Proceedings of the 18th INDIACom; INDIACom-2024; IEEE Conference ID: 61295

2024 11 International Conference on “Computing for Sustainable Global Development”, 28th Feb. – 1st Mar., 2024
th

Bharati Vidyapeeth's Institute of Computer Applications and Management (BVICAM), New Delhi (INDIA)

Improving Lung and Colon Cancer Detection using

Ensemble Method Approach
Jessica Singh Syal Achin Jain Arun Kumar Dubey
Dept. of Information Technology Dept. of Information Technology Dept. of Information Technology
Bharati Vidyapeeth’s College of Bharati Vidyapeeth’s College of Bharati Vidyapeeth’s College of
Engineering Engineering Engineering
New Delhi, India New Delhi, India New Delhi, India
jessicasinghsyalwork@gmail.com achin.mails@gmail.com arudubey@gmail.com

Vanita Jain
Department of Electronic Science
University of Delhi
New Delhi, India
vjain@electronics.du.ac.in

Abstract— Cancer is recognised to represent an extremely I. INTRODUCTION

high risk of mortality, despite enormous developments having
been made in science and medicine. Characterized by widespread
metastases, malignant cells spread rapidly and evade drugs,
making it a fatal disease with little treatment success. Cancer cells
have a heterogeneous nature that makes them resistant to
chemotherapy and other forms of radiation. Across the globe,
cancer stands to be the second most leading cause of death.
Among the many types, lung and colon cancer are the most
common and have the highest mortality rate. Early and accurate
detection of tumor cells in lung and colon cancer patients can help
the medical industry increase patient survival statistics. This
study focuses on improving the current state of technology
assisted lung and colon cancer detection. A large dataset of 25,000
histopathological photographs of lung and colon tissues is
analyzed to build a Deep-learning model using the Ensemble
Method approach for accurate and reliable cancer detection. To
increase efficiency, the photos are divided into a total of five
different classes. The methodology underlying the study aims to
increase the detection accuracy by building a model which learns
from pre-existing models in the field; thus displaying superiority
in terms of predictive power. The core concept of transfer
learning is used to leverage the knowledge of pre-trained models
and create better and improved ensemble models. The study
includes comprehensive data preprocessing, augmentation, model
training, validation and testing, and model performance
evaluation. With a high accuracy of 0.96, this model achieved high
reliability in detecting cancer cells. This effort holds the potential
to improve cancer diagnosis through efficient and accurate
classification of medical images. Using pre-trained models is an
efficient and effective approach to reduce the time and resources
required to develop high-accuracy models.
Keywords— Classification Models, Lung Disease, Colon cancer,
Lung and Colon Disease, Histopathological Images, Deep
Learning, Transfer Learning, Machine Learning.
Cancer stands to be the second most prevalent contributor
to mortality across the globe. In the year 2020 alone, a
staggering 19 million [1] new cases were registered, and an
unfortunate albeit huge number of 9.95 million fatalities
incurred overall. The root cause of this formidable disease is
the unrestricted growth and aggressive replication of the
damaged cells, thereby resulting in the formation of tumors,
which may manifest as either malignant or benign. One of the
major factors that amplifies the general susceptibility to cancer
is genetic inheritance and underestimating the importance of
regular and consistent medical checkups to facilitate early
detection.
However, the burgeoning challenge in the battle against
this disease lies in the mounting high costs associated with
detection systems, a situation which is even more staggering
when it comes to the low and middle-income countries, which
is the sector where the majority of cancer-related deaths occur.
It is in these socio-economic strata where the majority of the
fatalities are reported due to lung and colon cancer [2], further
accentuating the need for accessible as well as cost-efficient
screening models to reduce the devastating impact of this
ailment.
To address this daunting issue, modern-day technologies
like Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL) have
been applied in pathology [3] for the primary purpose of
diagnoses and detection of diseases as well as the development
of a smart and reliable prescription system. DL models [4],
including pre-trained architectures [5] like EfficientNetB7,
PretrainedModel2, InceptionV3, DenseNet201, and ResNet50,
are used in this research to classify biomedical images. To
enhance the productivity of the project, we employed an
ensemble model [6] to improve the accuracy of an initially

