Journal of Materials Research and Technology 27 (2023) 7740–7747

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Journal of Materials Research and Technology

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Characterization of LC/HC-FeMn alloys and their melting mechanism in the

molten iron
Jinlong Wang a, b, Shengqiang Song a, b, *, Xiangshan Ke a, b, Alain Nyembwe c, Zhengliang Xue a, b
a
The State Key Laboratory of Refractories and Metallurgy, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430081, Hubei, China
b
Key Laboratory for Ferrous Metallurgy and Resources Utilization of Ministry of Education, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430081, Hubei, China
c
School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, Wits University, Johannesburg, 2000, South Africa

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling editor: P Rios Low density high strength steel has become an important lightweight structural material for future civilian and
military vehicles due to its combination of less weight and high strength and toughness. However, due to
Keywords: extremely high amount of Mn content (~25%), the fast melting of ferromanganese in molten steel is extremely
FeMn important. Two grades of commercial FeMn alloy were used in this study: LC-FeMn and HC-FeMn, respectively.
Solid shell
Compared with LC-FeMn, HC-FeMn contains more MnO and MnS inclusions. The density of HC-FeMn (6550 kg/
Inclusions
m3) are lower than LC-FeMn (7110 kg/m3). The liquidus temperature of HC-FeMn (1389 ◦ C) are higher than LC-
Low density high strength steel
FeMn (1219 ◦ C). After being inserted into the molten iron for 6 s, an initial size of 4 mm HC-FeMn melted to be
3.1 mm, while the same size of LC-FeMn became 0.45 mm. The adding the cold ferromanganese alloy to the
molten iron resulted in the formation of a solid shell on the surface. The solid shell thickness of the cold alloy
reaches its maximum value after 1 s in the molten pool, 2.09 mm for LC-FeMn and 1.86 mm for HC-FeMn
respectively. The solid shell was expected to melt completely within about 3 s.

1. Introduction
Manganese (Mn) is an important component of steel. Mn can be
completely dissolved in γ-Fe and can improve the strength, hardness,
elastic limit, hardenability, tempering stability and wear resistance of
steel [1]. Mn is mainly used as an austenitizing element in high alloy
steels [2]. Mn is often added to the molten steel pool for deoxidation,
desulfurization, and alloying in the form of ferromanganese (FeMn) al­
loys. For some types of steel, such as low density high strength steel
(~25 mass% Mn), austenitic Mn steel, etc., FeMn alloy is an important
raw material for molten steel alloying, which is added to the molten Fe
pool [3].
The melting process of FeMn alloy in the molten pool not only de­
pends on the flow field of molten steel and the location of alloy addition,
but also has a great relationship with the properties of the alloy itself
such as density, liquidus temperature, specific heat capacity, etc. Based
on carbon content, the FeMn alloy is mainly divided into low-carbon
FeMn (<0.5% C, LC-FeMn), medium carbon FeMn (<1.5% C, MC-
FeMn), and high carbon FeMn (>1.5% C, HC-FeMn) [4]. Different
types of alloys not only have different carbon contents but also contain
different inclusions. During the melting process, the inclusions in the
alloy are inevitably introduced into the molten pool. In the early stage of
alloy melting, there is certainly a diffusion zone at the interface between
the liquid alloy and the Fe liquid. The composition of the original in­
clusions in the alloy in this diffusion region can change.
Liu et al. [5] studied the melting and mixing behavior of LaFe alloy in
argon-stirred molten steel. La content was found to affect the density of
the alloy, thereby the melting behavior of the alloy. The lower the alloy
density, the shorter the melting and mixing time in the molten pool.
Duan et al. [6] simulated the melting and mixing behavior of alloys in an
argon-stirred ladle based on turbulent fluid flow. They found that high
melt superheat and small alloy particle size are beneficial for the melting
and mixing of alloys in argon stirred ladle. Stavros et al. [7] studied the
melting kinetics of titanium in molten steel and divided the melting of
titanium into two stages: the solid shell stage and the free melting stage.
Liu et al. [8] investigated the melting behavior of aluminum particles
during the RH refining of molten steel. The aluminum particles were
found to melt within about 5 s after contact with molten steel with a
superheat of 28 K. Wang et al. [9] studied interface reactions and the
formation of inclusions at the interface of FeNb alloy during the early
melting stage. The results showed that a diffusion zone was formed at
the interface. At the same time, the alloy introduced Al–O and

