MEG 511: Energy technology, policy, and Development

Content

Energy and Society, Sources of Energy. Energy demand, Supply, and forecasting.
Conventional and unconventional (renewable) energy. Energy conversion systems. Direct
and indirect solar energy applications. Energy and the environment. Energy conservation.
Energy Policy. Development of energy conservation systems. Energy audit and
management.

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Energy and Society

This lesson is going to teach us about energy. What is energy, and with which units do
we measure energy? We will learn about the commonly used units we use to measure
energy. There are different forms of energy that we use; for example, we use electrical
energy or mechanical energy, like moving a car, etc., and we need to know the units in
which we measure these different forms of energy. So we will also learn about forms of
energy. We will learn about the units in which we measure these forms of energy, and
also we will get into a very, very important distinction between energy and power. To be
clear, that is the key concept in this lesson that I want you to concentrate on – power and
energy. And once we know the difference, we know that using power, we can calculate
energy, or if we know the energy and time, we can calculate power.

We will also look at some of those calculations. As I said, once we know the power, we
can calculate the energy, so we are going to do some exercises. For example, a computer
consumes some power, the rate at which energy is drawn, and if we use the computer for
so many hours, what is the energy consumption by this computer? We can do the same
thing for a refrigerator, or we can do it for any other appliance that you use at home.
These are common appliances that we are using every day in our lives. When we add up
the energy consumed by a computer, by a toaster, by an oven, by a refrigerator, by
lighting, etc. at your place, you get, basically, energy consumption of all your equipment
for a day. So we are going to do that and calculate energy consumption for a day, and
then for a month, and we can calculate also the electric bill for one whole month -- that
would be our objective in this lesson.

Be careful, again, because the distinction between energy and power is a very important
concept. Forms of energy and the units in which we measure energy are the concepts that
we will be looking at in this wonderful lesson. All Right! Why Wait? Let’s go and start
our lesson.

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Energy Consumption and Standard Of Living:
The energy consumption of a nation can be broadly divided into the following areas or sectors depending
on energy-related activities. These can be further s
Domestic sector (houses and offices including commercial buildings)
Transportation sector
Agriculture sector

Industry sector
Consumption of a large amount of energy in a country indicates increased activities in these sectors. This
may imply better comforts at home due to use of various appliances, better transport facilities and more
agricultural and industrial production. All of this amount to a better quality of life. Therefore, the per
capita energy consumption of a country is an index of the standard of living or prosperity (i.e. income) of
the people of the country.

Energy and Society

Energy is a paradox: it brings us light, warmth, security, and mobility. But on the other hand,
energy extraction, burning of fossil fuels, and the unequal distribution of energy resources have
wrought environmental and social problems for humanity. Energy use is at the root of climate
change and many other issues, and we are seeing the beginnings of a global shift in energy
sources and energy policy toward more cooperative, sustainable use of energy. The topics around
energy are relevant in all science disciplines as well as in engineering, policy, social science, and
economics.

This series of web pages begin with the physics of energy and proceeds through a discussion of
energy in biological systems and throughout the earth system. Energy's influence on human
society is explored from the point of view of different sources of energy, the ways in which we
use energy, how we make decisions about energy, and the society-wide impacts of energy use.
In our daily lives, we constantly interact with different forms of energy. Energy is contained in
gasoline, cat food and stars, and energy moves from one form to another via wind, motion and
heat.

Energy has both positive and negative impacts on societies. Access to abundant, affordable,
secure, safe, and clean energy is beneficial for humans. But energy extraction, transportation, and
use can have negative consequences on the health, environment, and economics of a society.
Moreover, relying on imported energy can create vulnerabilities to a nation's security. The
impacts of energy decisions are not equal for all people. Poor or marginalized societies are more
likely to suffer negative consequences of energy decisions because they have a reduced capacity
for adaptation and they may lack negotiating power compared to wealthier societies. Therefore,
vulnerable populations can benefit greatly from improvements in energy accessibility, safety, or
affordability.

This topic also raises the fundamental problem that the world is strongly dependent on a finite
supply of fossil fuels. As demand increases and supply becomes scarce, the problem becomes

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more acute, with potentially severe economic and social consequences. A large-scale transition
away from fossil energy poses a great challenge for society

Energy decisions
 Individuals make decisions about energy every day. These decisions may be driven by
need, cost, convenience, or social norms.
 Societies make energy decisions following formalized procedures, but these decisions are
influenced by many different, and sometimes competing factors. Economics plays an
important role in shaping energy policy. Market forces, taxes, regulations, and subsidies
can affect the prices of different forms of energy. Environmental and societal costs are part
of decision-making as well, as each form of energy has different impacts on the land, air,
water, ecosystems, and people.
 The political process surrounds all of these factors, which adds influences relating to the
balance of power, ideology, corporate influence, and governmental structure.
In a nutshell, the decisions surrounding energy use and energy policy are part of a complex,
multifaceted process.

Our society is facing many energy challenges

Will we have enough energy to fuel our society and our economy? Can we continue to use
energy without causing irreparable harm to Earth's climate system? How much effort and
resources are we willing to invest in alternative energy sources? Can sufficient energy be
distributed fairly, safely, and economically to all parts of the globe? The answers to these
questions are dependent on the decisions we make about energy.

These ideas are of critical importance for all people. Energy decisions can have profound
impacts on our lives, the economy, national security, and the environment. Every day,
individuals make decisions about energy in the actions we take, the products we purchase, and
the policies we support. Because of this, every person plays a role in the complex system of
energy decisions.

Assignment 001

1a. "Why can't we just switch to renewable energy?"

b. balance the relationship between balancing the energy demand, economics, and the advantages
and disadvantages of various energy sources

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What is Energy?

When thinking about energy the following questions may come to mind:

 What is energy?
 How do we measure it?
 Where is it coming from?
 Do we have enough?
 What is the impact of energy use?

Energy is the life blood of any modern society. Energy is used in every walk of life.
Without it, modern life would almost come to a standstill. From the moment of waking
up in the morning with an alarm clock, we use energy for almost everything we do.

Energy is a property of matter that can be converted to work, heat or radiation. It can
move things or do work, produce heat even if it does not move anything, and be
converted to light (or more accurately, radiation).

Six Basic Forms of Energy

Energy exists in a number of different forms, all of which measure the ability of an object
or system to do work on another object or system. There are six different basic forms in
which we use energy in our day-to-day life:

Mechanical Energy (Kinetic)

 Energy that a body possesses by virtue of its motion. A few examples are a
baseball player pitching a ball, a plow being pulled by a tractor, and a hammer that
is being used to pound nails.
 In the United States, we use about a third of our total energy for transportation or
movement of people and goods.

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Mechanical Energy (Potential)

 Energy that a body possesses by virtue of its position relative to a reference point.
A few examples of mechanical energy include a pendulum, a bow (archery), a
spring, and a hammer that is raised in preparation to pound nails.

Chemical Energy

 Energy locked in the bonds of molecules in the form of microscopic potential

energy, which exists because of the electric and magnetic forces of attraction
exerted between the different parts of each molecule.
o It is the same attractive force involved in thermal vibrations.
o The molecular parts get rearranged in the chemical reactions, releasing or
adding to this potential energy.
 Some examples include a battery, burning wood, and glucose in the body.
 Approximately 85% of the energy used in the U.S. comes from fossil fuels such as
coal, oil, and natural gas.
o All of these fuels store energy in the form of chemical energy.
o When they are burned, these fuels release energy in the form of heat or
thermal energy.

Thermal or Heat Energy:

 Energy that combines microscopic, kinetic, and potential energy of the molecules.
Some examples of this include a hot beverage and boiling water.
 Temperature is really a measure of how much thermal energy something has: The
higher the temperature, the faster the molecules are moving around and/or
vibrating, i.e., the more kinetic and potential energy the molecules have.
 Fuels (chemical energy) are oftentimes burned and converted to thermal or heat
energy, which is then converted to motion in an automobile or electricity

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Electrical Energy:

 Energy created through the movement of electrons among the atoms of matter.
 Although electricity is seldom used directly, it is one of the most useful and
versatile forms of energy. Following are some examples. When electricity is:
o put into a toaster, it can be converted to heat;
o put into a stereo, it is converted into sound;
o put into an electric bulb, it converts into light;
o put into a motor, it converts into motion or movement (mechanical energy).
 Due to its versatility, electricity is in high demand; in the US about 40% of the
total primary energy used is converted into electricity for various uses.

