Fragile Environments and Climate Change

BROOKHURST INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL GCSE GEOGRAPHY NOTES YEAR 10 AND 11
PREPARED BY MR EUGINE OUMA OWINO
GEOGRAPHY NOTES
YEAR 10/11
THEMATIC AREA: GLOBAL ISSUES.
FRAGILE ENVIRONMENTS AND CLIMATE CHANGE.
Objectives of the topic
By the end of the chapter you should be able to know:
1. The distributions and characteristics of fragile environments

2. The causes of desertification and deforestation
3. The causes of climate change
4. The impacts of desertification
5. The impacts of deforestation
6. The negative effects of climate change
7. How technology can help to reduce the threat of desertification
8. The different approaches to the management of the tropical rainforests in a named region
9. Different responses to global warming and climate change from individuals, organizations and
governments.
FRAGILE ENVIRONMENTS
INTRODUCTION
The wellbeing of the physical environment of the earth is of great importance to us all. The quality of
environment we live in determines our health and living standards.
The natural environments are however very fragile and there is a delicate balance which exists between
the living and the non-living environment. Many environments are fragile due to the delicate nature of the
ecosystems.
Natural and human hazards have always disturbed the environments and made them more fragile. In most
cases, the environments have recovered while in other cases, they have not depending on the severity of
the damage caused by the hazards. The hazards are therefore a threat to the existence and wellbeing of the
different environments.
Examples of the hazards include:
NATURAL HUMAN
Fire Fire
GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 1

The early people lived in harmony with the environment as they obtained food, medicine, energy and
building materials from it without causing harm to it. However, with the continued increase in population,
people increasingly became a threat to the fragile balance of the environments. Due to the human
disturbance on the environment, it is currently difficult to find areas of truly natural wilderness untouched
by humans.
Question
In what ways do people threaten the environment?
Homework:
You can complete in any creative way as long as all elements are present.
Link: World Wildlife Federation's "Terrestrial Ecoregions" (similar to biomes)
Using the link above, choose an Eco region from the site and record in your own words:
a) a short description of the Eco region (incl. climate, temperature, rainfall, flora and fauna, using
specific examples)
b) the "sensitivity to disturbance" or how much the Eco region has the potential to be affected by human
activity
c) a brief description of how EXACTLY your Eco region has been affected by human activity (eg:
deforestation in Brazilian Amazon)
Distribution of fragile environments
The fragility of an environment depends with the pressure that is put on it.
Ecological footprint: this is the measure of the mark that humans make on the natural world. The
measure considers how much of the land and the sea are required by humans for their survival. If the
earth’s resources are equally shared, everybody on the globe would get a fair share of about 2 hectares per
individual. The UK has the largest ecological footprint in the world which is about 5.5 global hectares per
person. This means that if everyone in the world consumes resources at the rate of the people in the UK,
two more planets would be needed to sustain the current global population.
Humans need land for:
 Water
 Food
 Energy
 Raw materials
 Waste disposal
The higher the ecological footprint, the more fragile the environments. The size of the ecological print is
determined by the:

 Rate of population growth

 Level of consumption of resources per person
 Type of technology
The map below shows the variation of the ecological footprint across the world. The zones in red are in
the greatest danger of being completely destroyed if the right interventions are not put in place.
Map
Study the map and use an atlas to identify the countries with unsustainable and sustainable ecological
footprints
SUSTAINABLE UNSUSTAINABLE

A definition of sustainability "actions that meet the needs of the present without reducing the ability of
future generations to meet their needs..."
Your Ecological Footprint Calculator: Take the Quiz!