Copyright © INDIACom-2024; ISBN: 978-93-80544-51-9 1770

 Proceedings of the 18th INDIACom; INDIACom-2024; IEEE Conference ID: 61295
2024 11 International Conference on “Computing for Sustainable Global Development”, 28th Feb. – 1st Mar., 2024
th
low-performing model by using the averaging method; we
combined the predictions of multiple individual models into a
single, more robust predictive model. This ensemble approach
helped mitigate the limitations of the individual models and
leveraged their collective knowledge to achieve higher
accuracy. The resulting ensemble model demonstrated
improved performance and enhanced the overall accuracy of
our classification system for cancer detection.
The study comprises a meticulous and comprehensive
approach to data preprocessing, involving the fine and
complex task of refinement as well as the organization of vast
amounts of data to extract the pertinent features by deploying
appropriate feature engineering techniques. This foundational
phase lays the base for the development of the subsequent
stages, while at the same time ensuring the quality, accuracy,
and relevance of the information which is fed into the system.
This research dives into the intricate depths of model training,
where a wide array of sophisticated algorithms and models are
employed to allow the system to be able to discern and
differentiate between the complex patterns and relationships
within the data.
Model Validation is an indispensable part of the process of
development. It involves putting the trained model through a
rigorous and well-rounded assessment against different
datasets. This is a crucial step that provides the necessary
guarantee related to the accuracy and efficiency of the system.
The evaluation metrics employed in the research ensure
precision and provide the model with a nuanced understanding
of the different features of the disease in the human body.
The integration of Deep Learning (DL) and Machine
Learning (ML) [7] methods and the careful examination and
evaluation of pre-trained models are two of this study's most
unique aspects. This methodology allows us to identify and
evade the loopholes and cons of an existing model and only
include the positives of a given model under consideration.
The project involves rigorous data preprocessing, model
training, validation, and testing, with evaluation based on
accuracy, precision, and loss curves. By leveraging DL and
pre-trained models, this research aims to enhance cancer
diagnosis [8] and treatment. This model successfully
revolutionizes the detection of lung and colon cancer, assisting
in the process of early diagnosis, identification, and subsequent
treatment. Our work establishes a solid foundation for the use
of DL and ML [9] models in the treatment of lung and colon
cancer in the healthcare sector.
II. RELATED WORK
Studies on malicious Cancer detection by making use of
the signature sets have been put under thorough investigation
and utilized for a lengthy time in the past. Most of this research
often uses lists of recognized malicious Cancers. As soon as
the module encounters a new cancer, a database query is
initiated. If the cancer is found to be blacklisted, it is then
regarded as malicious, and a warning is generated.
Sirinukunwattana et al. [10] proposed a spatially
constrained neural network achieving 97.1% accuracy for
Copyright © INDIACom-2024; ISBN: 978-93-80544-51-9
colon cancer nucleus detection. Shein et al. [11] developed an
architecture based on ML without segmentation or feature
extraction methods, achieving 87.14% accuracy for lung
nodule classification. Three deep structured algorithms,
including CNN, achieved 89% accuracy for lung nodule
feature extraction [12]. Selvanambi et al. [13] achieved 98%
accuracy for lung cancer detection using RNN with DLS and
glowworm swarm optimization. Filho et al. [14] made use of
segmented imaging and CNN for processing the lung nodule
CT scans and achieved 92.6% accuracy for classification.
Yuan et al. [15] applied CNN with preprocessing techniques
such as edge detection and intensity adjustments, obtaining
91.4% accuracy for polyp detection in colonoscopy videos. In
CT images, benign and malignant lung nodules were classified
with 92.8% accuracy using RestNet50 and SVM with RBF
kernel [16].
The DFCNet model, which is based on deep CNN, was
proposed by Masood et al. [17] and achieved 84.5% accuracy
in pulmonary nodule classification. Faster R-CNN was
employed by Mo et al. [18] to detect polyps in colonoscopy
recordings, with an average accuracy of 98.5% across four
datasets. With 96.4% accuracy, Urban et al. [19] created deep
CNNs for polyp identification in colonoscopy pictures.
Binarized weights were applied to reduce network size [20],
achieving 90.28% accuracy for colonoscopy frame
classification. A combined learning comprehensive neural
network optimized with AdaBoost obtained 98.42% accuracy
in recognising normal and abnormal lung shapes after wolf
heuristic features [21] were chosen to minimize
dimensionality.
An eight-layer CNN architecture was suggested by Suresh
and Mohan [22] to categorize CT images of lung lesions into
three categories. They used generative adversarial networks for
both data augmentation and picture segmentation. With 93.9%
classification accuracy, the model performed well. Masud et al.
[23] introduced a lightweight CNN approach for pulmonary
nodule detection. Their model, consisting of four convolutional
layers, demonstrated a high accuracy of 97.9% and was
suitable for real-time CT image analysis. A pre-processing
technique [24] preserving image brightness and reducing noise
was used for lung cancer CT scans. An improved neural
network performed region segmentation and feature extraction,
followed by an ensemble classifier for classification, achieving
an accuracy of 96.2%. Pre-trained CNNs (ResNet-50, ResNet-
34, and ResNet-18) were used by Bukhari et al. [25] to assess
colonic cancer histopathology pictures. Their ensemble
approach achieved an accuracy of 96.4%.With a 97.8%
classification accuracy, Mangal et al. [26] used a shallow
neural network to classify digital pathology pictures of lung
and colon squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. In
order to classify lung cancer [27]histopathology pictures,
Hatuwal and Thapa [28] used a CNN [29], achieving accuracy
of 96.11% in training and 97.2% in validation.
Yamini et al.[30] created a unique machine learning model
that analyzes lung cancer datasets with the use of Gradient
Boosting, KNN, LR, DT, RF, SVM, and XGB classifier
models. An automated system-based classifier was explored
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Improving Lung and Colon Cancer Detection using Ensemble Method Approach