Nuclear Energy:

 Energy produced when reactions occur in an atom, resulting in some type of

structural change in the nuclei.
 Fusion occurs when two small nuclei join together to create one large nucleus or
particle, and during this process, energy is released in the form of light and heat.
An example is in the Sun: hydrogen nuclei fuse (combine) together to make
helium nuclei, which release energy.
 Fission occurs when the nucleus of one big atom splits into two new atoms, and
during this process, a tremendous amount of energy is released in the form of light
and heat. An example is in a nuclear reactor or the interior of the earth: uranium
nuclei split apart, causing energy to be released.

Radiation:

 Energy radiated or transmitted in the form of rays, waves or particles. Some

examples include:
o Visible light that can be seen by naked eye;
o Infrared radiation;
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 o Ultraviolet radiation (UV) that cannot be seen with the naked eye;
o Long wave radiation, such as TV waves and radio waves;
o Very short waves, such as x-rays and gamma rays.
o Even things that we encounter in our everyday life contain some radioactive
material either natural or man-made. Smoke detectors, compact fluorescent
bulbs, some watches and granite countertops can emit some nuclear
radiation. Even plane travel at high altitudes cause exposure from cosmic
rays.

 Electromagnetic Radiation
o Energy from the sun comes to the earth in the form of Electromagnetic
radiation, which is a type of energy that oscillates (side to side) and is
coupled with electric and magnetic fields that travel freely through space.
o Electromagnetic radiation is composed of photons or particles of light,
which are sometimes referred to as packets of energy.
o Photons, like all particles, have properties of waves.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
o The “Electromagnetic spectrum“ is a representation of the wide range of
wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.
o Photons are associated with visible light, which accounts for only a very
limited part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
o A great discovery of the nineteenth century was that radio waves, x-rays,
and gamma-rays are just forms of light, and that light is electromagnetic
waves.
 As depicted in the image above, the lower the energy, the longer the wavelength
and lower the frequency, and vice versa.
 The reason that sunlight can hurt your skin or your eyes is because it contains
"ultraviolet light," which consists of high energy photons. These photons have
short wavelength and high frequency, and pack enough energy in each photon to

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 cause physical damage to your skin if they get past the outer layer of skin or the
lens in your eye.
 Radio waves, and the radiant heat you feel at a distance from a campfire, for
example, are also forms of electromagnetic radiation, or light, except that they
consist of low energy photons (long wavelength and high frequencies - in the
infrared band and lower) that your eyes can't perceive. This was a great discovery
of the nineteenth century - that radio waves, x-rays, and gamma-rays are just forms
of light, and that light is electromagnetic waves.
 About 20% of the electricity used in the US is used to produce visible light for
lighting purposes.

Energy Conversion

Energy can be converted from one form to another.

Examples:

 Gasoline (chemical) is put into our cars, and with the help of electrical energy
from a battery, provides mechanical (kinetic) energy.
 Purchased electricity is fed into our TVs and is converted to light and sound.
 Similarly, purchased electricity goes into an electric bulb and is converted to
visible light and heat energy.
 The image below shows examples of more conversions.

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Sources of Energy

Energy is stored and is available in different forms and sources. The 24,330 times more
solar energy that is available than we need is not in a readily usable form. It needs to be
concentrated.

For example, when oil (a concentrated fuel) is burned with air, the resulting gases can
reach high temperatures. Solar energy, as it is, is not concentrated and cannot reach those
high temperatures. Therefore, we use more concentrated energy sources. These sources
are divided into two groups—renewable and nonrenewable.

Renewable Energy Sources:

 Energy sources that can be replenished over and over again; they are never
depleted. Some examples include hydropower, solar, wind, tidal, geothermal
energy from inside the earth, biomass from plants, and nuclear fusion.

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  These types of energy sources are usually converted into electricity or thermal
(heat) energy.

Nonrenewable Energy Sources:

 Energy sources that we are using up and cannot be produce in a short period of
time. Some examples include fossil fuels (Petroleum Oil, Natural Gas, and Coal),
Tar Sands, and Nuclear Fission.
 Another nonrenewable energy source is the element uranium, whose atoms we
split (through a process called nuclear fission) to create heat, and ultimately,
electricity.
 These types of energy sources are usually converted into electricity and
mechanical energy.
 We get most of our energy from these nonrenewable energy sources.

Fossil Fuel Distribution

Fossil fuels, non-renewable energy sources formed over a million years, are not
distributed uniformly over the earth’s surface. Depending on the climate conditions
millions of years ago, certain parts of the land masses were favorable for organic matter
to grow and thrive.

Over geological ages, these land masses moved, and certain regions are richer in fossil
fuels than others. Roll over the map below and answer click to answer the questions
based on your observations.

SOURCES OF ENERGY

Energy: - Whenever a body is capable of doing work, the body is said to possess energy.
Thus energy is defined as the ability of a body to do work and the amount of energy
possessed by a body is equal to the amount of work it can do when its energy is released.
Units of energy: -
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On S.I. system, energy is measured in the units of joules or in calories. However, the
commercial unit of energy is kilowatt-hour. The energy is said to be one kilowatt-hour,
when a body consumes one kilowatt of energy in one hour.
Sources of energy: a source of energy is that which is capable of providing enough
useful energy at a steady rate over a long period.
A good source of energy should be :
i) Safe and convenient to use, e.g., nuclear energy can be used only by highly trained
engineers with the help of nuclear power plants. It cannot be used for our household
purposed.
ii) Easy to transport, e.g., coal, petrol, diesel, LPG etc. Have to be transported from the
places of their production to the consumers.
iii) Easy to store, e.g., huge storage tanks are required to store petrol, diesel, LPG etc.
Characteristics of an ideal or a good fuel:
1. It should have a high calorific or a heat value, so that it can produce maximum energy
by low fuel consumption.
2. It should have a proper ignition temperature, so that it can burn easily.
3. It should not produce harmful gases during combustion.
4. It should be cheap in cost and easily available in plenty for everyone.
5. It should be easily and convenient to handle, store and transport from one place to
another.
6. It should not be valuable to any other purpose than as a fuel.
7. It should burn smoothly and should not leave much residue after its combustion.
Classification of sources energy:
The sources of energy can be classified as follows:
(i) Renewable (ii) Non-Renewable.
1. Renewable sources of energy :- Renewable sources of energy are those which are
inexhaustible, i.e., which can be replaced as we use them and can be used to produce
energy again and again.
These are available in an unlimited amount in nature and develop within a relatively short

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period of time.
Examples of Renewable Sources of Energy.
(i) Solar energy, (ii) Wind Energy, (iii) water energy (hydro-energy), (iv) geothermal
energy, (v) ocean energy, (vi) biomass energy (firewood, animal dung and biodegradable
waste from cities and crop residues constitute biomass).
Advantages of Renewable Sources of Energy :
(i) These sources will last as long as the Earth receives light from the sun.
(ii) These sources are freely available in nature.
(iii) These sources do not cause any pollution.

2. Non-Renewable Sources of Energy:

Non-renewable sources of energy are those which are exhaustible and cannot be replaced
once they have been used. These sources have been accumulated in nature over a very
long period of millions of years.
Examples of Non-renewable sources of Energy:
(i) Coal (ii) Oil and (iii) Natural gas.
All these fuels are called fossil fuels.
Disadvantages of Non-renewable sources of Energy:
(i) Due to their extensive use, these sources are fast depleting.
(ii) It is difficult to discover and exploit new deposits of these sources.
(iii) These sources are a major cause of environmental pollution.
Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy:
Sources of energy are also classified as : (i) Conventional sources of energy (ii)
Nonconventional sources of energy.
Conventional sources of energy : Are those which are used extensively and a meet a
marked portion of our energy requirement and these are :
(a) Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) and
(b) Hydro energy (energy of water flowing in rivers).
Biomass energy and wind energy also fall in this category as these are being used since

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ancient times.
Non-conventional sources of energy : Are those which are not used as extensively as
the conventional ones and meet our energy requirement only on a limited scale. Solar
energy, ocean energy (tidal energy, wave energy, ocean thermal energy, OTE),
Geothermal energy and nuclear energy belong to this category. These sources of
energy which have been tapped with the aid of advances in technology to meet our
growing energy needs are also called alternative sources of energy.
Wind Energy: -When large masses of air move from one place to another it is referred to
as wind. During this process kinetic energy gets associated with it which is referred to as
wind energy.
Principle of utilisation of wind energy: -
Wind energy is efficiently converted into electrical energy with the aid of a windmill. A
windmill is a large fan having big blades, which rotate by the force exerted by moving
wind on them. These blades remain continuously rotating as long as wind is blowing and
can be used to drive a large number of machines like water pumps, flour mills etc. But
these days a windmill is used to generate electric current which is used for various
purposes and therefore wind power stations are established all over the world which
convert wind energy directly into electrical energy.
Uses of wind energy: -
The important uses of wind energy are;
1. It is used to drive windmills, water lifting pumps and flour mills etc.
2. It is used to propel sail boats.
3. It is used to fly engine less aero planes or gliders in the air.
4. It is used to generate electricity used for various purposes like lightening, heating etc.

