CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The design of flexible pavements in Nigeria typically relies on the California Bearing Ratio

(CBR) method. This method involves using charts and tables to determine the thickness needed

for each pavement layer based on factors like traffic volume and subgrade strength. However,

this traditional approach has limitations. Individual interpretations of design charts can lead to

inconsistencies in pavement thickness calculations, and manual calculations can be time-

consuming.

To address these challenges, researchers have developed design tools specifically for the

Nigerian CBR method. These tools aim to improve both accuracy and efficiency. By employing

mathematical equations derived from design charts, they provide consistent and reliable

pavement thickness calculations. Additionally, they automate the design process, significantly

reducing the time required compared to manual methods.

This paper explores the development of such a design tool, highlighting its potential benefits for

pavement engineers in Nigeria. We will delve into the methodology used to create the tool,

including the process of deriving equations from design charts and developing user-friendly

interfaces. Furthermore, the paper will discuss the validation process undertaken to ensure the

tool's accuracy and reliability.

1.1 Background of Study

Nigeria's extensive road network, comprised largely of flexible pavements, plays a vital role in

the nation's economic development. These pavements require careful design to ensure they can
withstand traffic loads and provide a long service life. Traditionally, the California Bearing Ratio

(CBR) method has been used for flexible pavement design in Nigeria. This method relies on

design charts and manual calculations, which can be prone to inconsistencies and inefficiencies.

1.1 Background of Study

Nigeria's extensive road network, comprised largely of flexible pavements, plays a vital role in

the nation's economic development. These pavements require careful design to ensure they can

withstand traffic loads and provide a long service life. Traditionally, the California Bearing Ratio

(CBR) method has been used for flexible pavement design in Nigeria. This method relies on

design charts and manual calculations, which can be prone to inconsistencies and inefficiencies.

1.2 Problem Statement

While the CBR method has served well, limitations exist. Interpretation of charts can vary,

leading to inconsistencies. Interpolation for in-between CBR values introduces inaccuracies.

Manual design, time-consuming and requiring expertise, hinders project timelines and

accessibility. The current CBR design method in Nigeria suffers from several limitations:

o Subjectivity and Inconsistency: Interpretation of design charts can vary between

engineers, leading to inconsistencies in pavement thickness determination.

o Interpolation Challenges: Design charts typically represent data at specific CBR values.

When the actual CBR value falls between these points, interpolation is necessary, which

can introduce inaccuracies.

 o Limited Accessibility and Efficiency: Manual design requires significant time and

expertise, potentially hindering project timelines and limiting accessibility for engineers

with less experience.

These limitations can lead to:

 Uneven Pavement Performance: Inconsistent design methods can contribute to

premature pavement deterioration, requiring more frequent maintenance and

rehabilitation.

 Inefficient Resource Allocation: Time spent on manual calculations takes away from

engineers' ability to focus on other crucial aspects of road design and construction.

 Potential Safety Concerns: Inaccurate designs could lead to pavements unable to

withstand the anticipated traffic loads, increasing the risk of road failures and accidents.

1.3 Aims and Objectives

The primary aim of this study is to develop a computer-aided design tool specifically tailored to

the Nigerian CBR method for flexible pavement design.

This aim will be achieved by accomplishing the following objectives:

 Develop a comprehensive database: Compile existing data from Nigerian CBR tests,

traffic volume studies, and pavement performance records.

 Analyze design relationships: Extract key relationships between traffic, subgrade

strength (CBR), and optimal pavement layer thicknesses from the compiled data.

 Derive design equations: Develop mathematical equations that accurately represent the

design relationships identified in the data analysis.

  Design and develop a software tool/computer program: Create a user-friendly

software tool incorporating the derived design equations. This tool should allow

engineers to input project-specific data and receive recommended pavement layer

thicknesses based on the Nigerian CBR method.

 Validate the tool: Compare the results generated by the user-friendly software tool with

those obtained from the traditional manual design method using established test cases.

1.4 Justification of Study

The current Nigerian (CBR) design method for flexible pavements lacks consistency, efficiency,

and is prone to human error due to manual calculations. Developing a computer-aided design

tool will address these issues by:

 Ensuring consistent application of the design method.

 Significantly reducing design time.

 Minimizing errors through automation.

This will lead to more reliable, cost-effective pavements and improved infrastructure in Nigeria.

1.5 Scope of Study

 This study will focus on the development of a design tool for flexible pavements in

Nigeria utilizing the CBR method. The scope encompasses:

 Data collection and analysis of relevant factors influencing flexible pavement design in

Nigeria.

 Development of design equations based on the Nigerian context.

 Design and programming of user-friendly software tool.

  Validation of the tool's accuracy and efficiency compared to the traditional manual design

method.

The study will not delve into the physical construction methods or materials used for pavement

construction. It will concentrate solely on the design aspect using the established CBR method

within the Nigerian context.

 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD

Pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials above the

natural soil sub-grade. The primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-

grade.