and developed by Bishnoi et al. [31] which further elaborated models. Augmentation techniques were applied to increase the
upon a different approach to malignancy detection. In a recent dataset size and enhance model generalization. A sample of
study conducted by Gayap et al. [32] Deep Learning was the dataset used to train the model is shown in Table 1,
applied to diagnose lung cancer which demonstrated high which lists the main characteristics of the tissue under
potential and precision. Numerous approaches have been analysis and its classification into five distinct categories.
investigated by researchers, such as convolutional neural
networks with preprocessing techniques, recurrent neural
networks with optimization algorithms, and spatially restricted
neural networks. Impressive classification accuracies have
been achieved by these methods for identifying malignant
tumors in medical imaging data, including CT scans and
pathology pictures.
In summary, the combined findings demonstrate the critical
role that DL and ML play in the development of cancer
detection methods. By harnessing the power of computer
algorithms, researchers are making enormous strides towards
more accurate, efficient, and readily available diagnostic tools
for the battle against cancer.
III. PROPOSED SYSTEM
The primary objective is the seamless integration and
assimilation of pre-trained architectural frameworks, combined
with an efficient and meticulous data pre-processing pipeline,
specialized model training, validation, and exhaustive
protocols to perform testing. The augmentation that acts as the
pivot to this comprehensive framework lies in the strategic
incorporation of an ensemble model, which is an advanced
amalgamation of different individual models, designed Fig. 1. Flowchart of deployed Methodology
particularly to increase the accuracy and reliability of the
cancer detection system. The core of this endeavor revolves TABLE I. DESCRIPTION OF THE EMPLOYED DATASET
around the prediction of malignant cells in the lungs and colon, Image Type Class ID Class Title Total Images
distinguishing between them with a high level of accuracy.
Colon Adenocarcinoma 0 Colon_aca 5000
The progression through the following structured steps is what
Colon Benign 1 Colon_n 5000
forms the backbone of the approach followed in this research:
Lung Adenocarcinoma 2 Lung_aca 5000
 Data Preprocessing Lung Benign 3 Lung_n 5000
 Model Selection and training. Lung Squamous Cell
4 Lung_scc 5000
Carcinoma
 Validation and Hyper-parameter Tuning
The histopathological pictures, of the distinct tissue types
 Performance Evaluation that the model analyzes to classify the cancer, are shown in
Fig. 2.
 Ensemble Model
 Testing and Evaluation
The methodological approach used to create the ensemble
model for this research project is depicted in Fig. 1.
A. Data Preprocessing
1) Data cleaning, normalization, and augmentation:
Inconsistencies in data including noise, outliers etc, were
handled efficiently to ensure a well-rounded data cleaning
process, which formed the backbone of our model. Data
normalization was performed to ensure consistency in the data,
which then led to improvement in the performance of the
model. A meticulous procedure was employed to conduct the
refinement and structuring of the raw data to retrieve the Fig. 2. Histopathological images [33] from dataset: (a) Lung
essential features. This process ensured the integrity of the Adenocarcinoma. (b) Lung benign. (c) Lung squamous cell. (d) Colon
dataset for model training being conducted in subsequent adenocarcinoma. (e) Colon benign

