Leclave-4 9 -1- 2023 Structure of an atom * The atoms. Contain tiny particles called Protons, neutrons and electrons which are called as 'amental particles, Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and neutrons are electrically neutral, The arrangement of protons, neutrons and electrons will be different for different material. * Fig shows that an atom Consists of a central nucleus which is surrounded by orbiting electrons, * Atoms are electrically neutral Atoms are electrically neutral Since the protons and orbital electrons are equal in number, their equal and opposite charge will neutralize each other electrically. Therefore atoms are normally electrically neutral. . can be converted to ions Ifan atom losses an electron then the number of protons becomes higher than the number of electrons. “Stnorty fan atom gains an addtional electron then 8s a negative ion. * Electron orbits or ‘shells; ‘shell can contain at the most 2n? number of | electrons WhereEffect of additional energy absorbed by an atom an absorb additional energy due to increase in temperature, or from the light The outermost shel is known as valence shell and the electrons in it are called as valence in itete. 0 this absorbed energy, the energy levels of the electrons are raised and they move to Higher orbits i.e. the orbits which are away from the nucleus. ‘energy is given to the valence electrons then they will jump out of the valence shell become ‘free’. Such free electrons are not bound to the nucleus of any atom. The free Is constitute the flow of current through a material. ‘When in equilibrium, an atom is electrically neutral, as the number of protons is exactly equal to the number of protons. * But ifan electron from the outermost orbit is extracted, then the atom does not remain electrically neutral. Since it has lost one electron, it has lost negative charge. So the atom becomes positively charged and called as a positive ion. On the other hand, addition of an electron to an atom will convert the atom into negative ion. The process of conversion from an electrically neutral atom to an ion is called ionization. Semiconductors are classified into two categories semiconductors semiconductors semiconductors pure, so intrinsic semiconductors are the semiconductors in their purest of impurity ie. atom of the other material is as low as 1 part per 100 million semiconductors. : semiconductors are insulators or very very poor conductors at room: Significantly. Therefore, the intrinsic semiconductors are not practically used manufacturing of devices. Extrinsic semiconductors Extrinsic means impure, so we can obtain the extrinsic semiconductors from intrinsic ones by adding impurities to them. Impurity is nothing but some other material. The process of adding impurities is called as Doping. Due to doping conductivity of the semiconductors increase. Therefore they are used for manufacturing of all the electronic components such as diodes and transistors etc. Extrinsic semiconductors are classified as semiconductors semiconductors semiconductors: The n- type semiconductor is formed by adding a small amount of ‘pentavalent’ impurity to the pure Silicon or Germanium material which acts as base material. The pentavalent element is one which has five valence electrons. When pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic is added to the intrinsic semiconductor valence electrons of Arsenic atom form four covalent bonds with four valence electrons neighboring silicon atoms. The fifth electrons of the arsenic atom does not have a chance to form a covalent atom. This an additional valence electron which can enter the conduction band very easily to be free electron.luctors p-type semiconductors are formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon crystal with ‘trivalent’ impurity atoms. ‘material having three valence electrons per atom are known as trivalent materials, effect of adding one of these elements ‘Gallium’ on the base of silicon is shown . ‘a Gallium atom is added to the silicon base, its thee valence electrons will form bonds with the valence electrons of three neighboring silicon atoms. rth covalent bond, however remains incomplete as the Gallium atom has only three electrons. = vacancy is called as ‘hole’ numberof holes will make the semiconductor a p-type semiconductoration of depletion region barrier potential ‘When a p-type semiconductor material is diffused into an n-type material, the junction separating the two regions is called PN-junction and the structure is called PN-junction diode or semiconductor diode or rectifier diode. A PN-junetion diode has two terminals namely Anode (A) and Cathode (K). Anode terminal is drawn out from the P-region and cathode from N-region The schematic symbol of diode is as shown in figure i. The arrowhead represents conventional direction of current flow. A diode conducts current only in one direction i. from anode to cathode, hence it is called unidirectional device. Due to unidirectional property it is suitable for rectification. Hence called rectifier diode.Lecture -2 Diode; 9-1- 2023 = blasing of a p-n junction diode: Narrow depletion region Holes ____ @F ree electrons Battery Forward bias If the p-region (anode) is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and n-side is connected to the negative terminal of the DC source then