In Nigeria, like many places, strong pavements are crucial for a functioning transportation

network. Pavement design methods ensure these roads can withstand traffic and last a long time.

The most common method in Nigeria is the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) method, used for

flexible pavements (like asphalt concrete). It relies on the subgrade's strength, measured by a

California Bearing Ratio test. This test reflects how well the soil can support traffic.

2.2 FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT

The road network is the backbone of any transportation system. But not all roads are created

equal, and the choice of pavement type plays a crucial role in its durability and suitability. Two

primary types of pavements, flexible and rigid, offer distinct characteristics and advantages

based on their composition and structural design.

2.2.1 Flexible Pavement

 In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by grain-to-grain contact of the

aggregate through the granular structure as shown in figure 1.1.

 Flexible pavements normally have many layers.

 Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept of layered system.
  Based on this, flexible pavement maybe be constructed in a number of layers and the top

layers has to be of best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition to

wear and tear (figure 1.2).

 The lower layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low-quality material can

be used.

2.2.2 Rigid Pavements

 Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a

wider area below.

 In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action.

 Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the

prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material.

 Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this

layer can be called as base or sub-base (figure 1.3).

2.3 TYPES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Flexible pavements, while categorized as a single type in comparison to rigid pavements, can

actually be constructed in a few different ways depending on factors like traffic volume, budget,

and local materials. Here's a breakdown of the two main types of flexible pavements:

1. Conventional Layered Flexible Pavement: This is the most common type of flexible

pavement. It's constructed with multiple distinct layers, each serving a specific purpose:

o Surface Course: The topmost layer, typically made of high-quality asphalt concrete,

endures the brunt of traffic wear and tear.

 o Binder Course: This layer distributes traffic load to the base course and provides

structural integrity. It's usually made of asphalt concrete as well, but with potentially

different material compositions compared to the surface course.

o Base Course: Often constructed from crushed aggregate materials like gravel, this layer

provides a stable platform for the upper layers and spreads the load over a wider area.

o Subbase Course: In some cases, an additional layer of unbound materials like sand or

crushed rock can be used below the base course to improve drainage and address specific

subgrade weaknesses.

o Subgrade: The natural soil beneath the pavement structure. Its strength is a crucial factor

in overall pavement design.

2. Full-Depth Asphalt Pavement: This type of pavement utilizes only asphalt concrete layers

throughout its entire depth. It's typically used for lower traffic volume roads or when high-

quality local aggregates are not readily available for base construction. The thickness of each

asphalt layer is designed to distribute traffic load effectively.

3. Contained Rock Asphalt Mat: It is commonly abbreviated as CRAM. It is the type of flexible

pavement constructed by placing a layer of aggregates between two asphalt layers. The aggregate

used may be dense or open-graded.

2.4 CBR METHOD OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

In Nigeria, the only developed and most common method of flexible pavement design is the

Nigerian (CBR) method. In this method, the determination of structural thickness of the

pavement is made using design charts and Tables. In most cases, no two individual obtains
the same result even when the same design information is used. The Nigerian (CBR) method

is an empirical procedure which uses the California Bearing Ratio and traffic volume as the

sole design inputs. The method was originally developed by the U.S Corps of Engineers,

modified by the British Road Research Laboratory [1] and adopted by Nigeria as contained

in the Federal Highway Manual [2]. The Nigerian (CBR) design method is a CBR-Traffic

volume method, the thickness of the pavement structure is dependent on the anticipated

traffic, the strength of the foundation material, the quality of pavement material used and the

construction procedure adopted. The method considers traffic in the form of number of

commercial vehicles/day exceeding 29.89kN (3 tons). To determine the no of vehicles/day

exceeding 3 tons loaded weight, the anticipated traffic is adjusted using the traffic adjustment

factor in Table 1 and percentage of trucks in the design lane in Table 2. The selection of

pavement structure is made from design curves as shown in Figure 1. The thickness of the

pavement layers is dependent on the expected traffic loading. The recommended minimum

asphalt pavement surface thickness is considered in terms of light, medium and heavy traffic

as follows:

Light traffic - 50mm

Medium - 75mm

Heavy - 100mm

The inconsistencies and variations in the result of structural thickness design of pavements

arising from individual differences in sight and judgment in the use of design charts and

tables have become a matter of concern for pavement designers. Hence, the need to develop
a more precise and accurate design tool that will enable pavement designers produce uniform

structural thickness design results. There is no existing computer program for the design of

flexible pavement for the Nigerian (CBR) design method. The purpose of this paper is to

develop the design tool, N-Flex-Pave, for the Nigerian (CBR) design of flexible pavement.

This will ease design process and provide a uniform flexible pavement structural design

result using the Nigerian (CBR) procedure.

2.5 DESIGN TOOLS/COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR DESIGN OF HIGHWAY

PAVEMENT

Designing flexible pavements is no longer just about soil samples and design charts. Today, a

suite of digital tools and computer programs have become the engineer's best friend, offering a

powerful and efficient approach to flexible pavement design.