* Corresponding author. The State Key Laboratory of Refractories and Metallurgy, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430081, Hubei, China.
E-mail address: songs@wust.edu.cn (S. Song).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.11.211
Received 6 September 2023; Accepted 22 November 2023
Available online 28 November 2023
2238-7854/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
J. Wang et al.
Al–Ti–Nb–O inclusions in the molten steel. Wang et al. [10,11] also
studied the early melting behavior of FeCr alloy in the molten pool and
the effect of FeCr alloy on non-metallic inclusions in titanium-containing
ferritic stainless steel. Pande et al. [12] investigated the formation and
evolution of inclusions at the early reaction interface of pure Ti metal,
FeTi70 and FeTi35 alloys after contact with molten Fe. They found that
the Ti-rich zone formed by the introduction of pure Ti could modify the
Al2O3 inclusions in the molten steel. The addition of FeTi70 alloy
facilitated the formation of inclusions, which depends on the activity of
oxygen. Yan et al. [13] studied the early interfacial reaction of metallic
Mn added to liquid Fe with various dissolved oxygen and sulphur.
Furthermore, they also investigated the early melting behavior of
FeMnSi alloy in liquid Fe [14]. Argyropoulos et al. [15] studied the
dissolution process of Fe–Si and Ti alloys in molten steel. Zhu and Wang
et al. [16,17] examined the effects of different manganese raw materials
(electrolytic Mn, metallic Mn, ultra-low carbon FeMn, low carbon FeMn,
medium carbon FeMn, and high carbon FeMn) on non-metallic in­
clusions in TRIP steel after alloying. Vanende et al. [18] investigated the
nucleation behavior of Al2O3 inclusions at the interface of Al particles
during the initial melting stage of molten Fe. Although many scholars
have conducted extensive investigations on the melting process of alloys
in molten Fe pool, there are relatively few studies on FeMn alloys.
In this study, the melting process of commercial LC-FeMn and HC-
FeMn alloys added into molten Fe bath was studied by using scanning
electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS),
dynamic numerical model and FactSage 8.1 thermochemical software.
2. Experiment
2.1. Experimental procedure
400 g of industrial pure iron with a carbon content of 0.025% and an
oxygen content of 0.0037% was loaded in an Al2O3 crucible. The cru­
cible was positioned into the quartz reaction chamber of a vacuum
induction-melting furnace (Fig. 1). The reaction chamber was first
evacuated with a vacuum pump to ensure an inert atmosphere with no
residual oxygen. To control the operating atmosphere, high-purity Ar
gas (purity > 99.99%) was continuously purged through the furnace
during operation. Argon gas was first dried with a drying device and
then deoxidized by copper shavings heated to 500 ◦ C. The specimen was
heated to 1600 ◦ C, and held for 30 min to homogenize temperature and
composition. A cube-shaped FeMn alloy (4 × 4 × 4 mm) was placed in a
customized quartz tube (6 mm inner diameter) with a small hole (1.5
mm diameter) in the bottom end. The quartz tube with FeMn alloy was
quickly dropped into the molten pool, and a small amount of liquid Fe
was sucked into the quartz tube and exposed to the alloy. After holding
in the melt for a certain time (1, 4 and 6 s, respectively), the quartz tube
with samples was rapidly withdrawn from the furnace and followed by
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of experimental setup and suction process.
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Journal of Materials Research and Technology 27 (2023) 7740–7747
water quenching down to room temperature to retrieve samples from
the tube (Fig. 2). The chemical compositions of commercial FeMn alloys,
used in this study, are given in Table 1. These alloys also vary in man­
ganese, carbon, silicon, phosphorus and sulphur contents. In addition,
they differ in terms of their physical properties, such as density. The
density of LC-FeMn measured by the drainage method is 7110 kg/m3,
and the density of HC-FeMn is 6550 kg/m3. The density of pure Fe liquid
is 6980 kg/m3.
2.2. Analysis and characterization
The samples removed from the quartz tube were ground and polished
longitudinally until the FeMn alloy was exposed over a maximum sur­
face area and then polished. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM, ZEISS
ASIN EVO10, Carl Zeiss Microscopy Ltd. Germany) and energy disper­
sive spectroscopy (EDS, X-Max 80, Oxford Instruments, High Wycombe,
UK) were used to investigate the microstructures and inclusions of the
polished samples.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Inclusions characteristic of LC-FeMn and HC-FeMn alloys
The morphology and composition of the original inclusions in LC-
FeMn were determined by SEM-EDS. The original inclusions in LC-
FeMn included MnO, and MnS (Fig. 3). In addition, MnC phase was
abundant and covered more surface area in the LC-FeMn alloy. While in
the original HC-FeMn sample, the inclusions consisted of a large amount
of MnO based inclusions, such as MnO and MnO–MnS–SiO2 (Fig. 4).
Compared to LC-FeMn, HC-FeMn matrix contains more MnO and MnS
inclusions, and more MnO inclusions exist in the form of composite
inclusions.
The Mn based inclusions (MnO, MnS) in FeMn may precipitated
during the cooling process of the alloy liquid. The thermodynamic
calculation of inclusion precipitation during the cooling process of FeMn
alloy was conducted using FactSage 8.1 and the liquidus temperature of
FeMn also were plotted (Fig. 5). The precipitation temperature of MnC
phase in the cooling and solidification process of LC-FeMn alloy liquid is
1253 ◦ C, and the precipitation amount reaches the maximum value
rapidly. The precipitation temperature and amount of MnO inclusions
are higher than those of MnS inclusions. The manganese carbide phases
precipitated in the cooling and solidification process of HC-FeMn alloy
liquid are more complex, mainly including Mn3C1, Mn5C2 and Mn7C3
phases. The precipitation amounts of MnO and MnS inclusions in HC-
FeMn are significantly higher than those in LC-FeMn. This is consis­
tent with the thermodynamic calculation results.
3.2. Macroscopic characteristics of FeMn melting: visual observation
To analyze the melting process of FeMn in molten Fe, the
morphology of FeMn alloy in the sample was examined by visual
observation (Fig. 6). Due to the non-detection of the LC-FeMn alloy on
the surface of the sample, grinding along the longitudinal section was
required to reveal the location of the FeMn alloy in the sample. The
macroscopic morphology of FeMn in L1 sample was blocky. The size of
FeMn was about 2 mm (FeMn size based on longitudinal section). As the
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of suction sampling during the experiment.
J. Wang et al. Journal of Materials Research and Technology 27 (2023) 7740–7747