the biasing is called’ forward’ biased. Due to the negative terminal of external source connected to the n-region, free electrons from inside are pushed towards the p-side. Similarly the positive end of the supply push holes from p-side towards the n-side. With increase in the external supply voltage V, more and more number of holes (p-side) and electrons (n-side) start travelling towards the junction. The holes will start converting the negative ions into neutral atoms and the electro ek convert the positive ions into neutral atoms, ae ‘Asa result of this, the width of depletion region will reduce, ‘Due to reduction in the depletion region width, the barrier potential wil c i Eventually at a particular value of V the depletion region wil collapse pe! reduce. ‘opposition to the flow of electrons and holes, : re Is no number af majority carers crossing the junction constute a current called asthe forward2 9-1-2023 Lecture 2 | (Pulsating) Hi DC Output [le ioug AA ms | Secondary Transformer0 I 4 @ + During postive half-cycle Oe ‘y I Osea D3 During negative half-cycle VoutRega on Positive ion Reverse bias * lmreverse biased p-n junction diode, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to tthe n-type semiconductor material and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor material = When the external voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode in such a way that, negative terminal is connected to the p-type semiconductor and positive terminal is connected to the n-type semiconductor, holes from the p-side are attracted towards the negative terminal whereas free electrons from the n-side are attracted towards the positive terminal. '* _ Imreverse biased p-n junction diode, the free electrons begin their journey at the negative terminal whereas holes begin their journey at the positive terminal. Free electrons, which begin their journey at the negative terminal, find large number of holes at the p-type semiconductor and fill them with electrons. The atom, which gains an extra electron, becomes a charged atom or negative ion or motionless charge. These negative ions at p-n junction (p-side) oppose the flow of free electrons from n-side. On the other hand, holes or positive charges, which begin their journey at the positive terminal, find large of free electrons at the n-type semiconductor and replace the electrons position with holes. The atom, which loses an electron, becomes a charged atom or positive ion. These positive ions at p-n junction (n-side) oppose the flow of positive charge carriers from p-side. (holes) Lectuve-3 —— 1o- or zener voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the diode is heavily doped, ayer will be thin and consequently the breakdown of the junction will occur at a lower voltage. other hand, a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage. When an ordinary crystal ‘is property doped so that it has a sharp breakdown voltage, iti called a zener diode. doped crystal diode which has a sharp breakdown voltage is known as a zener diode. 2023Fig. : gal the symbol of a zener diode. It may be seen that itis just like an ordinary diode except ir is turned into z-shape. The following points may be noted about the zener diode: Azener diode is like an ordinary diode except that it is properly doped so as to have a sharp voltage. /Azener, diode is always reverse connected i.e. itis always reverse biased ‘Azener / diode has sharp breakdown voltage, called zener voltage Vz forward biased, its characteristics are just those of ordinary diode jown region. As long Zener diode is not immediately burnt just because it has entered the breakd in burn out value, the external circuit connected to the diode limits the diode current to less tha diode will not burn out. Diode Characteristics REVERSE CHARACTERISTIC = /y Diode Equivalent: TE "When the reverse voltage across the zener diode is Vz, diode is in off state. ass tan ie aot cena ~ Under such condition diode can be replaced by an open circuit as shown,y=0 ) Equivalent circuit of zener for “off” state as Voltage Stabiliser The circuit arrangement is shown in figure. A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant voltage from as Source whose voltage may vary over sufficient range. The zener diode is reverse connected across the load across which constant output is desired. The series resistance R absorbs the output voltage fluctuations so as to maintain constant voltage across the load. Zener will maintain constant voltage across it as long as input voltage to zener does not fall below vz. wn the circuit is properly designed , the load voltage EO remains substantially constant “equal to Vz, irrespective of variations in input voltage Ei and load resistance RL. ://vevew.youtube.com/watch?v=-mmiHX_lvDw wwcathode Definition: Photodiode is a two terminal electronic device which, when exposed to light the Current starts flowing in the diode. It is operated in reverse biased mode only. it ‘Converts light energy into electrical energy. When the ordinary diode is reverse biased the Feverse current starts increasing with reverse voltage the same can be applied to the photodiode. Butin the case of photodiode the current can flow without application of reverse voltage, _the P-N junction of the photodiode is illuminated by light and light energy dislodge valence electrons and