Prior to the invention of the computers, pavement designs were solely carried out using

design charts, Tables and nomographs. In contemporary times with the invention of

computers, pavement design could be carried out using computer programs. Several

computer programs have been developed for the design of pavements. The programs are

either empirical, layered elastic analysis or finite element programs.

The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official AASHTO [3]

developed its empirical design utility for flexible and rigid pavement. The program solves the

1993 AASHTO Guide basic empirical design equation for flexible and Rigid pavements. It also

provides information on variable descriptions, typical values and equation precautions.

A number of computer programs based on layered elastic theory [4] have been developed for

layered elastic analysis. The program CHEV [5] developed by the Chevron Research Company

can be applied to linear materials, however, CHEV program was modified to account for

material non-linearity and called DAMA [6]. The DAMA computer program can be used to

analyze a multi-layered elastic pavement structure under single or dual-wheel load, the number

of layers cannot exceed five. In DAMA, the subgrade and the asphalt layers are considered to be

linearly elastic and the untreated subbase to be non-linear. Instead of using iterative method to

determine the modulus of granular layer, the effect of stress dependency is included by effective

elastic modulus computed according to equation 1.0.

E2 = 10.447h1-0.471h2-0.041E1-0.139E3-0.287K10.868………………....(1.0)

Where, E1, E2 and E3 are the modulus of asphalt layer, granular base and subgrade

respectively; h1 and h2 are the thicknesses of the asphalt layer and granular base. K 1 and K2

are parameters for K-θ model with k2 = 0.5. ELSYM5 developed at the University of

California is a five-layer linear elastic program for the determination of stresses and strains

in pavements [7; 8]. The KENLAYER computer program developed at the University of

Kentucky in 1985 incorporates the solution for an elastic multiple-layered system under a

circular load. KENLAYER can be applied to layered system under single, dual, dual-tandem

wheel loads with each layer material properties being linearly elastic, non-linearly elastic or

viscous-elastic. The Ever stress [9] layered elastic analysis program from the Washington

State Department of Transportation was developed from WESLEA layered elastic analysis

program. The pavement system model is multilayered elastic using multiple wheel loads (up

to 20). The program can analyze hot mix asphalt (HMA) pavement structure containing up to

five layers and can consider the stress sensitive characteristics of unbound pavement
materials. The consideration of the stress sensitive characteristics of unbound materials can

be achieved through adjusting the layer moduli in an iterative manner by use of stress-

modulus relationships in equations 2.0 and 3.0;

Eb = K1θK2 for granular soils………………………………...(2.0)

Eb = K3σdK4 for fine grained soils……………………………(3.0)

Where,

Eb = Resilient modulus of granular soils (ksi or MPa)

Es = Resilient modulus of fine-grained soils

(ksi or MPa)

θ = Bulk stress (ksi or MPa)

σd = (Deviator stress (ksi or MPa) and

K1, K2, K3, K4 = Regression constants

K1, and K2, are dependent on moisture content, which can change with the seasons. K 3, and

K4 are related to the soil types, either coarse grained or fine-grained soil. K 2 is positive and

K4 is negative and remain relatively constant with the season.

The ILLI_PAVE 2D computer program (10) developed at the University of Illinois at

Urbana-Champaign treats the pavement system as an axis-symmetric solid domain. The

resilient modulus is stress-dependent and failure criteria for granular material and fine-

grained soils are incorporated in ILLI_PAVE. The principal stresses in the subbase and
subgrade layers are updated iteratively. The Mohr-Coulomb theory is employed as a criterion

to ensure the principal stresses do not exceed the strength of the material. When the base or

subgrade layer is divided into several layers, the minor stresses in the upper layer may be

very small or become tensile in the lower layers. Therefore, the replacement of the small or

negative stress by a large positive stress results in a higher, modulus. The MICH_PAVE 2D

[11] finite element computer program is very similar to ILLI_PAVE. It uses the same

methods to model granular material and soils and the same Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria.

MICH_PAVE uses a flexible boundary at a limited depth beneath the surface of subgrade

instead of a rigid boundary at a large depth below the surface. MICH_PAVE is capable of

performing both linear and non-linear finite element analysis of flexible pavements. It

assumes axisymmetric loading condition and computes an equivalent resilient modulus for

each pavement layer that is obtained as the average of the moduli of the finite elements in the

layer that lie within an assumed 2:1 load distribution zone. For non-linear material,

MICH_PAVE employs the stress dependent K-θ model to characterize the resilient modulus

of soils through a stress dependent modulus and constant Poisson’s ratio. ABAQUS, a

commercially available 3D FE program has been used in the structural analysis of pavement

systems. The program has the ability to accommodate both 2D FE analysis and 3D FE

analysis and use reduced integration elements (3D) to reduce the total computational time

[12].