Copyright © INDIACom-2024; ISBN: 978-93-80544-51-9 1772

 Proceedings of the 18th INDIACom; INDIACom-2024; IEEE Conference ID: 61295
2024 11 International Conference on “Computing for Sustainable Global Development”, 28th Feb. – 1st Mar., 2024
th

B. Model Selection and Training

1) Pre-trained architectures:
EfficientNetB7, PretrainedModel2, InceptionV3,
DenseNet201, and ResNet50 were chosen as the base models
due to their proven effectiveness in image classification tasks.
These models have been pre-trained on large-scale datasets and
have learned rich representations of various features.
2) Transfer learning:
The pre-trained models were used as the starting point, and
their weights were fine-tuned specifically for the task of cancer
detection. This approach enabled the developed ensemble
model to leverage the knowledge gained from the pre-training,
which led to faster convergence and improved performance.
C. Validation & Hyperparameter Tuning
The dataset was divided into subgroups for the purpose of
training and validation. The training subset was where the
models were trained, and the validation subset was where the
models were assessed and improved iteratively.
The learning rate, batch size, and regularization strength
were among the hyperparameters that were modified to find
the ideal configuration that maximized the models'
performance on the validation set. Model generalization was Fig. 3. Architecture of Ensemble Model
improved by this process, which prevented overfitting as well
as underfitting. IV. EXPERIMENTATION AND RESULTS
D. Performance Evaluation Evaluation Metrics that have been inculcated in this study
A variety of metrics, including loss curves, accuracy, and are as follows: Accuracy, Recall, F-1 Score.
precision, were used to assess how well the trained model Leveraging the collective intelligence extracted from
functioned. Loss curves showed the convergence and stability earlier models, the ensemble model was methodically created.
of the training process, accuracy gauged the overall correctness With a well-chosen dataset of twenty-five thousand carefully
of the predictions, and precision evaluated the model's capacity selected photos, the model was rigorously trained. The dataset
to accurately identify cancer patients. was carefully cleaned and preprocessed before training to
E. Ensemble Model guarantee that it was of the best quality possible for the model
to absorb. By using data augmentation approaches, the
Ensemble construction methods such as averaging or preparation phase's sophistication was increased and the
voting, were employed to combine the predictions of dataset’s efficiency was improved. After the training process
individual models. These methods helped to mitigate the concluded, the ensemble model demonstrated high recall and
Limitations of individual models and make more robust F-1 scores of 0.94 and 0.95, respectively, and excellent
predictions. Fig. 3 represents the structure of the Ensemble accuracy of 0.96. These measurements, however, were
model with distinct input layers that were put under analysis to representative of the model's performance in its unaltered
improve model performance. condition. Even more encouraging outcomes from further
F. Testing and Evaluation augmentation operations were obtained, with final accuracy,
recall, and F-1 scores coming in at 0.98, 0.97, and 0.96,
1) Independent Dataset respectively.
The developed models were tested on a separate and
independent dataset that was not used during training or Fig.4 depicts a flowchart that represents the foundational
validation. This ensured the models’ ability to generalize new development of the ensemble model using the existing, pre-
and unseen data. trained architectures.
The Assessment of the models involved evaluating their
2) Evaluation Metrics
performance on the testing dataset, which is a critical phase of
The models' performance on the testing dataset was development where their efficiency was scrutinized using
evaluated using various metrics, such as accuracy, precision, wide-ranging metrics like accuracy, precision, and other
and other relevant measures. These evaluations provided pertinent measures. The application of a Wide variety of
insights into the models' accuracy and reliability in detecting metrics to assess the quality of the model proved to be a
cancerous patterns in real-world scenarios. beneficial and successful technique to build an advantageous
system that allowed it to make crucial decisions with a small

Copyright © INDIACom-2024; ISBN: 978-93-80544-51-9 1773

Improving Lung and Colon Cancer Detection using Ensemble Method Approach

number of false positives, specifically in an industry as

intricate as healthcare and medicine. Such evaluations turned
out to be indispensable in affirming the theoretical capabilities
of the system as well as in analyzing their hands-on practical
utility and reliability. These measures were taken to ensure that
the model can provide real-world solutions to the rising
problem of cancer detection and treatment with a high degree
of sophistication and precision in the outcome.