the diode starts conducting. Principle of Photodiode: Light Rays on Nitride ‘SiO, Diffusion Passivation AR coating Neback Contact Diffusion Back Metallization Cathode (7 eossseetional View of Photodiode £ the conventional diode is reverse biased, the de ct starts flowing due to minority charge carrie the reverse current also starts increasing. Th without applying reverse voltage, of Photodiode is illuminated by the li ce. The photons impart their enrgy in the for ‘ons from valence band get the energy to jut te to current. In this way, Pletion region starts expanding and lers. With the increase of reverse }e same condition can be obtained in ght source, the photons strike the junction Fm of light to the junction. Due to which imp into the conduction band and {the photodiode converts light energy into electricalThe lighting emitting diode is a p-n junction diode. It is a specially doped diode and made up ofa Special type of semiconductors. When the light emits in the forward biased, then it is Called a light-emitting diode. = ba Symbol is similar to a diode symbol except for two small arrows that specify the De N of light, thus it is called LED (light-emitting diode). The LED includes two terminals Imely anode (+) and the cathode (-). The LED symbol is shown below. Anode ys. Cathoae Valence Band ‘a diode made of semiconductors having a P.N junction. LED is based on the recombination of electrons with holes. When LED is forward biased, the electrons from the P-N junction and recombine with the holes existing in P-region. For the electrons to holes existing in P-region, they must give some of their energy. When recombination electrons release energy in the form of heat and light. a light-emitting diode(LED) is the phenomenon of electroluminescence. The emission of because of the influence of an electric field is called electroluminescence.1-93 Lecture 4 A A + Is CG K (kK) The structure and symbol of the thyristor (SCR) are shown in Fig. 2.1. It is a four layered PNPN switching device, having three junctions J1, J2 and J3. Ithas three external terminals, namely, the anode (A), cathode (K) and gate (G). The anode and cathode are connected to the main power circuit. The gate terminal carries a low level gate current in the direction gate to cathode. ‘Normally, the gate terminal is provided at the P layer near the cathode. known as cathode gate. When the end P layer is made positive with respect to the end N layer , the two outer _ junctions, J1 and J3 are forward biased but the middle junction J2 becomes reverse biased. ‘Thus the junction J2 because of the presence of depletion layer, does not allow any current “to flow through the device. Jeakage current, negligibly small in magnitude, flows through the device due to the drift the mobile charges. current is insufficient to make the device conduct. The depletion layer, mostly of bile charges do not constitute any flow of current. words, the SCR under the forward biased condition does not conduct. This is called forward blocking state or off-state of the device ‘the end n layer is made positive with respect to end p layer, the middle junction J2 forward biased, whereas the two outer junctions, J1 and J3 become reverse biased, ‘31. and J3 do not allow any current to flow through the device. nly a very small amount of leakage current may flow because of the drift of the charges. current is again insufficient to make the device conduct.The width of the depletion layer at the junction 2 decreases with the increase in anode to Cathode voltage (since the width is inversely proportional to voltage). : ‘Ifthe voltage between the anode and cathode is kept on increasing, a stage comes to forward break-over voltage) when the depletion layer at J2 vanishes. : Phenomenon is known as the Avalanche breakdown. Since the other junctions, 11 and . are already forward biased, there will be a free carrier movement across all the three _ Junctions resulting in a targe amount of eurrent flowing through the device from anode to to the flow of this forward current, the device starts conducting and it is then said to be the conducting state or on state. Blocking Region 2n the cathode is made positive with respect to anode with the switch s open the or becomes reverse biased. | Fig. 2.3, OP is the reverse blocking region. In this region, the thyristor exhibits a blocking racteristic similar to that of a diode. n this reverse biased condition, the outer junction J1 and J3 are reverse biased and the junction J2 is forward biased. only a small leakage current (in mA) flows. If the reverse voltage is increased, at a critical breakdown level called reverse breakdown voltage VR, an avalanche will ‘at J1 and J3 increasing the current sharply. ‘current is not limited to a safe value, power dissipation will increase to a dangerous may destroy the device. Sj PQ is the reverse avalanche region. If the reverse voltage applied across the device is y this critical value, the device will behave as a high-impedance device (i.e., essentiallyFig. 