"How much land area does it take to support your lifestyle? Take this quiz to find out your Ecological
Footprint, discover your biggest areas of resource consumption, and learn what you can do to tread more
lightly on the earth" - The Footprint Network
Processes influencing the distribution of fragile environments
There are three main processes which influence the distribution of fragile environments and which
include:
 Desertification
 Deforestation
 Climate change
The processes are linked since the first two are both the causes and consequences of climate change. The
processes make the global environments more fragile.
1. Desertification
This is the gradual conversion of a once-productive land into a desert-like landscape. Mostly takes place
in the semi-arid areas and on the edges of hot deserts. Large areas of the world are at the risk of facing the
wrath of desertification. The most endangered parts of the world include:
 Southern Asia
 Middle East
 North Africa

Characteristics/signs of desertification
 Absence of surface water

 Dried up water courses and ponds
 Lowering of the water table
 Loss/ degradation of vegetation
 Increased soil erosion
 Increased salt content of the soil
 Soil becomes less usable
 Increasing presence of dry, loose sand

2. Deforestation
This is the cutting down of trees
Many primary forests in the temperate regions have almost disappeared as a result of many years
of illegal logging and land clearance of forests for crop farming and settlement.
Deforestation has been more severe in the deciduous forests of China, USA and some parts of
Europe. The rate of speed of deforestation in the tropical rainforests is alarming. The coniferous
forests of North America and Europe have however remained untouched.
Deforestation n can be done through selective or clear felling of the trees.
Characteristics/ symptoms of deforestation

 Soil erosion
 Bare ground
 Freshly sawn tree trunks
 Burned saplings
 Large plantations surrounded by trees
The map below shows the global distribution of current forests and areas of forest loss.
Question: From the map, identify where the greatest loss of tropical forests have occurred.
Explain the link between deforestation and soil erosion.
Causes of desertification and deforestation
The causes can be categorized to natural and human

Natural causes
 Changing rainfall patterns leading to drought (rainfall has become less predictable in the world
over the past 50 years)
 Soil erosion leading to poor support for vegetation
 Low rainfall intensity. Such rains fall for a very short period hence not enough to support
growth of vegetation.
Human causes
Population growth. Puts more pressure on the land
Migration. Population pressure increases where people migrate to putting more pressure on the land
Overgrazing. Common around oasis/water holes in the deserts.
Over cultivation. Exhausts the soil making it not to adequately support the growth of crops.
Deforestation. Leaves the soil exposed and lose hence easily carried away by erosion. makes the soil
poor, not to be able to support vegetation.
These problems are worse in the sub-Saharan countries due to the many years of civil war. Crops and
animals have been deliberately destroyed leading to decades of famine and widespread deaths.

Question: which of the five human causes of desertification ought to be the most significant? Give
reasons for your answer.
It is estimated that about 20% of the global population has to cope with the effects of desertification in
over 60 countries.
The Sahel region of Africa (found on the southern Sahara desert) is considered to be the most at risk. The
region makes up a large part of the sub-Saharan Africa which is the poorest region of the word.
CASE STUDY
Desertification of the Sahel, Africa
The Sahel is a narrow belt of land in central Africa bordering the Sahara desert to the south. The region
has a semi-arid climate, but a fragile environment which is in the danger of being converted to a full
desert, just like the Sahara.
Mainly comprises of the savanna vegetation which is made up of a mixture of grassland, trees and shrubs.
The area on the margin of the desert is at the highest risk of facing desertification. To the south, the
region borders the tropical rainforests which is habitat to a variety of plants and animals.

Temperatures are very high, rainfall is seasonal and unpredictable hence the region remains dry for much
of the year.
Nomadic pastoralism is the dominant land use
Some years are wetter than others. Grass and trees continues to dry and die and the landscape is quickly
transforming into a desert.
Climate change and human activities are the main cause of desertification in the Sahel. Until the 1960s
water was plentiful and crops and livestock did well in the Sahel. The increase in human population
changed the story as more trees were cut down to pave way for settlement and agriculture. Over
cultivation and over stocking came knocking as people were struggling to produce enough food to feed
the growing population. The soil turned infertile and bare leading to massive soil erosion.
Since 1970s crop failure has been a common phenomenon in the region and over 100 000 people have
died of starvation as millions have migrated to less arid areas. Millions of animals have also died.
Climatic data for the Sahel region