Table 1
Chemical composition of FeMn and Industrial pure iron (Mass percent).
Samples Mn C S P O N Si Al Density kg/m3 Liquidus temperature/◦ C

LC-FeMn 79.81 0.73 0.0067 0.1342 0.0076 0.0013 0.70 – 7110 1219
HC-FeMn 75.37 6.43 0.0124 0.2074 0.0703 0.0043 1.96 – 6550 1389
Industrial pure iron – 0.025 0.0030 0.0022 0.0037 0.0098 0.15 0.0055 6980 1538

Fig. 3. Morphologies and chemical compositions of typical inclusions in the original LC-FeMn sample.

Fig. 4. Morphologies and chemical compositions of typical inclusions in the original HC-FeMn sample.

immersion time of FeMn in molten Fe increased, the residual volume of
the LC-FeMn alloy in L4 (0.78 mm size) and L6 (0.45 mm size) samples
decreased. The melting of HC-FeMn in the molten Fe resulted in samples
with all of FeMn located near the top of the samples. The H1 sample
showed no significant melting. The blocky structure in the H1 sample
retained its original cubic shape, and most of the FeMn alloy was visible
outside of the sample. The size of FeMn was about 4 mm. For longer
immersion times (4 and 6 s), the FeMn alloy in H4 (3.6 mm size) and H6
(3.1 mm size) samples was significantly distorted and lost its original
cubic shape. The density of each FeMn alloy prompted its location in the
samples. LC-FeMn with a density of 7110 kg/m3 was located inside the
sample, while the HC-FeMn of 6550 kg/m3 density remained floating on
the surface of the molten pool. The floating of HC-FeMn on the surface of
the molten Fe pool evidently limited the heat absorption of the alloy in
the melt.