Advantages of generating wind energy: -

The chief advantages of using wind energy are;
1. It is readily and abundantly available at every place of the earth free of cost.
2. It is eco-friendly and does not produce any kind of environmental pollution.

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3. It is a renewable source as air itself is a renewable and inexhaustible resource.
4. It is a cheap source of energy, as it does not involve any costly investment.
Fossil Fuels :
Fossil fuels are the remains of prehistoric plants and animals which got buried deep
inside the early millions of years ago due to some natural processes. The energy of fossil
fuels is in fact, that solar energy which was trapped by natural processes a very long time
ago. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels.
Formation of Fossil Fuels: During its formation, an entire organism or its parts often get
buried in sand or mud. These, then decay and disintegrate leaving no signs of their
existence. In fact, the harder parts of organisms after their death, settle down and are
covered by sediments and subjected to extreme pressure and temperature of the earth
converts them into fossil fuels, the process being referred to as fossilization.
Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels:
1. The fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy and once used cannot be
renewed.
2. Burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution.
3. The fossil fuels reserves in the earth are limited and may get exhausted soon.
Solar Energy:- The energy produced by the sun in the form of heat and light energy is
called as solar energy.
Principles of utilisation of Solar Energy: -
involvement of two main principles:
Solar energy is utilized by:
i. In the appliances requiring a moderate temperature, the incident sun rays are
reflected by a plain mirror on a black container which absorbs the solar energy and gets
heated.
ii. In the appliances requiring a high temperature, the incident sun rays are reflected
and concentrated by using a large concave reflector which focuses all the sun rays at a
single point called focus and any object kept at the focus gets strongly heated.
Harnessing or utilisation of Solar energy:- The sun is the ultimate source of energy

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having a remarkable capacity to produce energy in the form of heat and light. The energy
produced by the sun in one day is about 50,000 times more than the energy consumed in
the whole world in one year. But solar energy has certain limitations, which does not
facilitate its large-scale utilisation. However, solar energy can be put to use in two differ
ways Viz.
1. Direct utilization: - Directly the solar energy can be used either by collecting it as heat
energy or by converting it into electricity.
2) Indirect utilization: - Indirectly the solar energy can be utilized by converting it into
chemical energy like biomass or by utilising the energy obtained from wind, sea waves,
tides
etc.
Solar Heating Devices: - A device that gets heated by absorbing solar energy radiated by
the sun in the form of heat and light energy is called a solar heating device. For eg. Solar
cooker, solar water heater, solar furnace and solar cells are solar heating devices
Solar cooker: - A solar cooker is a device which utilises solar energy for cooking food
material. It consists of an insulated wooden box (B) painted with black from inner side.
The lid of the box is provided with a plane mirror reflector (R) and a glass sheet (G). The
food to be cooked is placed in a metal container (C) painted with black from outer side
and kept in the box .The container is covered with the glass sheet. The box is then kept in
direct sunlight and its reflector is adjusted in such away that a strong beam of sun light
falls over it.
Working: - When the solar cooker is kept in direct sunlight, the reflector (R) reflects
both visible and infrared rays of the sunlight on to the top of the box in the form of a
strong beam of light. The black surface of the box and the vessel absorbs it. When the
inner black surface becomes quite hot, it also starts radiating heat energy in the form of
infrared rays, but the upper glass sheet (G) does not allow these rays to pass through it
and go outside the box. As a result, these infrared rays get absorbed in the box, which
increases its internal temperature up to about 1000C.
This high temperature cooks the food material kept in the metallic container inside the

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box.
Limitations of solar Cooker:-
1. It cannot be used during night.
2. On a cloudy day, it cannot be used.
3. The direction of the reflector has to be adjusted according to the position of the sun.
4. It cannot be used for making ‘chappatis’.
5. It cannot be used for frying.
Solar cell: - A solar cell is a device which converts solar energy (light energy) directly
into electricity. It is made of semi-conducting material like silicon, germanium, selenium
or gallium. A modern solar cell is made from wafers of semi conducting materials
containing impurities in such away that a potential difference gets generated when light
falls on them. A 4 cm 2 solar cells produces a potential difference of about 0.4--0.5volts
and generate about 60 milli-amperes of current. To generate a large amount of current a
number of solar cells are arranged together in a definite pattern in a solar panel. The
energy (electric current) generated in a solar panel is stored in a battery connected to it
and can be used for various purposes.
Uses of a solar cell: -
The solar cells are used effectively in various fields, but some of its
important uses are:

Solar cells are used for production of electricity for lighting, houses, streets etc. Solar
cells are used for production of electricity to run electronic appliances like televisions,
radios, watches, calculators, toys, toy games etc. Solar cells are used to develop
electricity for offshore oil drilling platforms etc. Solar cells are used to generate
electricity in artificial satellites, rockets, and space vehicles etc.
Hydroelectricity: - When the water flowing in a river is stored in a high rise dam and
allowed to fall from the top of the dam. The water rushes down with a great force, which
can be utilised to drive large water turbine. These turbines are connected with electric
generators, which generate electric current. The electricity generated in this process is

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termed as hydroelectricity or hydel power. Infact the process involves transference of
potential energy of the water into kinetic energy and then into electric energy.

Advantages of generating hydroelectricity: - The main advantages of using water

energy for the generation of hydroelectricity are listed a s under:
1. It is readily and abundantly available everywhere free of cost.
2. It is eco-friendly and does not produce any kind of environmental pollution.
3. It is a renewable source as water itself is a renewable and inexhaustible resource.
4. It is a cheap source of energy, as it does not involve any costly investment.
Energy from Oceans : - The oceans acquire almost 71% of the surface of the earth and
the enormous amount of water present in them not only act as a big collector of solar heat
energy, but also store large amount of it due to its high specific heat. Thus ocean water
can be used as a renewable resource of energy. The main forms of ocean energy are
described as under;
i) Ocean Thermal energy : - The energy available due to the temperature difference
between the deeper levels and surface of an ocean is called as ocean thermal energy.
ii) Ocean Tidal energy: - The rise of ocean water due to attraction of the moon is
referred to as high tide and its fall as low tide. The enormous movement of water due to
high and low tide provide a large amount of energy known as ocean tidal energy. This
tidal energy can be utilised by constructing a tidal barrage or dam.
iii) Sea wave energy: - The energy obtained from the high speed sea waves is referred to
as sea wave energy. In fact these high speed sea waves have a lot of kinetic energy
associated with them, which can used to drive dynamos which convert kinetic energy into
electrical energy.
iv) Energy from Nuclear deuterium of oceans:- The ocean water contains unlimited
amount of heavy hydrogen isotope called deuterium which is isotope hydrogen having
one proton and one neutron in its nucleus. Scientists are working hard to produce energy
by carrying by out controlled nuclear fission of deuterium isotope. The process is still in
its experimental stage.

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v) Energy from Salinity gradient in seas: - The difference in the concentration of salts
in the water of the two or more seas is called as salinity gradient. This salinity gradient is
now a day used to obtain energy with the involvement of suitable techniques.
vi) Energy from sea vegetation or biomass: - Sea vegetation or biomass is another
direct source of energy because the enormous amount of sea weeds present in the sea
water provides an endless supply of methane fuel.
Limitations of Energy from Oceans:-
The limitations of energy that can be obtained from the oceans are:
i) Tidal Energy for which very few suitable sites are available for construction of dams
and the power generation is intermittent and not very large.
ii) Wave Energy where power output is variable and the presently available technologies
are very expensive.
iii) Ocean Thermal Energy where the conversion efficiency is low (3% - 4%) and a lot of
capital investment is required.

Bio-Mass:- Biomass is defined as living matter or its residue and is a renewable sources
of energy.
The biomass includes (i) all the new plant growth (ii) agricultural and forest residues
(like biogases, bark, saw dust, wood shavings, roots, animal droppings etc.) (iii)
Carbonaceous wastes (like sewage, garbage, night-soil, etc.) (iv) Biodegradable organic
affluent from industries.
Biogas:- Biogas is a mixture of gases produced by anaerobic degradation of biomass in
the presence of water but in the absence of oxygen. It is a renewable source of energy on
account of its production from vastly and continuously available organic wastes.
Advantages of Biogas:-
i) A biogas plant, being quite simple, can easily be built in rural areas. A small plant
using dung from 3 to 4 heads of cattle is capable of supplying biogas for 6 hours daily for
cooking purposes.
ii) Biogas is a clean fuel that burns without smoke and leaves no ash.