Question: Name 10 countries which fall under the Sahel region
Do you think that migration is a possible solution to the problems of the Sahel? Justify your
answer.
A variety of techniques and interventions have been put in place by different countries to reduce the rate
of desertification. An example is the one set up by Oxfam in Burkina Faso. The project is aimed at
harvesting rain water by building small stone walls which act as dams to hold water when it rains hence
preventing the loss of the water through run-off.
Semi-arid lands are fragile environments and people must use them with great care.
Reasons for the deforestation of the tropical rainforests
a. Search for timber for building and construction

b. Road building

c. Search for land for farmers

d. Settlement/ housing
e. Mining
f. Hydroelectric power production. Rivers are dammed and huge areas of forests are flooded leading
to death of trees.
In most of the countries, the logging is illegal while in others, the government encourages it since:
 It is a source of revenue
 Creates more space for farming and settlement
Review the causes of deforestation in Brazil on page 134.
CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
The global climate has been changing over time due to a number of reasons. The main reasons include:
1. Variations in the amount of solar radiations received by the earth. The variations are caused by:
 Eccentricity in the shape of the earth’s orbit around the sun.
 Changes in the tilt of the earth’s axis (obliquity).
 Wobbles as the earth spins on its axis (precession).
The three processes lead to an increase/decrease in the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of
the earth at a given time. They make the earth to heat or cool up leading to a change in the global
temperatures.
According to the Milankovitch’s theory, in every 100 000 years, the three changes combine in a particular
way leading to a decrease in the amount of solar radiation making the earth to experience a glacial period.
Since 1850, the global temperatures have been on the rise. Measurements over the past 100 years show an
average rise of 0.70C. The 1990s saw the highest temperatures ever recorded. Some organizations have
predicted a rise of up to 4.50C by the end of the 21st century. This will pose a danger to the existence of
life forms on the earth’s surface since it will lead to extinction of many of many species of plants and
animals.

2. Volcanic activity. Large scale volcanic eruptions produce huge amounts of dust and ash into the
atmosphere which can block solar radiation from reaching the earth’s surface. This lowers the
global temperatures.
3. Emission of cosmic material. This occurs when large meteors and asteroids from the atmosphere
land on the earth’s surface where they emit large quantities of dust into the atmosphere.
4. Emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This is the main human cause of climate
change. These are warm gases which when released into the atmosphere tend to increase the
global temperatures leading to global warming.
The main greenhouse gases include:
 Carbon dioxide CO2. This is the most common greenhouse gas and the main contributor
to the greenhouse effect and climate change.
 Methane CH4.
 Nitrous oxide N2O.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
The table below shows the major greenhouse gases and how they are released into the
atmosphere
GREENHOUSE GAS SOURCE

Carbon Dioxide CO2  Burning of fossil fuels e.g. coal and oil
 Burning of wood fuel
 Deforestation. Trees remove CO2 from the
atmosphere and use it in the process of
photosynthesis
Methane CH4 Decay of organic matter e.g. waste in landfill
sites, animal manure and large crop residues
Nitrous oxide N2O  Burning of fossil fuels
 Use of artificial fertilizers
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) The gases are released from aerosols which are
contained in fridges, coolants, freezers and air
conditioners.
The pie chart below shows the annual greenhouse gas emission by sector
Facts about greenhouse gases

They occur naturally in the atmosphere. They can also be produced and released by a number of activities
which include:
 Burning fossil fuels

