment system with PV Generation (see Fig. 12).
3.1.8. XBee module
The XBee Module stands as a crucial data communication component
employed for transmitting data and information between two targets.
The first series of modules excels in managing point-to-point data con­
nections, while the second series extends its capabilities to handle sys­
tems with diverse network topologies such as star, tree, and mesh
configurations [95,96]. In the integrated system, the XBee Module es­
tablishes a reliable data communication path through the XBee protocol.
This capability enhances the overall connectivity and communication
within the smart energy management system with PV Generation,
enabling seamless data exchange between different components and
nodes [97].

Table 12
Cloud Technologies used in IoT [154–162].
Clouds Adafruit IO AWS Blynk Thingspeak Ubidots

Total Samples 336 433 687 577 596

Average Latency 178.670 ms 25619.030 ms 76.340 ms 1255.480 ms 1265.070 ms
Maximum Latency 920 ms 35977 ms 822 ms 2702 ms 2891 ms
Minimum Latency 59 ms 10160 ms 56 ms 849 ms 819 ms
Latency Variation 47.0 % 8.20 % 62.40 % 26.40 % 24.20 %
Packet Loss 12.0 per 1000 No No No 2.0 per 1000
Throughput 98.810 % 100.0 % 100.0 % 100.0 % 99.830 %
Interval for Update 2.0 s (30 data/min) 0.0 s (any feed) 0.0 s (any feed) 10.0 s (32 feeds) 0.0 s (any feed)
Min. Update Time 0.0 s 0.0 s 0.0 s 10.0 s 0.0 s
User Friendly YES YES YES Acceptable YES
Widget Creation No Creation Allows Creation No Creation Allows Creation Allows Creation
IFTTT Compatibility Direct Involvement Restricts IFTTT Through Webhooks Through Webhooks Through Webhooks
Security Rating 9.650/10 9.150/10 9.450/10 9.450/10 9.450/10
Protocol TLS 1.2 TLS 1.2 TLS 1.2 TLS 1.2 TLS 1.2
Key Exchange RSA 3072 RSA 2048 RSA 3072 RSA 3072 RSA 3072
Cipher Bits SHA 384 SHA 256 SHA 256 SHA 256 SHA 256
Data Computation None Multiple Platforms None MATLAB Own Platform
Storage Space 1.50 GB 5.0 GB Unlimited 3.0 million data/year Unlimited
Storage Time 1 month No Limits 3 months No Limits 2 years
Servers 2 servers 1 server 1 server 2 servers 2 servers
IP Address Server 1 52.72.201.158 99.84.226.218 185.203.72.17 54.172.155.251 IPV4: 0.23.124.67
IP Address Server 2 2.7.124.212 54.210.243.251 IPV6: 2607:f0d0:2101:94:0:0:0:4

8
C.K. Rao et al.
Fig. 2. An evaluative approach to energy management systems review.
Fig. 3. Organization of a review paper.
3.1.9. Gateway
The gateway is a key component of the architecture, serving as the
fundamental basis of an Internet of Things-based sensing and moni­
toring system intended for automated smart homes. Bidirectional data
communication between IoT devices and the cloud is made possible by
modern IoT gateways [99–101]. Serving as a central hub, the gateway
plays a pivotal role in ensuring seamless communication and coordi­
nation within the smart energy management system with PV Genera­
tion. Its capabilities enable efficient data exchange, improving the
automated system’s overall connection and functionality for better en­
ergy parameter monitoring and control.
3.1.10. Ethernet module
The Arduino Ethernet board, depicted in Fig. 14, is equipped to
support four socket connections, providing a crucial link between the
Arduino Uno board and the internet [102–105] (see Fig. 13). This
module enhances the system’s capabilities by enabling network con­
nectivity, allowing the smart energy management system with PV
9
Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136
Generation to access and exchange data over the internet. The integra­
tion of the Ethernet module expands the functionality of the system,
facilitating seamless communication and interaction with external net­
works and services [106] (see Fig. 15).
3.1.11. Wi-Fi Module
The ESP8266 Wi-Fi module stands out for its versatility in executing
various network functions, accomplished through application provi­
sioning or loading. Each module comes pre-programmed with computer
code configured to interpret AT commands [107–110]. The ESP8266
supports Automatic Packet-Switched Data (APSD) for Voice over
Internet Protocol (VOIP) applications and incorporates a Bluetooth
interface. Noteworthy is its self-contained RF (Radio Frequency) capa­
bility, eliminating the need for external RF components, and it allows for
an extensive range of data processing [110–114]. This Wi-Fi module
plays a pivotal role in providing wireless connectivity within the smart
energy management system with PV Generation, contributing to the
system’s agility and adaptability in diverse applications.
C.K. Rao et al. Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

Fig. 4. Smart energy management system for PV generation [4,24].

Fig. 6. The smart plug model [45].

Fig. 7. Current Sensor [49].

Fig. 5. Flowchart for a Internet of Things-based PV monitoring system [36].