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J. Wang et al.
Fig. 5. Evolution of inclusions during cooling of FeMn molten alloy.
3.3. Microscopic characteristics of FeMn melting: SEM-EDS
3.3.1. Melting of LC-FeMn alloy
The microscopic analysis of LC-FeMn melting was investigated using
SEM-EDS (Fig. 7). The segregation of elements, Mn for instance, induced
the formation of dendritic zones in the liquid alloy during rapid cooling
(Fig. 7, L1). These dendritic zones were observed at the FeMn–Fe
(molten) interface and consisted of two phases with colour contrast due
to the disparity of Mn content. This confirms that FeMn in the L1 sample
has completely melted into a Fe liquid. In addition, these dendritic
phases did not fully extend into the molten Fe. This was due to the
formation of the unmelted solid shell zone (about 100 μm) between the
molten Fe and the alloy hindering the diffusion of the liquid alloy, as
shown in the backscattered electron (BSE) image (Fig. 7). The unmelted
solid shell zone was a solid Fe shell formed instantly around the cold
FeMn alloy when it is added to the high-temperature molten Fe pool.
The thickness of this solid Fe shell grows to a certain maximum value,
and then quickly melts as the molten pool continues to heat transfer to
the alloy block. The unmelted solid shell zone appeared to envelop
completely FeMn, preventing its penetration into the molten Fe pool. An
increase in the immersion time of FeMn in the molten Fe mitigated the
formation of the unmelted solid shell zone, which resulted in the
diffusion of FeMn into the molten Fe (Fig. 7). The extent of diffusion
became significant for a further increase in immersion time (6 s). In the
L6 sample, the volume of unreleased FeMn alloy in the molten Fe was
non-significant.
The analysis of the diffusion and dendrite zones can explain the
microscopic behavior of FeMn alloy in the molten Fe. The diffusion zone
was characterized by an interdiffusion of Fe and Mn during melting. The
inclusions (MnO and MnS) entered the molten pool along with the liquid
alloy. There are two main sources of MnO inclusions in the diffusion
zone. Some of it comes from the raw materials, and the other part comes
from the re-oxidation of Mn during the melting of alloy in the molten
pool and water quenching cooling process. In the L1 sample, the in­
clusions in the dendritic zone mainly consisted of larger MnO particles
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Journal of Materials Research and Technology 27 (2023) 7740–7747
(about 15 μm) (Fig. 8). The number of inclusions in the diffusion zone in
L4 and L6 samples was significantly higher than that of L1 sample, with
most of them being MnO inclusions. The affinity between Mn and O is
high, resulting in the formation of excessive MnO inclusions in the
diffusion zone.
Elemental mapping and line scans were performed on the unreleased
liquid alloy in the L6 sample (Fig. 9). The volume fractions of O and Si
elements in the unreleased liquid alloy were significantly higher than
those in the surrounding Fe liquid. This indicates that the Mn portion in
the alloy liquid has been oxidized. The Si element in the alloy liquid may
originate from Si-containing inclusions in the alloy itself.
3.3.2. Melting of HC-FeMn alloy
During the melting process of HC-FeMn, the alloy floated on the
surface of the molten Fe pool. Macroscopic and microscopic analysis
showed that the FeMn alloy in the H1 sample did not melt. The HC FeMn
alloy maintains its original cubic form during solidification and contains
a certain amount of MnO inclusions. This was due to the shorter im­
mersion time (1 s) and the limited heat absorption of the alloy during the
melting process. An unmelted solid shell zone (about 200 μm) was also
present at the FeMn alloy-molten Fe interface in the H1 sample.
Increasing the immersion time from 1 s to 4 and 6 s promoted the
expansion of FeMn alloy diffusion in the molten Fe while the unmelted
solid shell zone disappeared (Fig. 10). In H4 and H6 samples, the in­