 Exhaust emissions from motor vehicles
 Industrial emissions to the atmosphere
 Burning of forests
Developed countries are the main producers. USA alone produces 36% of the total emissions.
Unfortunately, the effects are felt by everyone in the whole world.
To understand the concept of the greenhouse effect, consider a human made greenhouse. In the green
house, the sun shines through the glass or special paper and warms up the plants inside. When the sun
stops shining, the heat is trapped inside and does not disperse making the greenhouse to continue being
warm.
In the same way, during the day the sun heats up the earth. At night, gases and clouds in the atmosphere
prevents the heat from escaping trapping it in the atmosphere making the earth warmer. This is called the
greenhouse effect.
In the recent past, the amount of greenhouse gases has been increasing hence increasing the greenhouse
effect. The gases build up in the atmosphere preventing heat loss. This is the reason for the gradual
increase in global temperatures, a phenomenon called global warming.
Conclusion
Apart from Desertification, Deforestation and Climate change, there are other factors which make the
environment fragile. They include:
 Air pollution
 Water pollution
 Land pollution
 River and coastal management. The management efforts might be in good spirit but they still
negatively impact the environments e.g some coastal management efforts leads to oil spills which
worsen coastal environments. Oil spills are a damaging environmental hazard.
Question: give examples of how coastal management can upset coastal ecosystems.
IMPACTS OF DEFORESTATION.
1. Flooding. Eroded soil is deposited in rivers increasing levels of water hence flooding.
2. Loss of natural forests. Increases the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere leading to global warming.
The world’s forests great amounts of CO2 and uses it in the process of ……………. CO2 is not
just a greenhouse gas but a potential killer of humans.
3. Leaching of soils. Deforestation leaves the soil bare hence rainfall easily washes away nutrients.
4. Loss of plants and animals (biodiversity) through habitat loss

5. Soil erosion
6. Local climate change
Read about deforestation in the amazon on page 134 as your case study
There has been increasing concerns over the rate of deforestation in the world. The rate of deforestation
has been increasing at an alarming rater in some countries like Peru and Indonesia.
However, deforestation is not always seen as a negative human activity. In some countries, especially the
developing ones, deforestation stimulates economic development. Brazil is a good example. The country
has for many years benefited from the sale of forest related products. Its small neighbor, Guyana is also a
big beneficiary of deforestation. Asian countries like Philippines, Thailand and Indonesia have also
followed suit. However, some benefit is always short term unless a lot of recovery and restoration
programs are put in place to replace the forests that are being lost. In Ivory Coast for instance, the forest is
almost being cleared.
The table below shoes the rate of deforestation of the tropical rainforests in selected countries.
COUNTRY ORIGINAL EXTENT PRESENT EXTENT PRESENT RATE OF

OF FOREST COVER OF FOREST COVER DERFORESTATION
(KM2) (KM2) (% PER YEAR)
Brazil
Colombia
Ecuador
Indonesia
Ivory Coast
Madagascar
Mexico
Philippines
Thailand
It is interesting that protests against deforestation are strongly spearheaded by developed countries. In
response to the protests, developing countries ask why they should be denied the opportunity to exploit
their resources for economic development. How would they catch up with the developed countries if they
do not exploit their resources? The answer to their question lies in the sustainable management of the
tropical rainforests.
Question: is sustainable management of the tropical rainforest just a dream or real possibility?
Discuss.
IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Dear students, climate change is real, it is taking place. Beware. The global patterns of climate are fast
changing. Droughts have become abnormally prolonged, snowcapped mountains are losing their ice,
polar ice sheets are melting, sea levels are on the rise, and the risks of flooding are on the risk the polar
bears are dying.
The following are some of the impacts of climate change:

1. More hazards.
Climate increases prevalence of extreme weather which leads to frequent hazards like tropical
storms, tornadoes, heat waves, droughts and cold snaps. Warmer seas frequently form storms.
Prolonged droughts are increasing the rate of deforestation and desertification leading to more
hazards as it is occurring in the Sahel. For instance, the persistence of temperatures above 40 0
over a period of weeks is thought to have killed 13000 people in France in August 2003.
2. Ecosystem changes.
The distribution of ecosystems will change as the biomes of the world are being pushed to the
Polar Regions. For instance in the northern hemisphere the coniferous forests will intrude on the
tundra and the tundra will invade the ice desert. Farming will be pushed further to the poles and
higher altitudes as new land will be available for cultivation in these regions (positive effect). The
equatorial and tropical regions will grow harsher.
Retreat of ice in mid latitude regions will make resources like soil, natural gas and minerals
accessible. Arctic water will be ice free in summer hence allowing water transport (positive).
3. Rising sea levels.
High temperatures are leading to shrinking of the world’s major glaciers. For instance, in
Greenland and the arctic, the ice is melting at a rapid rate. Large chunks of ice are breaking off as
temperatures increase leading to release of millions of meters of eater into the seas and oceans
leading to sea rise.
Refer to diagrams on page 201
The global sea level has risen by 20cm since 1980. The levels will continue to rise and has been
projected to grow to a range of 2M by 2100.
This is perhaps the greatest risk of climate change.
4. Drowning cities
This is the greatest risk to the coastal cities of the world. Miami (USA) tops the list of the most
threatened coastal cities in the world as measured by the value of property threatened by a 1-
Metre rise in sea level. This would flood all the beaches in Miami and the surrounding areas.
Other threatened cities include:
 New York
 New Orleans
 Boston
 Washington
 Philadelphia
 San Francisco
 Osaka
 Kobe
 Tokyo
 Rotterdam
 Amsterdam
 Nagoya
5. Changing settlement patterns

There is a growing fear of developing the low land areas fear of coastal flooding. Such areas are
prone to diseases like malaria. The parts of the world that will become drier will suffer from
water shortages hence discouraging human settlement. People will be forced to use unclean water
leading to spread of water borne diseases like cholera, bilharzia and typhoid leading to an
increase in mortality rates. Humans will be at risk of contracting diseases hence lowering the life
expectancy.
6. Increase in conflict.
Global warming is expected to increase water and food shortages. This will lead to conflict as
people will be forced to migrate in search of the food and water. It is even possible that some
people will fight over the remaining resources of water and food.
IMPACTS OF DESERTIFICATION.
1. Soil -as the plant cover gradually disappears, soils cease to be replenished by the nutrient cycle
hence leading to decline in soil fertility.
2. Reduced agricultural output- due to decline in soil condition and increasing water shortage, the
agricultural productivity of the land is lowered. Crops fail and livestock die.
3. Malnutrition, famine and starvation
4. Migration -people may move in the hope of finding somewhere where you can raise enough food
to survive.
5. Conflict-migrants may not be welcomed to where they choose to go.
DEALING WITH DESERTIFICATION
When dealing with desertification, its impractical (not possible) to think that the natural causes can be
changed. The only way is to help people cope with the natural changes so that desertification is not made
worse. The following ways can be used to mitigate the effects of desertification:
1. Educating people on the sustainable ways of using land.

2. Reducing soil erosion. E.g. planting trees and maintaining permanent plant cover. The cover
protects the soil from erosion and also maintains the soil moisture.
N/B trees help to bind the soil together making it strong and resistant to erosion
Check on other ways of preventing soil erosion
3. Application of permaculture. This is the development of agricultural ecosystems intended to be
sustainable and self-sufficient. It involves water management, sustainable agriculture, ecological
engineering and environmental conservation.
4. Cultivate fast growing trees for harvesting as firewood
5. Use of alternative forms of energy for cooking and avoid overreliance on fuel wood e.g. use of oil
or gas.
6. Maximum water conservation. E.g. construction of water spreading weirs (stone and cement
constructions which extend from one side of a valley to the other to harness surface runoff). The
water spreading weirs floods the land behind it making it viable for agriculture hence increasing
food production.
Try ranking these ways of dealing with desertification according to their effectiveness against
desertification.
Draw figure 7.31on page 204