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iii) The main constituent of biogas, i.e., ethane has a higher calorific value (55kj/g) that
of petrol (50kj/g).
iv) The spent slurry, being rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, is good manure.
v) By using biogas, firewood is saved and deforestation is reduced.
Composition of Biogas:- Biogas is mainly composed methane (up to 75%), CO2 (25%)
and traces of other gases such as nitrogen and hydrogen. Whereas methane is a high value
calorific fuel, carbon dioxide is an inert gas.
Biogas is prepared in biogas plants which are of two types: (i) Fixed Dome Type (ii)
Floating Gas Holder Type.
Fixed Dome Type Biogas Plant:-
The main parts of fixed of dome type of biogas plants are:
1. Digester. It is well shaped underground tank made of bricks. Its roof is some-shaped
which acts as a storage tank for biogas.
2. Mixing tank. It is constructed on the ground level where cattle dung and water are
mixed.
3. Inlet tank. It is constructed underground below the mixing tank.
4. Overflow tank. It is constructed slightly below the level of mixing tank.
5. Outlet tank. It is constructed below the overflow tank.

Working of Biogas Plant:-

Cattle dung and water are mixed in equal proportion in the mixing tank to form slurry.
This slurry is fed into the digester tank through inlet tank when the digester tank is filled
about 2/3rd of its capacity, the dome is left free for collection of biogas. The slurry
undergoes anaerobic fermentation and biogas is produced after 50 to 60 days. As biogas
is collected in the dome it exerts pressure due to which spent slurry go to the overflow
tank through outlet tank and fresh slurry is fed into the digester and continuous supply of
biogas is obtained spent slurry is used as manure.

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Geothermal energy: - Geothermal energy is the heat of the earth and is the naturally
occurring thermal energy found within rock formations and the fluids held within those
formations. Geothermal energy is one of those few sources of energy that do not come
directly or indirectly from the solar energy. The underground hot water in contact with
hot spots changes into steam. As the steam is trapped between the rocks, it gets
compressed to high pressure. At some places, hot water and steam gush out from the
Earth’s surface after making their way through large cracks between the rocks and form
natural geysers. Geothermal energy carried by natural geysers is utilized for generating
electricity.
Merits of geothermal Energy:-
1. Geothermal energy is the most versatile and least polluting renewable source of
energy.
2. It can be harnessed for 24 hours throughout the year.
3. Geothermal energy is relatively inexpensive.
4. As compared to solar energy and wind energy, the power generation level of
geothermal energy is higher.
5. Geothermal energy can be used for power generation as well as direct heating. In USA,
water is pumped from underground hot water deposits and is used to heat houses.
Limitations of Geothermal Energy:
1. Geothermal hot spots are scattered and usually some distance away fro the areas that
need energy.
2. The overall power production has a lower efficiency (about 15%) as compared to that
of fossil fuels (35% to 40%).
3. Though as a whole, geothermal energy is inexhaustible, a single by ore has a limited
life span of about 10 years.
4. Noise pollution is caused by drilling operations at geothermal sites.

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Nuclear Energy:-
A reaction in which the nucleus of an atom undergoes a change to form a new atom and
releases an enormous amount of energy is called as nuclear energy. There are two distinct
ways of obtaining nuclear energy. a) Nuclear fission b) Nuclear fusion.
Nuclear Fission reaction:
This type of nuclear reaction was first of all reported by Otto Hahn in 1938. He stated
that when an unstable heavy nucleus is bombarded with slow speed thermal neutrons, it
splits into two small stable nuclei liberates an enormous amount of heat and light energy.
When uranium 235 atoms are bombard with slow moving thermal neutrons, it breaks up
into two small stable nuclei of Barium and Krypton. The process also produces three
neutrons and an enormous amount of heat energy and light energy. The reaction involved
is shown as under:

In all nuclear fission reactions, a small quantity of matter is lot i,e., the total mass of all
the fission products is less than the total mass of the reactants. This lost matter gets
converted into energy, which is released in any nuclear fission reaction. The energy (E)
obtained due to loss of matter of mass m is given by the famous Einstein’s equation.

Nuclear Fusion reaction:

This type of nuclear reaction was first of all reported by Hans Bethe in 1939. The word
‘fusion’ means ‘to combine together’. So, nuclear fusion means combining together of

22
two or more nuclei to form a single nucleus. Thus, a process in which two lighter nuclei
fuse (combine) together to form a stable heavier nucleus with a simultaneous release of a
very large amount of energy is called nuclear fusion. The energy produced in a fusion
reaction is much higher than that produced in a nuclear fission reaction.
Nuclear fusion takes place only at very high temperature, about 4 – 15 million degrees
(4 x 106 oC – 15 x 106 0C). That is why nuclear fusion is also called thermonuclear
reaction.

Advantages of Nuclear Energy: -

The advantages of nuclear energy are that:
i) It produces a large amount of useful energy from a very small amount of a nuclear fuel
(like uranium-235).
ii) Once the nuclear fuel (like uranium-235) is loaded into the reactor, the nuclear power
plant can go on producing electricity for two to three years at a stretch. There is no
need for putting in nuclear fuel again and again.
iii) It does not produce gases like carbon dioxide which contributes to greenhouse effect
or sulphur dioxide which causes acid rain.
Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy :-
i) The major hazard of nuclear power generation is the storage and disposal of spent or
used fuels – the uranium still decaying into harmful subatomic particles (radiations).
ii) Improper nuclear-waste storage and disposal result in environmental contamination.
iii) There is a risk of accidental leakage of nuclear radiation.
iv) The high cost of installation of a nuclear power plant, high risk of environmental

contamination and limited availability of uranium makes large-scale use of nuclear

energy prohibitive.
Environmental consequences of the increasing demand for energy: -
1. The combustion for fossil fuels is producing acid rain and damaging plants (crops), soil
and aquatic life.
2. The burning of fossil fuels is increasing the amount of greenhouse gas carbon dioxide

23
in the atmosphere.
3. The cutting down of trees from the forest (deforestation) for obtaining fire-wood is
causing soil erosion and destroying wild life.
4. The construction of hydro-power plants is disturbing ecological balance.
5. Nuclear power plants are increasing radioactivity in the environment.

TRANSFORMATION OF ENERGY

As you have learnt earlier, energy can exist in many different forms. It is also true that energy
can be changed from one form to another. But it cannot be created or destroyed. Normally, we
talk about ‘using energy’, but do you know, it never gets ‘used up’. It just gets transformed into
another form. Eventually, most of it ends up as heat, but it is so spread out that it cannot be
detected or used. Let us see how transformation of energy takes place in our day-to-day life.
Some examples are:

The food has chemical energy stored in it. When our body uses this stored energy to do some
work, it gets converted in to kinetic energy. Similarly, when you kick a ball, your muscles
change chemical energy from your food into kinetic energy. As the ball moves through the air
and across the ground, friction slows it down and its kinetic energy is changed into thermal
energy (heat).

A car uses stored chemical energy in petrol or diesel to move. The engine changes the chemical
energy into heat and kinetic energy to power the car. Things that are moving, such as vehicles,
flowing water, and winds etc. have kinetic energy. In a thermal power station, the chemical
energy of coal is transformed into heat energy of the hot steam, and then into mechanical energy
of turbine. This mechanical energy is transformed by a generator into electrical energy, which