clusions in the diffusion zone consisted mainly of MnO and a small
amount of MnS, with some inclusions containing S and Si elements
(Fig. 11).
3.4. Melting mechanism of FeMn alloy in molten iron
The presence of the unmelted solid shell zone in the L1 and H1
samples hindered the diffusion of FeMn alloy into the melt Fe pool
(Figs. 7 and 10). In addition, the rapid freezing of the molten Fe when
being exposed to the cold FeMn alloy induced the formation of a solid
shell around the FeMn alloy. This shell grew to a certain maximum
J. Wang et al.
Fig. 6. Macroscopic morphologies of FeMn: L1, L4 and L6 samples with LC-
FeMn, and H1, H4 and H6 samples with HC-FeMn.
thickness until the heat supplied by convection to the surface equaled
the heat conducted inside. As heat was continuously transferred from
the molten Fe to the FeMn alloy, the solid shell started to melt. At the
same time, the FeMn enclosed in the solid shell melted completely and
the liquid FeMn was released into the melt pool only after the solid shell
disappeared.
Fig. 7. Microstructures of the interface between LC-FeMn and molten Fe with different holding times.
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Journal of Materials Research and Technology 27 (2023) 7740–7747
To some extent, the melting process of the FeMn alloy in the molten
Fe pool is similar to that of steel scrap. It is generally understood that the
smelting process of steel scrap in molten Fe is divided into four stages:
(1) solid shell forms around scrap steel, (2) rapid melting of solid shell
(3) carburization of the molten pool towards the surface of scrap steel
and (4) melting of scrap steel [19–21]. However, during the FeMn
melting, the solid shell encloses the liquid FeMn with a low liquidus
temperature until the solid shell melts completely. It is then assumed
that the melting process of FeMn in the molten Fe is controlled by the
melting temperature difference between the alloy and the pure iron, as
shown in the Fe–Mn–C liquidus projection phase diagram calculated by
FactSage 8.1 (Fig. 12). The liquidus temperature of LC-FeMn and
HC-FeMn is 1219 ◦ C and 1389 ◦ C, respectively, and the liquidus tem­
perature of steel scrap is around 1500 ◦ C. The liquidus temperature of
FeMn is much lower than that of steel scrap, making it easier to melt. In
addition, the rapid melting of FeMn is also related to the presence of a
large amount of Mn carbides in FeMn itself. The average liquidus tem­
perature of Mn carbides is around 1250 ◦ C. These Mn carbides are
distributed in the alloy matrix and provide good dynamic conditions for
FeMn melting. Therefore, the melting process of FeMn in the molten Fe
pool can be divided into three phases: (1) solid shell forms on the alloy
surface while encapsulated FeMn melts, (2) melting of solid shell and (3)
liquid FeMn alloy is released into the molten pool (Fig. 13).
The growth and melting process of solid shells around FeMn was
calculated using a numerical model, called Fourier’s second law [19].
For simplicity, the cube-shaped alloy with an edge length of 4 mm was
considered equivalent to a sphere with a radius of 2.48 mm. Fourier’s
second law was then used to simulate the growth and melting process of
the solid shell. Assuming that the solid shell was in constant contact with
the melt and the alloy, the temperature at this point of contact could
easily be compared to the solidification temperature of the melt and the
surface temperature of the alloy. Subsequently, Fourier’s second law
was applied, which is based on considering a constant boundary tem­
perature of the alloy. With the implication of local conditions of tem­
perature and spherical shape, Fourier’s second can be postulated as
follows (Eq. (1)).
( 2 )
∂T ∂T 2 ∂T
=a + (1)
∂t ∂r2 r ∂r
where T is the temperature of the sphere inside, t is the time, a is the
temperature diffusivity of FeMn and r is the radial coordinate.
Assume the dimensionless temperature Θ, time F0 (Fourier number),
and coordinate s defined as follows:
J. Wang et al. Journal of Materials Research and Technology 27 (2023) 7740–7747