Fig. 5. Comparative validation accuracy curve

Fig. 4. Flowchart representing development of Ensemble Model

TABLE II. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MODELS

Augmentation
Model Accuracy Recall F1-Score
Parameter
Raw 0.97 0.96 0.95
EfficientNet
Augmented 0.98 0.97 0.98
Raw 0.95 0.93 0.94
VGG16
Augmented 0.96 0.95 0.95
Raw 0.94 0.93 0.93
Inception V3
Augmented 0.96 0.95 0.95
Raw 0.95 0.93 0.94
DenseNet20
Augmented 0.96 0.95 0.95
Raw 0.95 0.94 0.94
ResNet50
Augmented 0.96 0.95 0.95
Ensemble Raw 0.96 0.94 0.95
Model Fig. 6. Comparative validation losses curve
Augmented 0.98 0.97 0.96

Table II shows the ensemble model and other pre-trained
architectures' comparative performance metrics. Each model's
efficacy is displayed in the table using its accuracy, recall, and
F-1 score. It is noteworthy that the ensemble model performs
better than the individual architectures in every category, with
improved metrics.
Fig. 5 represents the Comparative Validation Accuracy
curve representing the higher accuracy of the Ensemble Model
which was developed in this study, as compared to the other
pre-existing models.
Fig. 6 is a graph representing the validation loss curve of
all the models considered in the study along with the curve of
the developed Ensemble Model. The loss curve depicts the
evolution of the validation loss incurred over successive
iterations of the model.
These are the respective comparative validation accuracy
and loss curves which help assess the ability of the model to
generalize and make accurate predictions on unseen data; and
to provide insights into the effectiveness of the model's
learning and optimization.

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 Proceedings of the 18th INDIACom; INDIACom-2024; IEEE Conference ID: 61295
2024 11 International Conference on “Computing for Sustainable Global Development”, 28th Feb. – 1st Mar., 2024
th
This empirical progression highlights the ensemble model's
clear advantage. Outlining the experimental method that served
as the foundation for the examination of certain model
performance indicators and the augmentation tactics that
followed is crucial. Every component model was carefully
assessed, examining its innate advantages and disadvantages.
Making use of the collective knowledge gained from the
various models, the final ensemble model was carefully
constructed, combining the advantageous aspects of its
predecessors. Consequently, a thorough process of empirical
research, iterative refinement, and strategic combination of
model features supported the ensemble model's developmental
trajectory in this work and resulted in a strong and superior
model paradigm.
V. CONCLUSION
The main aim of this study was to detect lung and colon
cancer accurately, and efficiently using a reliable and robust
model that has been trained using a vast dataset and provides
precise results on real-world data. Transfer learning was
employed to fulfill this purpose and detect cancer in the
patients by training the model on a dataset of 25,000
histopathology images of lung and colon cancer tissues. The
project involved a comprehensive comparative analysis of the
various cancer detection models using an ensemble approach
and pre-trained architectures, namely EfficientNetB7,
PretrainedModel2, InceptionV3, DenseNet201, and ResNet50.
The objective was to enhance the overall performance and
improve the metrics of model testing which were deployed to
ensure a sophisticated and highly precise system of cancer
detection. We leveraged the qualities and collective knowledge
of multiple models that have been developed in the past for the
same or similar purposes. After doing thorough testing and
analysis, we found that the ensemble model performed better
than the individual model. The ensemble approach allowed us
to leverage the strengths of each pre-trained architecture and
mitigate their limitations, resulting in enhanced accuracy and
robust predictions. The developed Ensemble Model had a high
accuracy of 0.98 which was superior to the other models
assessed. A highly precise result was obtained for the real-time
data fed into the model with a recall value of 0.96. Our
comparative analysis involved various metrics, including
accuracy and loss curves, to evaluate the performance of the
models. These metrics provided valuable insights into the
effectiveness of each model and helped us make informed
decisions during the ensemble model construction.
The conclusions and discoveries made in this research
initiative enhance machine-learning approaches in pathology
and have the potential to improve illness diagnostics and
intelligent prescribing programs. The research route in
question presents significant potential for enhancing the
model's outlier tolerance and delving deeper into the
Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) as a potential solution.
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