24
passes through the power lines to various places – cities, towns, houses, factories etc., where it is
transformed back to heat, light, sound or mechanical energy.
*Spring or other stretched or compressed materials have potential energy. The water stored in
dams and reservoirs also has potential energy which gets converted in other forms of energy.
*When hot materials cool down, they give off heat, or thermal energy. The fuels and batteries
have chemical energy stored in them. When they are used their energy is released by chemical
reactions.
*When you talk on the phone, your voice i.e. sound energy is transformed into electrical energy,
which is transmitted through wire or the air. The phone on the other end changes the electrical
energy into sound energy through the speaker.
*Similarly, a television changes electrical energy into light and sound energy.
As per the “Law of Conservation of Energy”, energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form of energy into another.
ENERGY CRISIS AND ITS MITIGATION
All activities, small or big, need one or another form of energy. We can say that the energy is the
lifeline for our survival and development. Because of paucity of electrical energy, some Nigeria
households, particularly in rural areas, go without electricity for days. Even in urban areas the
situation is not very good. There are frequent electricity cuts for several hours during a day. This
becomes a severe problem during the dry season. Energy demand in the future will continue to
increase as Nigeria’s population and its needs continues to grow.
The situation in which a country suffers from frequent disruptions in energy supplies because of
large and increasing gaps between availability and demand of electricity accompanied by rapidly
increasing energy prices that threaten economic and social development of the nation may be
termed as the energy crisis. Energy crisis is being faced by all developing nations including
Nigeria. What are the reasons behind such as energy crisis?
Reasons behind Energy Crisis
It is a fact that presently around 85 percent of the world’s energy supply is met from oil, coal and
natural gas. Clearly, we live in the age of coal and oil, but the availability, of both of these
resources of energy are very limited and will not last beyond a few decades. If we think about the
Nigerian situation only, oil accounts for over 70% of Nigeria’s energy production. However, it is
a limited resource and also creates
environmental problems. Even if more oil is produced, the increasing gap between the demand
and supply of energy in Nigeria cannot be easily bridged. Moreover, Nigeria’s reliance on
imported oil products has imposed hardship, persistent increase in price and pollution.
Thus, the basic reasons behind over energy crisis seem to be the following:
Our over-dependence on limited and exhaustible sources of energy such as our oil deposits.
Increasing gap in the demand and supply of the energy.
Ever increasing prices of the energy and fuel from other countries.
Reluctance in using alternative and renewable sources of energy, such as solar, wind, bio-
energy, etc..
Overuse and misuse of the available sources of energy.

Methods of Mitigating Energy Crisis

25
In order to mitigate the problem of energy crisis, the Government as well as the people
of the country should take collective and serious steps.
(a) It is believed that one possible solution to Nigeria’s energy problems is Nuclear Power.
Accordingly, we signed a Nuclear Deal to import fuel and technology. The model of nuclear
powered energy has been successful in countries like France where they meet more than 75% of
their electricity requirements from
nuclear energy.
(b) The use of renewable sources of energy like solar power, wind power, hydroelectric power,
biogas and biofuel etc should be promoted. As automobiles are major consumers of petroleum
fuels/oils, an effort should be made to increase the mileage standards of the automobiles. Even
the generation of energy
from renewable sources is not very simple and cost effective. Therefore, all of us should make a
sincere effort to save and conserve the energy.
(c) Being an agricultural nation, we could have come up with a more ingenious solution to
produce ethanol and biofuel from sugarcane and vegetable oils. In addition to the above
initiatives to solve the problem of energy crisis, we should follow an ‘energy conservation
approach’ in our daily life. Some useful tips, on how we can save energy in our daily life, are
given in the following section.

Conservation of Energy
The key for resolving the country’s energy crisis lies with us citizens. Among things we can do is
the conservation of our non-renewable sources of energy. It is said that energy saved is as good
as energy generated. Therefore, we should not only judiciously use energy sources but save
energy as much as we can. You can start conservation of energy in your home. Some of the
important tips for saving energy
are:
Switch off lights, fans and other appliances when not in use. Water taps should not be left open.
While cooking rice, dal etc. the vessel should remain covered and, for cooking, only the required
quantity of water should be used. If you soak pulses in water for some time before cooking, it
will save energy in cooking.
Another way of saving energy is by use of more efficient appliances. For example, a LED or CF
light is much more efficient that a tube light or bulb; and a tube-light gives much lighter than a
bulb of same power rating. In fact, bulbs are being totally phased out in some countries. Better
stoves burn fuel efficiently and give more heat per unit of fuel burned. The fuel-efficient vehicles
should be used and their engines should be maintained properly. Similarly, more energy efficient
electrical appliances having energy saving stars should be used,
*These are only some of the habits which can save a lot of energy. We should find ways for not
wasting energy where it can be saved. For example, if you are required to go to a nearby place
you may walk or go by a bicycle and avoid the use of an automobile. You may use public
transport in place of your own vehicle to save fuel.
Share automobiles rides to office, instead of driving alone to office.

Energy Conservation: Why?

Energy conservation involves use of lesser energy for the same level of activity. Let us try to
understand this with the help of an example. Supposing you want to make ‘dal’ for lunch. There

26
are two ways of doing this: you could cook the dal in an ordinary pan with a lid on it or you
could use a pressure cooker. Needless to say, the resultant ‘dal’ would be the same in both cases.
By using a pressure cooker, you would save both time and energy used for cooking. Supposing
we go a step further and say that you wish to cook not only ‘dal’ but also rice and potatoes.
Again, one way would be to cook the three separately, resulting in the use of stove at least three
times, and another way could be to use separators of a pressure cooker and cook all the three
together. What is the benefit of using a pressure cooker or of cooking things together? You are
‘conserving energy’, i.e. you are using less energy to achieve the same results. The question that
now arises is, WHY do we need to conserve energy? After all, all forms of energy are easily
available to us at the moment. We must conserve energy because of a number of reasons. These
are explained below:
1. Demand exceeds supply
There is an increasing demand for energy due to increasing population, industrialisation, traffic
on roads and automation in home, office and farms.

Fig..2: Demands on energy

You yourself must have observed that the ever-increasing population is creating an increasing
demand for energy. Increasing number of people need more houses to live in and this leads to
increased felling of trees to provide timber and furnishing. At the same time, more coal, kerosene
and gas are needed to cook the food for more people. More people today need more electricity to
light their home, to run their coolers and geysers, to run washing machines, computers, etc.,
which results in increased use of power leading to power cuts. What steps do you think should
be taken to reduce or close this gap between demand and supply of energy? We have two options
before us:
(i) increase the supply

27
(ii) reduce the demand
Since supply of energy is limited, we are left with the second option, i.e. to reduce demand of
energy. How can we do this?

BY CONSERVATION AND WISE USE OF ENERGY AVAILABLE.

2. Energy saved is energy generated

You must all be familiar with a bank. Whatever money you manage to save, you put in a bank
and after some time you can see your savings grow, if you are careful to take out less money than
you put in. If at any point of time, you start using the money faster than you put in it you will
soon run out of money and will have to face a shortage.
Now, imagine that there is an energy bank. Whatever energy you save in your daily activities
gets accumulated in this energy bank so that you can use it in future. As your ‘energy savings’
grow, there will be less pressure to produce more energy. Similarly, the energy that you save
could be used elsewhere. For example, if you decide to have a daytime wedding in the family,
with no decorative lights, the electricity you save could perhaps prevent a couple of power cuts
in the city.

3. Fuels are limited

Fuels are the most common sources of energy and you have already learnt that the deposits of
coal, gas and oil are limited. A look at the chart given below will tell you where we stand today
in terms of their availability to us in the years to come.

Question

List four factors which contribute in creating a gap between the demand and supply of energy
today.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: HOW?

By now you all have realised the fact that we are facing a very real possibility of some of these
energy resources drying up during our lifetime.

Conservation of energy has to be the order of the day. Each and every one of us has to unite and
collectively take action to preserve and conserve energy. Each one of us has to think, "Is there
anything which I can do?” Yes, there are many small ways in which we can contribute our share
of efforts in energy conservation. Let us see how we can do so.
Energy can primarily be conserved:

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1. At home
2. In the farm or work place
3. On the road
Energy Conservation at Home
(a) Power
Switch off a little ................... save a lot!
Take a look at your last power bill. It need not have been as much as it is. Just a little care, a little
alertness on your part could have brought it down. How?
Switch off lights and fan while leaving a room.
Change over to energy efficient tube lights from power consuming bulbs.
– Remember! A 40 watt tube light gives twice as much light as a 100 watt incandescent bulb.
This means a savings of 60% power in addition to more light!
Replace traditional chokes of tube lights with electronic chokes. They consume one third
energy.
Keep lights and fixtures clean and dirt free.
 Use dimmer switches to adjust the amount of lighting according to your needs
 Use light colours for walls. This helps reduce lighting requirements by up to 40
 Replace old fan regulators with electronic regulators
 Use a refrigerator of the size your family needs.
 Defrost your fridge regularly.
 Use your washing machine at proper loads.
 Mix hot water in a bucket for a bath rather than having a geyser shower.
 Switch on the AC an hour later and switch it off an hour earlier
 When ironing, ensure that you have collected all the clothes first.
 Use your oven, hair dryer and vacuum cleaner sparingly to save on power.
 Avoid non-ISI appliances - they may be good bargains but being sub-standard and their
components inefficient, they consume more electricity

(b) Fuel
As for power, you can adopt many simple ways in which to cut down on your fuel bills. Those of
you who use LPG or gas cylinders for cooking at home are already aware of the way in which
gas prices have been shooting up recently. Kerosene prices are not far behind. So, what can we
do to reduce our fuel bills? Here are some tips.

Use ISI marked cooking stoves only.