Fig. 8. Morphologies and chemical compositions of inclusions in diffusion zone during LC-FeMn melting.

Fig. 9. Elemental mappings and line scanning in L6 sample.

Fig. 10. Microstructures of the interface between HC-FeMn and molten Fe with different holding times.

T − TS at r
Θ= ，F0 = 2 ，s = (2) ∂Θ ∑∞
e -n π F0 (4)
2 2
Ts − T0 R0 R0 |s=1 = 2
∂s n=1
Where Ts is the melt solidification temperature (1536 ◦ C for pure iron),
T0 is the sphere’s initial temperature, t time, R0 is the initial radius of the In a molten Fe pool, the growth of the solid shell at the sphere surface
sphere. can be described as follows:
Equation (1) can be re-written in the dimensionless form as follows: ∂T dR
λ | 4πR20 = ρ′△HS 4πR20 +h(TM -Ts )4πR20 (5)
∂Θ 2 ∂Θ ∂2 Θ ∂r r=R0 dt
= + (3)
∂F0 s ∂s ∂s2 with the initial condition:
The temperature gradient at the sphere surface s = 1 can be calcu­
t = 0,R = R0.
lated as:

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Fig. 11. Morphologies and chemical compositions of inclusions in diffusion zone during HC-FeMn melting.

Consider the following dimensionless quantities:

ΔHS hR0 Nu λM R
Ph = ，Bi = = ，S = (6)
CP (TS -T0 ) λ 2 λ R0

where Ph is the so-called phase transfer number and Bi is the Biot

number. CP is the specific heat capacity. The definitions of the Nusselt
number (Nu), Reynolds number (Re) and Prandtl number (Pr) are given
in Eq. (7). The vM is the kinematic viscosity of melt (8.57 × 10− 7 m2/s)
and u is the velocity of the sphere in molten Fe.
2Ru vM
Nu= 2 + 0.6Re1/2 Pr1/3 ，Re = ，Pr = (7)
vM aM
Based on the above equations, a function for the growth and
remelting of solid shell can be obtained:
√̅̅̅̅̅
2 F0 (Bi ΘM +1)F0
S = 1 + √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅- ,for F0 < 1 / π and Bi ΘM > 1 (8)
πPh(ρ′/ρ) Ph(ρ′/ρ)
( )
1 1
S=1+ -Bi ΘM F0 ,for F0 > 1 / π and Bi ΘM ≤ 1 (9)
Ph(ρ′/ρ) π

where ρ is the density of FeMn and Bi ΘM is the dimensionless heat flux

Fig. 12. Liquidus projection for Fe–Mn–C ternary system according to FactS­
age 8.1.
from the melt to the sphere. equation (8) is valid only for F0 < 1/π. If the
solid shell exists until the time F0 = 1/π (about 0.2 s), then from equation
(4), the temperature gradient at the sphere surface is nearly equal to
zero. This means that the sphere is already heated to the melting tem­
perature. To determine the time F01 , when the solid shell disappears, S
= 1 is set in Eq. (8) for Bi ΘM > 1 or in Eq. (9) for Bi ΘM ≤ 1. This yields:
1
F01 = , for Bi ΘM ≤ 1 (10)
πBi ΘM