MANAGING RAINFOREST IN A SUSTAINABLE WAY
The loss of forests, not only in the tropics but all over the world is causing concern. There is an urgent
need to conserve the remaining forests in the world for the future generation. This is called sustainable
management. The key to sustainable management is the use of resource with the future generations in
mind. Sustainability is therefore the ability of one generation to hand over to the next generation at
least the same amount of resources that it started with.
Sustainable management of any resource should:
a. Respect the environment and the culture of the local people

b. Use traditional skills and knowledge
c. Give people control over their land and lives
d. Use appropriate technology. On which is cheap, easy to use and friendly to the environment.
e. Generate income for the local communities
f. Fully protect the biodiversity
Study figure 7.32 on page 205 to see how tropical rainforests can be used in sustainable ways.
The following methods can be used to achieve sustainable management of forests:
1. Protection of forests from illegal logging. In some countries the forests as declared as national
parks to ensure maximum protection.
2. Careful planned and controlled logging in the forests.
3. Encouraging Selective logging. E.g. in Indonesia only 7-12 trees per hectare are allowed to be
cut.
4. Replanting forested areas that have been felled. Re-afforestation.
5. Restrict the number of logging licenses to reduce the amount of forest loss
6. Application of Heli-logging (use of helicopters in the logging process) e.g. in Sarawak
(Malaysia), helicopters are used to remove the logs because less damage to the remaining forests.
7. Developing alternative energy supplies e.g. use of biogas, solar and wind power to reduce usage
of wood fuel.
8. Agroforestry. This is the cultivation of trees and crops on the same piece of land. Crops are
allowed to grow in carefully controlled areas within the forest.
CASE STUDY: BRAZILS SEARCH FOR WAYS TO CONSERVE ITS RAINFOREST
Brazil has come up with different ways of trying to conserve its rainforest (the Amazon). Some of the
ways include:
a. Introduction of the forest code. It is a law which was created in 1965 which required all
landowners in the amazon to maintain up to 80% of their property under rainforest. Farmers who
bought land in the rainforest were therefore required to clear and farm only 20% of it. However it

has been difficult to fully implement this law since it is not easy to monitor what is happening in
the forest.
b. Introduction of the Amazon Region Protected Areas (ARPA) scheme. Introduced in 2002 by
the government. Close to 45 million hectares of the forest were converted to parks and reserves.
c. Introduction of tree replanting projects. Done by collecting seeds from remaining patches of
primary forests and growing the seeds in nurseries and replanting them in the deforested areas.it
is called the REGUA project. REGUA has nurseries which produce close to 70000 180 rainforest
species every year.
d. The US-Brazil partnership in restoring the forest.
e. Encouraging cultivation of commercial timber/fast growing species like eucalyptus on
plantations outside the forest. There are now close to 5 million of such forest plantations.
Brazil and many other countries are realizing that if the tropical rainforest is to have a future, there is need
for concerted international efforts. The United Nations has a number of international programs. There are
also some important international treaties. Some examples of both are shown in the table below.
International programs Aims

United Nations Program on Reducing Emissions
from Deforestation And Forest Degradation (UN-
REDD)
United nations forum on forests (UNFF)
International treaties Aims

Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES)
International tropical timber agreement (ITTA)

(2006)
One of the biggest challenges for the international community is stopping the huge amounts of illegal
logging which is still ongoing in the tropical rainforests. Given the remoteness of the rainforests, illegal
logging can go on unnoticed for a long time. Satellites have been developed to monitor this. Non-

governmental organizations such as Greenpeace and the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) also play a
part in tracking down illegal loggers.
RESPONSES TO GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE
How a country responds to global warming and climate change is the decision of the government.
Individuals and organizations may support the government’s decisions and cooperate.
There are four basic responses to global warming and climate change that every country should make.
They include:
1. Join the global effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