Replace traditional wood stoves with the ‘unnat chullah’ (smokeless chullah) developed by the
Government. These are 20-25 % more heat efficient. Use solar cookers as far as possible.

Avoid cooking in open pans. Use a pressure cooker and save your fuel.
Use separators of a pressure cooker to cook more than one dish at a time.
Use copper bottom or sandwich bottom pans which are more heat sensitive.
Switch on the gas after putting the pan on and switch off before removing the pan

Keep the burner holes clean and free of dirt and grease.
Use small burner for small-sized vessels.

29
Switch off the regulator switch of the gas cylinder at night.
Try and serve the food soon after it in cooked in order to avoid reheating it

The above are just some tips to avoid excessive power and fuel use at home. These tips will lead
to substantial savings on your energy bills without compromising on comfort and convenience in
any way.

In the farm and workplace

(a) In the farm
Farmers are increasingly using farm machinery like tractors, threshers, water pumps, etc. An
effort must be made by farmers too, to conserve energy, which means they must try to get
maximum work done with the use of least possible energy. Let us see how?:
Maintain tractors well. Poor maintenance leads to 25% loss of diesel.
Prevent leakage of diesel.
Loss of one drop per second results in a loss of 2000 litres of diesel per year!
Switch off the engine when the tractor is not in use.
Drive in appropriate gear.
Use of wrong gear increases diesel consumption by 30% and
decreases work efficiency by 50%.
Keep the air filter clean to reduce wear and tear of the engine.
Replace old tyres.
Plan the use of tractor on the field. Digging in lengthwise direction rather than widthwise, saves
diesel in the field.

At the work place

The feeling people generally have is - “Who cares about energy conservation at the office. After
all, I’m not paying for it !” But this is where we go wrong. Ultimately it is we who pay for all the
energy that is wasted in the office - in the form of energy shortages, higher price to be paid for
energy, more taxes and so on. So, it becomes imperative that we not only adopt some energy
saving measures at our work place but also encourage our fellow workers to do the same. Here
are some suggestions for you:
Ask the cleaning staff not to switch on all lights and fans before people come to the office.
Switch off fans and lights when you leave the room.
Minimise the use of air-conditioners.
Switch off computers when not in use.
Avoid unnecessary photocopying of documents.
Encourage people to use the stairs instead of the lift, specially in places like hospitals.
3. On the road
Many more people own vehicles today than they did ten years ago. Vehicles are used to go to the
office as well as for family outings. This has resulted in a tremendous increase in the use of
petrol, diesel and compressed natural gas (CNG). What do you suggest to control the use of
petrol, diesel and CNG? We could consider the following:
Use a car pool instead of individual cars to travel to work

Adopt petrol saving measures such as

* Drive at a slow and constant speed
* Minimise the use of brake and clutch

30
* Maintain proper air pressure in the tyres
* Prevent leakage of fuel at all costs
* Keep the engine well tuned.
Encourage installation of light sensitive switches and solar panels for street lights.

Discourage the use of neon lights for advertising. These can easily be replaced by using solar
panels which convert solar energy to electrical energy which lights up neon signs at night.

WHAT IS THE ALTERNATIVE?

We all agree that our prime concern today should be to utilise energy in such a manner that it can
be made to last for as long as possible. You can see from the chart given earlier that natural gas
and oil will soon run out. We may be able to stretch their use by adopting stringent conservation
methods. But what happens after that? We would be back at square one, unless we can think of
some alternatives.

Is there an alternative? Yes, there certainly is! You have already studied that energy is
renewable and non-renewable. If we want to stretch our non-renewable sources of energy we
have to supplement them with the renewable sources. Do you remember which are the renewable
sources of energy? Since the use of these sources is not widely prevalent today, we also refer to
them as nonconventional sources of energy. The non-renewable sources of energy are also
known as the conventional sources of energy.

ENERGY OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE

1. Biogas
Biogas is a product of fermentation of animal manure in the absence of air. It chiefly consists of
methane gas which can safely be used as a fuel for cooking, as well as lighting.
Ordinarily, a small biogas plant fed by the manure of 2-3 animals can produce enough gas for the
daily cooking and lighting needs of a family of four persons. In addition, biogas can be used to
pump water or run small motors of less horsepower.
Some other advantages are:
The sludge or digested waste is an excellent fertilizer and increases the yield of crops and
vegetables.
It keeps the environment around the house clean since all animal manure is fed into the biogas
plant.
It prevents eye and lung diseases caused due to smoke from firewood.
It conserves forests because wood is no longer used as fuel.
It generates employment to masons and labourers needed to set up more
biogas plants.
2. Solar Energy
Solar energy is available free of cost and is absolutely non-polluting. It has been available to
mankind for centuries but it is only recently that technological advancements have been made to
trap and effectively utilise this energy. Some of the ways in which solar energy is being used
today are:
(a) Solar cooker - This is a shallow, square box with black sides and bottom and a glass top.
When the black bottom is hit by sunlight passing through the glass top, it gets heated up. When

31
food is kept inside the box, it gets cooked by this heat.

Some advantages of using a solar cooker are:

Fuel cost is reduced. Regular use preserves an average of 2 kg of combustible wood per day!
It is totally safe to use - there is no fire, no leaking gas and no electric shocks
It does not require constant attention.
It can cook up to four dishes at a time.
It is very easy to use.
Use a solar cooker to cook your family’s meal!
b) Solar lighting - Ordinary daylight is transformed to electrical energy with the help of solar
cells. These solar cells produce electricity according to the amount of sunlight falling on them.
When chemical storage batteries are used along with these cells, the excess energy produced on
sunny days is stored for use on cloudy days.
Solar cells are used to produce lighting in
(i) Streets
(ii) Homes
(iii) Neon sign for advertising

(c) Solar heating - Heat energy from the sun is being used in various ways today. It is used to:
Heat water for bathing purposes in home, hotels and hostels
Provide central heating in homes, hotels and hostels
Make salted water fit for drinking purpose
Dry timber, crops and fish in solar furnaces
Provide refrigeration in small, specially designed refrigerators. These are specially useful in
keeping life-saving drugs at a low temperature and in preserving perishable agricultural produce
like fruits and vegetables and milk and its products.
3. Hydel Energy
‘Hydel’ refers to water. Surely, all of you must have heard of big hydroelectric projects in our
country like Bhakra-Nangal Project or the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), etc. These are
enormous projects set up at the cost of crores of rupees and they generate lots of electricity. With
the growing demand for electricity, the need to set up more such projects is being felt. But since
most of the major sites on the big rivers have already been used for the purpose, there is very
little scope of setting up more big projects. Then, what is the alternative? We have to now devise
and set up microhydel projects.
It is realised that a small quantity of water falling from a great height can produce as much power
as a large quantity of water falling from a much shorter height. Thus, the smaller rivers can be
used to set up microhydel projects. The advantages of installing such micro projects are:
They do not require heavy investment on installation.
They are comparatively easy to maintain.
They can be set up to supply electricity locally to geographically far flung areas which are not
covered by the national grid system.
Local supply of electricity reduces cost of distribution.

Decentralization of power production and supply eases pressure on the larger power projects.
4. Wind Energy
Man has been using wind energy since a long time now - to sail boats on water, to grind grain by
setting up wind mills, etc. Now, growing technological advancement has made it possible to

32
generate electricity by using wind power. Let us see how this is done. A very simple structure
consisting of blades or propellers and a direction controller is mounted on a high tower. The
wind machine is fixed in an open area. When the wind blows, the propellers rotate and generate
electricity in the generator to which they are connected.
The amount of energy generated depends upon the wind speed. A two fold increase in wind
speed results in an eight fold increase in energy produced. It is estimated that an average wind
speed of 20km/hr is essential for economical electricity production whereas a windspeed of
10km/hr is sufficient to work windpumps.
Some of the advantages of using wind energy are:

 it is absolutely free and non-polluting

 it can be used to generate and supply electricity in geographically isolated or hilly areas
wind machines are cheap to set up and maintain.

5. Hydrogen – A Future Source of Energy

Hydrogen could be a very environmentally friendly source of energy in the future. In the long-
term, hydrogen is likely to reduce dependence on conventional sources of energy such as petrol,
diesel and coal etc. In addition to it, the use of hydrogen as source of energy will help in
reducing the emission of greenhouse gases and other pollutants.

When hydrogen is burned, the only emission it makes is water vapour, so a key advantage of
hydrogen is that when burned, carbon dioxide (CO2) is not produced. Thus, we can say that
hydrogen does not pollute the air. Hydrogen has the potential to run a fuel-cell engine with
greater efficiency over an internal combustion engine.

The same amount of hydrogen will take a fuel-cell car at least twice as far as a car running on
gasoline.