2.3 V-I characteristics ‘Blocking Region In this region, the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode and therefore, {junctions /1 and J3 are forward biased while the junction J2 remains reverse biased. Hence, the anode current is a small forward leakage current. The region OM of the VI ‘characteristic is known as the forward blocking region when the device does not conduct. \When the anode to cathode forward voltage is increased with the gate circuit kept open, senche breakdown occurs at the junction J: at a critical forward break-over voltage (Vso), ‘the SCR switches into a low impedance condition (high conduction mode). ig to the point M, when the device region MN of the characteristic shows that as soon as the device latches on to its ON voltage across the device drops from say, several hundred Volts to 12 Volt, ‘on the rating of the SCR, and suddenly a very large amount of current starts the device. Lk of the characteristic Is called as the forward conduction state. In this high the anode current is determined essentially by the external load thyristor conducts forward current, it can be regarded as a closedWhen a Bate-signal is applied, the thyristor turns-on before Vao is reached. The forward at which the device switches to ON state depends upon the magnitude of gate Surrent; higher the gate current, lower isthe forward break over voltage. Figure 2.3 shows that for gate current le = 0, the forward breakover voltage Is Vso. For la, the forward breakover voltage is less than Vso and for lez > lox, it is still further reduced. In practice, the magnitude of gate-current is more than the minimum gate current required ‘to turn-on the scr. ‘The typical gate current magnitudes are of the order of 20 to 200 mA. Once the SCR is Conducting a forward current that is greater than the minimum value, called ‘the latching current, the gate signal is no longer required to maintain the device in its ON2. When the ‘Capacitor voltage reaches Vp, then UJT turns on and capacitor find a discharge Path through UsT and Ra. ' | The Aischarge action of capacitor each time produces a pulse. While discharging when c apacitor voltage reaches Wy, then UJT turns off and capacitor ‘charging again utp Vp and cycle continues. Due to continuous cha ging and discharging action, a train of pulses will be produced at terminal B1 as shown, . y1B-1- 2B Lectuse-5 the states of the devices are — T, —> OFF, 7)—> OFF, ». £,=0 Mode 1: When a triggering pulse is applied to the gate of 7, the thyristor 7, triggered. Therefore, two circuit current, namely, load current /, and charging [start flowing. Their paths are: Cwill get charged by the supply voltage £,, with the polarity shown in 2.17. The states of circuit components becomes TON, > OFF, E,= Fy(©) Mode 2: When a triggering pulse is applied to the gate of T, T; will be co Assoonas T, is ON, the negative polarity of the capacitor C is applied anode of 7, and simultaneously, the positive polarity of capacitor C is Ito the cathode. This causes the reverse voltage across the main thyristor 7, and immediately tums it off ‘Charging of capacitor C now takes place through the load and its polarity &$ reverse. Therefore, charging path of capacitor C becomes oa eC C7 4h Hence, at the end of Mode 2, the states of the devices are T,—> OFF, T, ON, £,=-Fu Mode 3: Now, when thyristor T, is triggered, the discharging current of citor tums the complementary thyristor 7, OFF. The state of the circuit at he end of this Mode 3 becomes 7] T,—+ ON, T,— > OFF, £7 Fy ®, this Mode 3 operation is equivalent to Mode | operation. | The term GTO stands for “Gate Turn off Thyristor”. " Its a bipolar semiconductor switching device that includes three terminals namely anode, " cathode & gate like a conventional thyristor. It has the capacity of gate turn off.; Structure of the gate turn off thyristor is similar to a normal thyristor because it Includes 3 and 4: PNPN layers, A GTO is a three:terminal PNPN device like anode, cathode, and gate, In hg thyristor, the anode terminal is composed of @ p+ layer through n+ type fingers diffused 'S Of gate tum off thyristor include the following. The GTO has outstanding switching characteristics The configuration of the GTO circuit has less weight and size than the thyristor circuit unit _Acommutation circuit is not required, hence cost, weight and size can be reduced. “The blocking voltage capacity of GTO is high | di/dt ratings are more at turn ON 1#-1:2> 4 == Lecture-6Triac is the word 5 : derived by combining the capital letters from the words TRlode and a.c. the Triac can conduct in both the directions, x the terms anode and cathode are not applicable to ‘three . terminals are usually designated as main terminals, MT1, MT2 and gate G, asin a thyristor. termi Ne : es MT1is the reference Point for measurement of voltages and currents at the gate at the terminal MT2, The gate is near to terminal MT1. eV I characteristic of a Triac is shown in Fig. 5.6(c). icteristics of the Triac are based on the terminal MT1 as the reference point. st quadrant is the region wherein MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 and vice-versa for the d quadrant. The peak voltage applied across the device in either direction must be less than the breakover voltage in order to retain control by the gate. _ Agate current of specified amplitude of either polarity will trigger the Triac into conduction in either quadrant, assuming that the device is in a blocking condition initially before the gate signal is applied. The characteristics of a Triac are similar to those of an SCR, both in blocking and conducting states, except for the fact that SCR conducts only in the forward