10
C.K. Rao et al. Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

Fig. 8. Voltage Sensor [52].

Fig. 11. Arduino Uno [78].

exposed to solar rays, these cells undergo a process where radiation is

transformed into electrical energy. Solar modules within the PV panel
utilize photons to capture solar light and generate electrical energy
[115–117]. This crucial component harnesses the power of sunlight,
contributing to the sustainable generation of electricity in the smart
energy management system with PV Generation.

3.1.13. LCD display

The LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) serves as the visual interface to
showcase parameters acquired by the Arduino from various sensors
[118–121]. This display module plays a vital role in presenting real-time
information, providing a user-friendly interface for monitoring and
understanding the data collected by the system. Its integration enhances
the user experience and facilitates efficient interaction with the smart
energy management system with PV Generation [122–125].

3.1.14. Battery
Fig. 9. Light sensor [61]. The battery serves as the apparatus housing one or multiple elec­
trochemical cells. Connected to devices through its cathode and anode,
the battery preserves the voltage produced by the panels. This preser­
vation of energy plays a crucial role in supplying power to appliances
[126–130]. In the smart energy management system with PV Genera­
tion, the battery functions as a vital energy storage component, ensuring
a continuous and reliable power supply for sustained operation.

4. Communication technologies of IoT

The landscape of communication technologies in the Internet of

Fig. 10. Temperature sensor [64].
3.1.12. PV panel
The Photovoltaic (PV) Panel is composed of voltaic cells designed to
convert solar radiation into electrical energy as shown in Fig. 17. When
Things (IoT) is intricately linked with the dynamic selection of suitable
protocols for contemporary applications (see Fig. 18). This selection is
predominantly driven by commodity-based considerations and extends
to IoT-related network systems in Table 4. The primary data commu­
nication technologies in IoT are visually represented in Fig. 19
[131–135]. This figure serves as a comprehensive guide, outlining the
diverse communication technologies that underpin the connectivity and
data exchange within the IoT ecosystem as in Fig. 21(see Fig. 20).
The predominant techniques of data communication in IoT are
categorized into four distinct divisions, as detailed in Table 7 (see
Table 6) This classification provides a structured overview of the diverse
approaches employed in facilitating communication within the IoT
framework [136–140] (see Table 8).
4.1. IEEE 802.15.4
IEEE 802.15.4 manages the medium route for Low-Speed Wireless
Personal Area Networks, defining the physical layer [141–143].

11
C.K. Rao et al. Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

Fig. 12. NodeMCU [80].

Fig. 13. XBee series [85].

Operating in the 2.4 GHz frequency band for active models, the first
version supports the 826.0 and 915.0 MHz frequency bands in Table 10.
Its base frame can communicate up to 10 m at a 250 kbps transmission
rate [144].
4.2. Zensys Wave
4.3. Long-term evolution (LTE)
LTE is a widely adopted wireless data communication protocol,
specifically designed for high-speed information transmission in cellular
networks [148–150]. Supporting transmissions up to 100 MHz, LTE
ensures lower latency rates for improved data transmission efficiency.

Zensys Wave serves as a wireless data transfer protocol, commonly
used in home automation and remote applications for larger residences
[145,146]. Operating at 868.42 MHz in Europe and 908.42 MHz in
North America, its data communication range is limited to 2 nautical
miles or 30 m [147].
4.4. Near-field communication (NFC)
NFC, akin to RFID, integrates radio communication into mobile
phones and operates through proximity activation or user-initiated
activation [151]. This low-power, short-range wireless data link facili­
tates secure communication between devices when in close proximity.

12
C.K. Rao et al. Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136

Fig. 17. Solar Panel [110].

Fig. 14. Gateway module [90].

Fig. 18. Liquid-crystal display [115].

Fig. 15. Ethernet Shield module [95].

Fig. 16. Wi-Fi Module [98].

Fig. 19. Battery [125].

4.5. Ultra-wide band (UWB)

UWB is designed for low coverage communication areas, similar to
NFC, but it utilizes high information metrics for attaching sensors
[152–154]. Operating at a high bandwidth of 500 MHz, it was initially
known as purely radio impulse.
4.6. Machine to machine (M2M)
M2M communication involves connecting computers, processors,
sensors, actuators, and cellular devices [155]. Comprising five funda­
mental parts, including M2M devices, spatial networks, gateways,
communication networks, and applications, it facilitates seamless
communication in various IoT applications.
4.7. IPv6 Low Power Wireless PAN
Built on 6LowPAN technology, IPv6 Low Power Wireless PAN fo­
cuses on header density and encapsulation mechanisms [156]. It sup­
ports various communication platforms such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, IEEE
802.15.4, and ISM sub-one GHz [157].
4.8. 5G
5G, the next-generation mobile data communication network, offers