Though, the hydrogen fuel cell has proved to be a viable source of energy for vehicles, but there
are serious questions on its production, storage and distribution. There are also questions on its
efficiency, in so far as it takes more energy to manufacture it than what it produces. Besides, it
costs a considerable amount of money to run a hydrogen vehicle because it takes a large amount
of energy to liquefy the fuel.

Hydrogen is one of the most abundant elements in the universe. It is the lightest element, and it is
a gas at normal temperature and pressure. Hydrogen as a gas is not found naturally on Earth,
because hydrogen gas is lighter than air and rises into the atmosphere. Natural hydrogen is
always associated with other elements

in compound form such as water, coal and petroleum.

Be Non-conventional!
What are the advantages of using the non-conventional sources of energy?
1. There is a never-ending supply.

33
2. These are easily available.
3. Production and use of non-conventional energy is always pollution free and
leaves the environment clean.
4. These are locally produced. Hence there is low cost of distribution.
5. Energy production units can be started on a small scale. Hence, heavy investment is not
required.
6. Job opportunities for the local people are opened up.

Questions

1. List at least four advantages of using non-conventional sources of energy.

2. Name the chief constituent of biogas.
3. List two uses of biogas.
4. Name the device used to transform daylight to electrical energy.
2. 1.What is the difference between a big hydro-electric project and micro hydel
project?
2. List five benefits of setting up a micro hydel project.
3. State the advantages of using non-conventional sources of energy.
3. 1. Explain with examples what you understand by the term ‘energy’.
2. Give two examples each of renewable and non-renewable sources of energy
in your locality.
3. List five suggestions you would give a housewife to conserve energy in her
home.
4. 1.List at least three reasons behind the energy crisis in our country

2.“Sun is the ultimate source of energy”. Justify this statement.

3.What measures should be taken to mitigate the problem of energy crisis in our country?

Energy Strategy for the Future

The energy strategy for the future could be classified into immediate, medium-term
and long- term strategy. The various components of these strategies are listed below:
Immediate-term strategy:
• Rationalizing the tariff structure of various energy products.
• Optimum utilization of existing assets

Efficiency in production systems and reduction in distribution losses, including

those in traditional energy sources.
• Promoting R&D, transfer and use of technologies and practices for environmentally sound
energy systems, including new and renewable energy sources.
Medium-term strategy:
• Demand management through greater conservation of energy, optimum fuel mix,

34
structural changes in the economy, an appropriate model mix in the transport
sector, i.e. greater dependence on rail than on road for the movement of goods and
passengers and a shift away from private modes to public modes for passenger
transport; changes in design of different products to reduce the material intensity of
those products, recycling, etc.
• There is need to shift to less energy-intensive modes of transport. This would
include measures to improve the transport infrastructure viz. roads, better design of
vehicles, use of compressed natural gas (CNG) and synthetic fuel, etc. Similarly,
better urban planning would also reduce the demand for energy use in the
transport sector.
• There is need to move away from non-renewable to renewable energy sources viz.
solar, wind, biomass energy, etc.
Long-term strategy:
Efficient generation of energy resources
• Efficient production of coal, oil and natural gas
• Reduction of natural gas flaring
Improving energy infrastructure
• Building new refineries
• Creation of urban gas transmission and distribution network
• Maximizing efficiency of rail transport of coal production.
• Building new coal and gas fired power stations.
Enhancing energy efficiency

• Improving energy efficiency in accordance with national, socio-economic, and environ-mental

priorities
• Promoting of energy efficiency and emission standards
• Labeling programs for products and adoption of energy efficient technologies in large
industries
Deregulation and privatization of energy sector
• Reducing cross subsidies on oil products and electricity tariffs
• Decontrolling coal prices and making natural gas prices competitive
• Privatization of oil, coal and power sectors for improved efficiency.
Investment legislation to attract foreign investments.
• Streamlining approval process for attracting private sector participation in power generation,
transmission and distribution .

Nigerian Energy Senario

Nigeria’s energy mix primarily consist of the following sources:

The Nigerian government has been exploring ways to diversify the energy mix, promote energy
efficiency, and increase access to electricity, especially in rural and underserved areas. This
includes initiatives to attract investment in renewable energy projects, improve infrastructure,
and enhance regulatory frameworks to support sustainable energy development. The following
are the major energy mix in Nigeria.

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1. Oil: Nigeria is a major oil-producing country and relies heavily on oil for both domestic
consumption and export revenue. Oil plays a significant role in the country's energy mix,
powering various sectors such as transportation, industry, and electricity generation.

2. Natural Gas: Nigeria possesses significant reserves of natural gas, which is increasingly
being utilized for electricity generation, industrial processes, and domestic use. The government
has been promoting the development of the natural gas sector to diversify the energy mix and
reduce dependence on oil.

3. Hydroelectric Power: Nigeria has several hydroelectric power plants, with major
installations such as the Kainji Dam and the Jebba Dam on the Niger River. These hydroelectric
facilities contribute a substantial portion of the country's electricity generation capacity,
particularly during the rainy season when water levels are high.

4. Renewable Energy: While still relatively small compared to conventional sources,

renewable energy, including solar and wind power, is gradually gaining traction in Nigeria. The
government has initiated various projects and policies to promote renewable energy
development, aiming to diversify the energy mix, increase energy access, and reduce greenhouse
gas emissions.

5. Coal: Coal used to play a more significant role in Nigeria's energy mix, particularly in
electricity generation. However, its share has decreased over the years due to environmental
concerns and efforts to transition to cleaner sources of energy. Nigeria possesses significant coal
reserves, but exploitation has been limited.

6. Biomass: Biomass, including firewood, charcoal, and agricultural residues, remains an

essential energy source in Nigeria, particularly in rural areas where access to modern energy
services is limited. However, reliance on traditional biomass sources poses environmental and
health challenges.

Table 1 presents some of the Nigerian fossil fuel available quantity as of 2015

Fossil energy resources and nuclear energy resources. Source: NNPC (2010) and
CBN (2010)
S/ Resources Reserves Production Domestic Utilization (2010)
N (2010)
1 Crude oil 37 billion barrels 0.896 0.164 billion barrels
billion
barrels
2 Natural 187 Tscf 2.392 Tscf 75.7%—fuel, industries, re-
gas injection and gas lift. 24.3%—
gas flare
3 Coal 2.7 billion tonnes 0 Negligible

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 4 Tar sands 31 billion barrels 0 0.224 million tonnes
of oil equivalent
5 Nuclear Yet to be 0 30 kW experimental nuclear
quantified reactor

For over twenty years prior to 1990, the power sector did not witness substantial investment in
infrastructural development. During that period, new plants were not constructed and the existing
ones were not properly maintained, bringing the power sector to a deplorable state.
In 2001, generation went down from the installed capacity of about 5600 MW to an average of
about 1750MW, as compared to a load demand of 6000MW. Also, only nineteen out of the
seventy-nine installed generating units were in operation.
Presently, the government is trying to build and upgrade existing ones to make the power sector
have some burst. This has yielded some effort through state governments, federal and some
independent power producers (IPP). As at 2005 the grid electricity generation was given at
31.30% for large hydro plants and 68.30 was accounted for by natural gas.

Energy mix for electricity supply depends largely on the sources of available energy and the
available quantity

ADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY OVER BURNING OF

FOSSIL FUELS FOR ELECTRICITY GENENERATION

The renewable sources of energy have the following advantages over burning of fossil fuels for
electricity generation:
1. They have little or no environmental challenge. The pollution arising in the case of thermal
stations from combustion of fuel is not environment friendly due to the fact that sulphur oxides,
heavy metals, radio-active elements, hydro carbons and large quantities of carbon dioxide are
emitted which leads to acid rain.
2. Renewable sources of energy are replenished naturally while Fossil fuels are finite and
nonrenewable.
3. In the case of burning of nuclear fuels as in nuclear reactors, radiation problems usually result.
And this is not good for the human health. In the case of accident, there are usually serious
health challenges that result.
.
POSSIBLE SHORT-TERM SOLUTION TO THE ENERGY PROBLEM IN NIGERIA
The possible short-term actions we think could be taken to improve the present fossil fuel-based
system include:
1. To upgrade the capacities of the available fossil fuel plants. This will help to meet the energy
need of the nation.
2. To decentralize the distribution of power from the national grid. Each state in Nigeria is
expected to have its own fossil fuel power plant in order to reduce the excessive load on the
national grid.
3. Nigerian Government is expected to subsidize the cost of solar cells for household usage.

Energy Consumption in Nigeria.