Fig. 13. Temperature distribution and melting process in FeMn alloy.
4
F01 = , for Bi ΘM > 1 (11)
π(Bi ΘM +1)2
The parameters used in the model are listed in Table 2 [18,19,22].
The melting process of the solid shell in the molten pool is graphically
represented in Fig. 14. The calculation results indicated that the solid
shell around the alloy instantly formed and grew to its maximum
thickness. The complete melting time of the solid shells of LC-FeMn and
HC-FeMn is about 3 s. This is consistent with the experimental results
that there is no solid shell on the surface of the L4 sample. For a reaction
time of 1 s, the calculated thickness of the solid shell around the
LC-FeMn and HC-FeMn is 2.09 mm and 1.86 mm, respectively. These

where λ is the heat conductivity of FeMn, ρ′ is the density of the solid Table 2
shell, R is the radius of the sphere including the solid shell, h is the heat Parameters used in the model.
transfer coefficient from the melt to the particle, TM is the melt tem­
Unit LC-FeMn HC-FeMn Solid Fe shell Molten Fe
perature and ΔHs is the melting enthalpy.
In Eq. (5), the left side is the heat flux from the shell/sphere ΔHs J/kg 2.66 × 105 2.66 × 105 2.773 × 105 2.773 × 105
J/(m s K) 50 50 37.7 40.3
boundary to the sphere inside. On the right side, the first item describes
λ
ρ kg/m3 7110 6550 7650 6980
the solidification or melting of the solid shell, while the second item is Cp J/(kg K) 800 800 820 820
the heat flux from the melt to the sphere. a m2/s 8.79 × 10− 6 9.54 × 10− 6 6 × 10− 6 7 × 10− 6

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J. Wang et al.
Fig. 14. Melting process of solid shell on the surface of FeMn alloy in
molten Fe.
values are higher than the thickness of the unmelted shell zone (in L1
and H1 samples) detected in the experiment. This is because removing
the quartz tube from the furnace after absorbing the molten iron and
quenching it in water also require a certain amount of operating time.
This operation takes approximately 2–3 s. The melting rate of solid shells
is very fast. Considering this operating time, the simulation results are
relatively close to the experimental results. According to Eq. (4), the
FeMn alloy wrapped inside of the solid shell can reach the melting
temperature before the solid shell completely melts.
4. Conclusions
The mechanism of the melting process of FeMn and the interfacial
reactions between solid FeMn and liquid Fe and were investigated. The
inclusion formation and transformation in the diffusion zone were also
considered. The following specific conclusions were obtained:
1 During the cooling and solidification process of FeMn liquid, a
certain amount of MnO and MnS inclusions precipitate. The precip­
itation amount of inclusions in HC-FeMn is significantly higher than
that in LC-FeMn. These MnO and MnS inclusions diffused into the
molten Fe pool along with the FeMn alloy.
2 LC-FeMn with high density and low liquidus temperature fully
immersed in the molten Fe pool. However, due to its low density and
high liquidus temperature, HC-FeMn floated on the surface of the
molten Fe, limiting its heat absorption by the molten pool. This
slowed down the melting of HC-FeMn compared to the melting of LC-
FeMn alloy in the molten Fe.
3 During the early stage of contact between the cold alloy and the
molten Fe pool, a solid shell was formed, enclosing the FeMn alloy
inside. The FeMn completely melted into a liquid within the solid
shell. The liquid alloy diffused into the molten pool as soon as the
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Journal of Materials Research and Technology 27 (2023) 7740–7747
solid shell melted. This shell was predicted numerically to immedi­
ately form and melt within about 3 s. This corroborated the experi­
mental results.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful for the support by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. U20A20270) and “The 14th Five Year
Plan” Hubei Provincial advantaged characteristic disciplines (groups)
project of Wuhan University of Science and Technology (No.
2023B0202).
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