13
C.K. Rao et al.
Fig. 20. IoT data Communication technologies [136].
increased speed and responsiveness [158,159]. Tailored for growing
M2M applications, it prioritizes low latency, noise immunity, reliability,
and security, making it suitable for smart grid applications.
4.9. Wireless HART
Wireless HART extends the wired HART protocol for industrial
automation, operating in the 2.40 GHz range [160]. It provides
centralized, instantaneous protocol support for process monitoring and
control, addressing the limitations of hard-wired meters [161].
4.10. Bluetooth
Bluetooth, part of the WPAN criterion (IEEE 802.15.1), is a low-
power communication standard operating between 2.40 and 2.48350
GHz [162]. It supports point-to-point and point-to-multipoint commu­
nication with a range between 1.0 m and 100.0 m [163].
4.11. Bluetooth low energy (BLE)
BLE is an energy-efficient version of Bluetooth, designed for small-
range, low-cost, and low-power data communication Table 11 [164].
Addressing the power consumption limitations of Bluetooth, it is suit­
able for devices with limited battery capacity, commonly used in various
smart devices [165].
5. Research perspectives in IoT energy management
Energy management (EM) is a critical aspect of microgrids, ensuring
efficient energy transfer among diverse sources and storage technologies
[166–169]. As renewable energy sources are intermittent, effective EM
is crucial for a reliable, cost-effective, and efficient operation. While
simulation-based studies dominate EM research, real-time systems’
simulation can enhance credibility for practical applications.
Hardware-in-loop (HIL) investigations are needed to validate simulation
results [170–173].
Fig. 21. Working of RFID [146].
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Hybrid Advances 5 (2024) 100136
5.1. Future directions of smart energy management system
Several exciting possibilities exist for the future of smart energy
management systems in grid energy storage:
Advanced Control and Optimization Strategies: Researchers are
exploring modern control and optimization techniques, including arti­
ficial intelligence and machine learning, to enhance energy storage
system efficiency and performance [174–176].
Hybrid Energy Storage Systems: Integration of multiple storage
technologies, such as batteries, capacitors, and super capacitors, is being
researched to address individual technology limitations and improve
overall performance [177–180].
Grid Integration and Management: Strategies for grid integration
and management are crucial for the reliable functioning and interaction
of microgrids with the main grid [181].
New Storage Technologies: Cutting-edge energy storage technol­
ogies, including flow batteries, thermal storage, and hydrogen storage,
are being investigated for efficiency and efficacy [182,183].
Smart Grid Integration: Innovations for incorporating energy
storage devices into smart grids are essential to enhance power trans­
mission effectiveness and reliability [184].
Life Cycle Analysis: Researchers are conducting life cycle assess­
ments to understand the environmental impact of MG energy storage
systems and identify areas for improvement [185].
Standardization: Standardization is essential to ensure interopera­
bility and compatibility as MG configurations and energy storage tech­
nologies proliferate [186].
Energy Trading: Exploring energy trade possibilities across MGs
and between microgrids and the main grid to maximize energy utiliza­
tion and cost savings [187].
Reliability and Resiliency: Investigating redundant storage sys­
tems and advanced control algorithms to enhance the reliability and
resilience of energy storage systems in MGs [188].
Optimal Sizing and Placement: Developing effective techniques for
designing and positioning energy storage systems to maximize perfor­
mance and financial feasibility [189].
Aging and Degradation: Modeling and predicting the aging and
degradation of energy storage devices to improve replacement and
maintenance strategies [190].
Environmental and Social Impact: Studying the environmental
and social consequences of energy storage systems in MGs, including
their effects on social justice, resource consumption, and land use [191].
Electromagnetic Compatibility: Ensuring electromagnetic
compatibility of energy storage systems to avoid interference and
guarantee reliable operation in microgrids.
As the sector evolves, energy storage technologies and their appli­
cations in MG systems are expected to further develop and innovate
[192].
6. Conclusion
This study provided an overview of techniques, methods, compo­
nents, and approaches used in intelligent energy management for both
independent and grid-connected hybrid renewable energy systems, with
C.K. Rao et al.
a focus on IoT in PV power generation. The study underlined the
importance the Internet of Things is to providing two-way control and
real-time data monitoring for effective power management. Customers
may efficiently monitor and regulate their power use with the help of the
Intelligent Smart Energy Management System (ISEMS) that is being
offered, which results in energy savings. Future directions in smart en­
ergy management include advanced control strategies, hybrid energy
storage systems, grid integration, new storage technologies, smart grid
integration, life cycle analysis, standardization, energy trading, reli­
ability enhancement, optimal sizing and placement, aging and degra­
dation modeling, environmental and social impact studies, and
electromagnetic compatibility considerations. The ongoing develop­
ment of energy storage technologies and their applications is expected to
drive further innovation in MG systems.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Challa Krishna Rao: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Methodology, Investiga­
tion, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Sarat Kumar
Sahoo: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Validation,
Software, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualiza­
tion. Franco Fernando Yanine: Writing – review & editing, Writing –
original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Investigation,
Data curation, Conceptualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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