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The main areas of energy utilization are transportation and conversion of energy resources to
electricity for household and industry. Electricity, which is the most popular form of energy, was
first produced in Lagos in 1896- a 60KW of electricity.
In the prevailing energy crisis Nigeria’s energy consumption mix is dominated by over-
dependence on biomass, particularly fuel wood as depicted in figure 1: below. Combustible
renewable firewood inclusive has a record 80.2%, followed by natural gas 9.9% and oil 9.4%.
Hydroelectricity has only 0.5%. In spite of the fact that oil is the mainstay of the economy, its
contribution to the energy consumption mix is however appalling.

Energy Consumption
Figure 3 – 2 shows the total energy consumption by resources for Nigeria in 2012. Around 85%
of Nigeria’s consumed energy, 99.3 Mtoe annually, comes from biofuels and waste. Almost 90%
of that energy is consumed for residential usage. This means that biofuels and waste cover about
98% of the energy demand in the residential sector. The lion’s share of that most probably is for
cooking purposes, as only thus can the predominant proportion of biofuels and waste be
explained. The remaining energy in Figure 3 – 2 stems from conventional energy resources
(~13%), with most of it being reimported oil products.
The share of electricity in final energy consumption is almost marginal at less than 2%. The use
of biofuels is the single largest factor accounting for the change in the country’s vegetation and

38
the increase in desertification 4. Moreover, the problem will be compounded as the rural
population increases in line with the forecast rate of 2.5% p.a.

Energy Consumption
Figure 3 – 2 shows the total energy consumption by resources for Nigeria in 2012 [46]. Around
85% of Nigeria’s consumed energy, 99.3 Mtoe annually, comes from biofuels and waste. Almost
90% of that energy is consumed for residential usage. This means that biofuels and waste covers
about 98% of the energy demand in the residential sector. The lion’s share of that most probably
is for cooking purposes, as only thus can the predominant proportion of biofuels and waste be
explained. The remaining energy in Figure 3–2 stems from conventional energy resources
(~13%), with most of it being reimported oil products.
The share of electricity in final energy consumption is almost marginal at less than 2%. The use
of biofuels is the single largest factor accounting for the change in the country’s vegetation and
the increase in desertification 4. Moreover, the problem will be compounded as the rural
population increases in line with the forecast rate of 2.5% p.a.

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Electric Energy
The protons and electrons of an atom carry an electrical charge. Protons have a positive
charge (+) and electrons have a negative charge (-). Opposite charges attract each other.
The electrons in an atom’s outermost shells do not attract strongly to the protons and can
move from one atom to another and create electricity. The amount of electricity a power
plant generates or a customer uses over a period of time is measured in kilowatt hours
(kWh), which is equal to the energy of 1,000 W working for 1 h. For example, if you use
a 100-W light bulb for 7 h, you have used 700 Wh or 0.7 kWh of electrical energy.
Most of the electricity used in the residential sector is for air conditioning, refrigerators,
space and water heating, lighting, and powering appliances and equipment. Electricity is
the fastest growing form of end-use energy worldwide through 2030, as it has been over
the past several decades. Electricity is the most well-known energy carrier to transfer the
energy in coal, natural gas, uranium, wind power, and other energy sources to homes,
businesses, and industry. We also use electricity to transfer the energy in flowing water
from hydropower dams to consumers. For many energy needs, it is much easier to use
electricity than the energy sources themselves.
If the current passes through an electric appliance, some of the electric energy will be
converted into other forms of energy (although some will always be lost as heat). The
amount of electric energy, Ee, due to an electric current can be expressed in a number of
different ways:

where V is the electric potential difference (in volts), I is the current (in amperes), t is the
time for which the current flows (in seconds), and R is the electric resistance (in ohms).
In Alternating Current (AC) the direction of the flow of electrons switches back and forth
at regular intervals or cycles. Current flowing in power lines and normal household
electricity that comes from a wall outlet is alternating current. The standard current used
in the U.S. is 60 cycles per second (i.e., a frequency of 60 Hz); in Europe and most other

49
parts of the world it is 50 cycles per second (i.e., a frequency of 50 Hz). In Direct current
(DC), on the other hand, electrical current flows consistently in one direction. The current
that flows in a flashlight is direct current. One advantage of alternating current is that it is
relatively cheap to change the voltage of the current. Furthermore, the inevitable loss of
energy that occurs when current is carried over long distances is far smaller with
alternating current than with direct current.

A geothermal system requires heat, permeability, and water. The heat from the Earth's core
continuously flows outward. Sometimes the heat, as magma, reaches the surface as lava, but it usually
remains below the Earth's crust, heating nearby rock and water ó sometimes to levels as hot as 700°F.
When water is heated by the earth ís heat, hot water or steam can be trapped in permeable and porous
rocks under a layer of impermeable rock and a geothermal reservoir can form. This hot geothermal
water can manifest itself on the surface as hot springs or geysers, but most of it stays deep
underground, trapped in cracks and porous rock. This natural collection of hot water is called a
geothermal reservoir.

Area of applications

• Geothermal Electricity:

• Heating Uses
Briefly describe any three geothermal power plant

a. Flash Power Plant: Geothermally heated water under pressure is separated in a surface vessel
(called a steam separator) into steam and hot water (called ìbrineî in the accompanying image).
The steam is delivered to the turbine, and the turbine powers a generator. The liquid is injected
back into the reservoir.

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Flash Power Plant Diagram Dixie Valley, NV, Flash Plant

b. Dry Steam Power Plant: Steam is produced directly from the geothermal reservoir to run the
turbines that power the generator, and no separation is necessary because wells only produce
steam. The image below is a more simplified version of the process.

The Geysers, CA, Dry Steam Plant Dry Steam Plant Diagram

c. Binary Power Plant: Recent advances in geothermal technology have made possible the
economic production of electricity from geothermal resources lower than 150°C (302°F). Known
as binary geothermal plants, the facilities that make this possible reduce geothermal energyís
already low emission rate to zero. Binary plants typically use an Organic Rankine Cycle system.
The geothermal water (called ìgeothermal fluidî in the accompanying image) heats another
liquid, such as isobutane or other organic fluids such as pentafluoropropane,which boils at a
lower temperature than water. The two liquids are kept completely separate through the use of a
heat exchanger, which transfers the heat energy from the geothermal water to the working fluid.
The secondary fluid expands into gaseous vapor. The force of the expanding vapor, like steam,
turns the turbines that power the generators. All of the produced geothermal water is injected
back into the reservoir.

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Binary Power Plant Burdett, NV, Binary Power Plant

d. Flash/Binary Combined Cycle: This type of plant, which uses a combination of flash and
binary technology, has been used effectively to take advantage of the benefits of both
technologies. In this type of plant, the portion of the geothermal water which ìflashesî to steam
under reduced pressure is first converted to electricity with a backpressure steam turbine and the
low-pressure steam exiting the backpressure turbine is condensed in a binary system.

Flash/Binary Power Plant Diagram Puna, HI, Flash/Binary

• Distributed Generation: Geothermal applications can be sized and constructed at geographically

remote sites in order to meet on-site electricity demands. Examples of remote geothermal power
systems are at Chena Hot Springs in Alaska and at the Rocky Mountain Oil and Gas Testing
Center (RMOTC) in Wyoming. In the first, the unit powers a remote resort, in the second the
power supplies electricity to operate an oil field. For more information about the Chena Hot
Springs Project, visit

• Supercritical Cycles: Supercritical fluids are at a temperature and pressure that can diffuse
through solids. A supercritical fluid such as carbon dioxide can be pumped into an underground
formation to fracture the rock, thus creating a reservoir for geothermal energy production and

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heat transport. The supercritical fluid used to form the reservoir can heat up and expand, and is
then pumped out of the reservoir to transfer the heat to a surface power plant or other application.

Advantages of Geothermal Energy

1) It is a renewable source of energy.

2) By far, it is non-polluting and environment friendly.

3) There is no wastage or generation of by-products.

4) Geothermal energy can be used directly. In ancient times, people used this source of energy
for heating homes, cooking, etc.

5) Maintenance cost of geothermal power plants is very less.

6) Geothermal power plants don't occupy too much space and thus help in protecting natural
environment.

7) Unlike solar energy, it is not dependent on the weather conditions.

Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

1) Only few sites have the potential of Geothermal Energy.

2) Most of the sites, where geothermal energy is produced, are far from markets or cities, where
it needs to be consumed.

3) Total generation potential of this source is too small.

4) There is always a danger of eruption of volcano.

5) Installation cost of steam power plant is very high.

6) There is no guarantee that the amount of energy which is produced will justify the capital
expenditure and operations costs.

7) It may release some harmful, poisonous gases that can escape through the holes drilled during
construction.

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