2. Protect and conserve forests
3. Identify environments that will become more fragile as a result of climate change and decide
what should be done to save them
4. Identify coastal areas that will be threatened by flooding or marine erosion and decide what
should be done to save them.
Global action
Reducing carbon emissions is a global responsibility. Every country of the world needs to be fully
involved, especially the heavy polluters like the USA. The following global actions represent efforts
which have been put in action to mitigate global warming:
a. The Kyoto Protocol. In 1997, there was a heads of governments meeting in Kyoto Japan. During
the meeting, a treaty famously known as the Kyoto Protocol was drawn up calling up all countries
of the world to cut down on their greenhouse emissions by an average of 5% by 2012. It was
though that this step would help to reduce the rate of global warming.
b. The Paris agreement (2015). This is the latest attempt to control emission of greenhouse gases
in the world. The agreement aimed to reduce global warming. The agreement will however come
into force only when 55 countries which are the major source of greenhouse gases ion the world
sign up the agreement. In 2016, both China and USA signed up and also the UK.
The table below shows the summary of the world’s top 10 producers of GHGs (Greenhouse gases):
Country GHG emission (MT) % of global total

China
USA
India
Russia
Japan
Brazil
Germany
Canada
Iran

Mexico
CASE STUDIES OF HOW DIFFERENT COUNTRIES/GOVERNMENTS HAVE RESPONDED

TO CLIMATE CHANGE
THE UK’S RESPONSE
UK is currently responsible for the emission of 1.4% of the global GHG emissions. The country appears
to show willingness in taking part in any global programs aimed at cutting down the GHG emissions.
How the country has responded to global warming and climate change
i. The country signed up to the Kyoto Protocol in 1995

ii. The country has its own Climate Change Act (2008) which commits it to cutting its emissions
by 80% from the 1990 levels.
There are talks in the country to set the target to zero carbon emissions. In order to cut the emissions, the
country has tried to reduce:
a. Its reliance on fossil fuels as primary energy source

b. Its overall energy consumption by using energy more efficiently. Consumption has fallen by 18%
since 2005.
The UK is the second least wooded country in Europe. Only 12% of the country is covered by woodland.
There are no plans to reforest on a large scale but there are tight controls on the imports of hardwood to
discourage illegal logging.
There is no part of the country which has been flagged as being too fragile or threatened by global
warming in the country.
Coastal risks are considerable since the country has a very long coastline which is much low lying making
coastal flooding a common hazard.
The UK has therefore responded well to the threats linked to global warming and climate change. It has
also taken some actions to reduce the causes.
CHINA’S RESPONSE
China is in a predicament of GHGs emissions. It is responsible for 22.7 of the global production making it
the highest producer. Most of the gases emanate from coal as nearly 80% of its energy comes from coal.
It is reluctant to turn to oil and gas since it still has large reserves of coal. The problem is made worse by
the fact that the economic success of this emerging country has greatly increased the demand and
consumption of energy.

Heavy industries burn large qualities of coal.
How the country has responded to global warming and climate change
i. Adoption of the Paris Agreement in 2016

ii. Creation of the National Action Plan on Climate Change.
iii. Forest conservation and restoration programs
Unfortunately, none of the actions target energy or industrialization.
18% of china is forested. The figure was much higher in the past. Much of tghe4 forests have been
cleared and turned into fields and farmlands. But recently, China has started to implement the largest
forest conservation and restoration program in the world as a way of cutting down on its carbon
emissions.
Fragile environments. Large areas of china frequently suffer from drought and famine. There are also
areas prone to widespread flooding as the4 country has recorded six of the world’s 10 deadliest floods. It
it thought that climate change will make these hazards more severe and frequent.
Coastal risks. 50 million of Chinese people will be at risk of coastal flooding by the end of this century if
GHG emissions stay high. Coastal erosion and shoreline retreat are already serious threats and will only
worsen. Coastal zone management is now underway. Prevention measures that have been put in place
include:
 Building sea walls