direction, whereas the Triac ‘conducts in both the directions. ‘Lamp brightness control d control of fan angle control of ac signalnm oT; oy 1 4 Conduction state for Positive half cycle Yon Sy isa two electrode, bidirectional avalanche diode which can be switched from the off- the on-state for ei ither polarity of applied voltage. tic construction, voltage current characteristics and z Circuit symbol of the Diac n in Fig. 5.5. it the two leads are labelled as terminals T1 and 12 instead of the conventional ode designations. is obtained from capital letters, Diode that can work on ac 0 electrode, bidirectional avalanche diode which can be ‘switched from the off- tate for either polarity of applied voltage. }, voltage current characteristics and circuit symbol of the Diac are labelled as terminals T1 and T2 instead of the conventionalThe i Curve in Fig. 5.5(c) illustrates this characteristic. Similarly, when terminal Tis positive witt ee toT: and if voltage Vay exceeds breakover voltage Vso the structure PNPN At voltages less than the breakover volta, a very small amount of current called the leakage current flows through the device. Leakage current produced due to the drift of electrons and holes at the depletion region is Not sufficient to cause conduction in the device. The device remains Practically in non conducting mode. ‘Sa Portion of the characteristics shown by region OA inFig. 5.5(c) is called as the blocking ite. At point A , when the voltage level reaches the breakover voltage, the device starts ‘conducting. During its conduction, the device exhibits negative resistance characteristics. The current flowing in the device starts increasing and the voltage across it starts decreasing. This portion of the characteristic shown by AB in Fig. 5.5(c) is known as the conduction state. The value of current corresponding to the point A is known as the breakover current. Applications: Itcan be used in the lamp dimmer circuit Itis used in a heat control circuit Itis used in the speed control of a universal motor 187-23 Lecture - 7 ed two junction PNP or NPN device. terminals viz. Base(8), Emitter(E), Collector(C).. d by an arrowhead indicating direction of emitter current. r, when base emitter junction is forward biased to saturation, it turns on and from collector to emitter. or, when base emitter junction is forward biased to saturation, it turns on and emitter to collector. ‘as the base drive is removed.Collector (C) Collector (C) m4! mH Emir (E) Emir (€) {a) npn BUT (b) pnp BUT Symbols of BJT Output Characteristics of BJT La Active Region a le = 50mMA Cut off region le = OmA 2 s 2 6 4 Collector Base Voltage Vcs (Volt) er BIT Applications: (Switch mode power supply) commonly used in computers. audio amplifier in stereo systems. amplifiers. speed controllers."+ Available for 6500 volt and 1200 A. Operating frequency maximum up to 100 kHz * Used in . Converters Traction motor control Induction Heating Bidirectional Terminals MT1 and MT2 Gate current can be supplied in both directions Characteristics both quadrant (I and tt!) and symmetrical ‘More than one mode of operation Less reliable Lower ratings available ‘DIAC triggering, Applications: AC Power control, Light Dimmer Ckt, Induction Heating, AC Motor control‘Fapid increase in the on-state Fesistance of the channe! and hence . the on-state drop. The on-state voltage drop Hore with the identical conditions, increases by a factor of 3 the increment in the on- 200°C. oom temperature and state voltage drop is very r small 3. All highest temperature, 3. Athigh ambient temperature; maximum current rating IGBT is extraordinarily ‘Bees down to 1/3 value, well suited. 4. Current sharing in multiple 4. Current sharing in multiple Parallcled MOSFETs is paralleled IGBTs is far ‘camparatively poor than better than power MOSFET. IGBTs. $. The turn-on transients ;. Tum-on transients are identical ‘are identical to IGBTs. to MOSFETs. 6. Power MOSFET is suited 6. IGBT is the preferred device for applications that for applications that require require low blocking high blocking voltages voltages and high and lower operating ‘operating frequencies. frequencies. __ Power BIT Power MOSFET BIT is a minority MOSFET is a majority as well as majority carrier device. ‘carrier device. BIT is a current controlled MOSFET is a voltage- device. controlled device. BJT has negative temperature 3. MOSFET has positive coefficient. temperature coefficient. |. BIT cannot operate at 4. MOSFET can operate at very high frequency. higher frequencies. |. BJT has different shapes 5. FBSOA and RBSOA are identical. for the FBSOA and RBSOA. SOA is much better than that of BIT. ‘Second breakdown can 6. No possibility of second take-place. breakdown. }. Peak-current capability 7. Peak current capability is Jess than that of of MOSFET is higher than MOSFET. that of BJT. BITs are less sensitive 8. MOSFETs are more sensitive to voltage spikes than to voltage spikes than BJT. ‘MOSFETs. Most rate voliage is lower 9. The on-state voltage is higher than that of power-MOSFET. than that of power BJT. ‘Therefore, the on-state loss Pookie ate coal Ee eion tosces of a BIT 10, Conduction losses of a MOSFET are ‘are Jess than that of MOSFET. greater than BJT. ‘Switching losses are more. 11, Switching losses are less. 12, More energy efficient at high More energy efficient at Jow frequency ye