 Land use zoning
 Restrictions on land reclamation
Because of its huge population and land area, China needs to be very proactive in the fight against climate
change since in comparison with other countries, it will be worse hit by the effects.
SOLOMON ISLAND’S RESPONSE
This is a sovereign country consisting of six main islands and over 900 smaller ones located in the Pacific
Ocean, west of Papua New Guinea. It is a former British colony but has been an independent state since
1976. Has a population of just 600 000. Three quarters of the labor force are subsistence farmers and
fishermen. Main exports are timber, copra, palm oil and gold in small quantities. Tourism is another
source of income and employment, but its growth is limited by the poor infrastructure.
The country has extremely low amounts of carbon emissions. The main emissions come from the burning
of fuel wood in homes and of oil from motor vehicles and inter-island transport. Forest cover has been
shrinking at a very fast rate. The export of hardwood timber and the need to create more farmland to
replace areas lost by coastal erosion has led to much deforestation.
Fragile environments. They are mainly being created by the several active volcanoes in the country,
earthquakes and tsunamis. Clear felling of the forests on the slopes of the volcanic mountains of the
country has led to soil erosion and landslides. Coastal erosion as a result of the rise in sea level is perhaps
the most serious threat to the country (remember this is an island and coastal flooding can lead to its

submergence). Recently, five tiny uninhabited islands have disappeared below a rising sea level and six
more islands have had great swathes of land and villages washed out to sea.
The country is all aware of the risks associated with climate change. They know what needs to be done
but it has to be done elsewhere and by other countries. Even if there was something they could do, the
country does not have the financial resources and technology.
People living in Solomon Islands are unfortunately innocent victims of global warming. In September
2015, they submitted a new Climate Change Action Plan to the UN Convention on Climate Change. But
will it save them?
Conclusion
The case studies show that climate change present considerable challenges to all the countries. There is a
critical need for changes to be made in each of the countries. To date, there has been some responses but
not enough. Of all the consequences of climate change, the rise in the global sea level is the most serious.
Land bound countries might consider themselves safe, but for how long.
Questions
Between UK, China and the Solomon Islands, which do you think is most threatened by global warming?
Give your reasons.
Why was it easy for the Solomon Islands to sign the Paris Agreement?
Explain why china was reluctant to sign the Paris Agreement

Fragile Environments and Climate Change

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BROOKHURST INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL GCSE GEOGRAPHY NOTES YEAR 10 AND 11

PREPARED BY MR EUGINE OUMA OWINO

THEMATIC AREA: GLOBAL ISSUES.

FRAGILE ENVIRONMENTS AND CLIMATE CHANGE.

Objectives of the topic

By the end of the chapter you should be able to know:

1. The distributions and characteristics of fragile environments

Examples of the hazards include:

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 1

In what ways do people threaten the environment?

Distribution of fragile environments

Humans need land for:

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 2

 Rate of population growth

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 3

Your Ecological Footprint Calculator: Take the Quiz!

Processes influencing the distribution of fragile environments

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 4

 Absence of surface water

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 5

Characteristics/ symptoms of deforestation

Explain the link between deforestation and soil erosion.

Causes of desertification and deforestation

The causes can be categorized to natural and human

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 6

Population growth. Puts more pressure on the land

Overgrazing. Common around oasis/water holes in the deserts.

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 7

Desertification of the Sahel, Africa

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 8

Nomadic pastoralism is the dominant land use

Climatic data for the Sahel region

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 9

Question: Name 10 countries which fall under the Sahel region

Reasons for the deforestation of the tropical rainforests

a. Search for timber for building and construction

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 10

c. Search for land for farmers

Review the causes of deforestation in Brazil on page 134.

CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 11

GREENHOUSE GAS SOURCE

Facts about greenhouse gases

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 12

 Burning fossil fuels

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 13

COUNTRY ORIGINAL EXTENT PRESENT EXTENT PRESENT RATE OF

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

The following are some of the impacts of climate change:

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 14

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 15

DEALING WITH DESERTIFICATION

1. Educating people on the sustainable ways of using land.

Draw figure 7.31on page 204

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 16

MANAGING RAINFOREST IN A SUSTAINABLE WAY

Sustainable management of any resource should:

a. Respect the environment and the culture of the local people

The following methods can be used to achieve sustainable management of forests:

CASE STUDY: BRAZILS SEARCH FOR WAYS TO CONSERVE ITS RAINFOREST

GCSE PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL GCSE GEOGRAPHY 17

International programs Aims

United nations forum on forests (UNFF)