A 1.

2 – Nucleic Acids (AHL)

“How does the structure of nucleic acids allow
hereditary information to be stored?”

“How does the structure of DNA facilitate accurate replication?”

Learning Objectives
A.1.2.11 Include 5' to 3' linkages in the sugar–phosphate backbone and their
Directionality of RNA and DNA
AHL significance for replication, transcription and translation.
Adenine–thymine (A–T) and cytosine–guanine (C–G) pairs have
A.1.2.12 Purine-to-pyrimidine bonding as a
equal length, so the DNA helix has the same three-dimensional
AHL component of DNA helix stability
structure, regardless of the base sequence.
Limit to a DNA molecule wrapped around a core of eight histone
A.1.2.13
Structure of a nucleosome proteins held together by an additional histone protein attached to
AHL
linker DNA.
Evidence from the Hershey–Chase Students should understand how the results of the experiment
A.1.2.14
experiment for DNA as the genetic support the conclusion that DNA is the genetic material.
AHL
material
Chargaff’s data on the relative
A.1.2.15
amounts of pyrimidine and purine
AHL
bases across diverse life forms
 https://library.cshl.edu/Buildings/build.php?building_code=hersh&picid=
Evidence from the Hershey–Chase experiment
In 1952, Dr. Hershey and his assistant, Martha
Chase, performed one of the most famous
experiments in modern biology, which
confirmed the concept that DNA is the material
basis for heredity. The structure of the DNA was
discovered one year later by Watson & Crick.

The T2 phage
virus as a basis
for research.

For a long time it was not clear whether protein or DNA is the
genetic material. It was known that chromosomes are composed
of DNA and proteins, but the fact that proteins are made of 20
different amino acids and could have more complexity compared
to the 4 bases of DNA, made them the more likely candidate.
 Evidence from the Hershey–Chase experiment
In their experiment, Hershey and Chase took advantage of radioactive isotopes of Sulfur
(35S) and phosphorus (32P), knowing that DNA and proteins could be distinguished that
way. Isotopes are atoms of elements with the same number of protons, but different
number of neutrons. While isotopes have the same chemical properties, the stability of
them might be different. Unstable isotopes release energy in the form of radiation.

How could the radioactive isotopes 35S and 32P help to identify genetic material?
https://customequinenutrition.com/blogs/nutrients/intro-to-protein-amino-acids

Proteins: Composed of amino acids – some of which DNA: Contains

contain sulfur. None of them contains phosphorus. phosphorus, but no sulfur
Evidence from the Hershey–Chase experiment

https://jackwestin.com/resources/mcat-content/evidence-that-dna-is-genetic-material/evidence-that-dna-is-genetic-material
How did Hershey and Chase`s experiment provide evidence for DNA
being the only genetic material?
Evidence from the Hershey–Chase experiment
Purine-to-pyrimidine bonding ensures DNA stability
In the space below, draw a detailed (2D) diagram of the DNA double helix
Purine-to-pyrimidine bonding ensures DNA stability
The nitrogenous bases in DNA are composed
of either two rings (Adenine and Guanine) and
are then called purines. If they are composed
of only one ring (Cytosine, Thymine and
Uracil), they are referred to as pyrimidines.

Pyrimidine

http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/pix/nucleotides.jpg
Purines

https://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/iGen3_02-08_Figure-L.jpg
 Purine-to-pyrimidine bonding ensures DNA stability
DNA is composed of an equal number of purines (A + G) and pyrimidines (C + T)
and X-ray diffraction studies showed that the DNA helix was tightly packed. This
tight packing is only possible if a pyrimidine is paired with a purine…
… and if the bases are upside down
in relation to one another.
http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lectures/04_06a_DNA_structure-L.jpg

A=T

Only purine – pyrimidine pairs fit

inside the double helix without
leaving a gap or bulge. This is
responsible for complementary base
pairing between A – T and G – C. G C
Purine-to-pyrimidine bonding ensures DNA stability

https://youtu.be/0E4p34mqJbg
Purine-to-pyrimidine bonding ensures DNA stability
Tight bonding between

http://image.slidesharecdn.com/ppa6lecturech16-100309091651-phpapp02/95/ppa6-lecture-ch-16-42-728.jpg?cb=1268126300
complementary base pairs is
enhanced through
electrochemical attraction and
the formation of hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen
acceptors
Hydrogen donors

The number of partial positive and negative charges

between pairs of complementary bases determine
the number of hydrogen bonds between them.
Chargaff’s data on the relative amounts of pyrimidine
and purine bases across diverse life forms
For a long time scientists thought that DNA contains a repeating sequence of
four bases – with an equal number of nucleotides, which would allow little room
for variation. This hypothesis was referred to as the tetranucleotide hypothesis.
The Austrian biochemist
Erwin Chargaff analysed
DNA samples from different
species to find their
nucleotide composition and
to disprove the
tetranucleotide hypothesis.

https://www.macroevolution.net/erwin-chargaff.html https://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Tetranucleotide_Hypothesis.html
 Directionality of RNA and DNA
The DNA and RNA strands have a
defined direction with the 5’ end at
the top and 3’ end at the bottom.

Any additional RNA or DNA nucleotide

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-orgbiochemistry/chapter/19-2-nucleic-acid-structure/
in a strand can only attach to the 3’
end of a previous nucleotide. For
pairing in DNA between purines and
pyrimidines to occur, the two strands
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Directionality_of_DNA_molecule.png

must run in antiparallel directions.

Directionality of RNA and DNA
Directionality of RNA and DNA
5’ end
And the importance of directionality…

The linking of nucleotides

between the 3rd carbon and
the 5th carbon results in a
directionality of the sugar-
phosphate backbone – it is
said to go from 5’ (“prime”) to
3’ direction.

Each strand has a 5’ end with

a terminal phosphate group
and a 3’ end with a terminal
hydroxyl group.

3’ end
Directionality of RNA and DNA

RNA shows the same

directionality as DNA. The
phosphate groups act as
connectors between the
sugar rings, by forming
covalent phosphodiester
bonds between the 3rd
carbon atom of the one
sugar ring and the 5th
carbon atom of the second
sugar ring in the growing
strand of RNA.
Directionality of RNA and DNA
Replication
In replication, DNA nucleotides can only
be added on to the 3’ end of the growing
polymer of nucleotides. The 5’ end is
already bonded to a phosphate group.
Both DNA strands acts as templates.
Transcription
In transcription, the 5’ ends of free RNA
nucleotides are only be added on to the
3’ end of the growing polymer of mRNA
nucleotides. Only one of the two strands
is used as a template.

Translation A molecule of RNA carries the sequence

information for making a polypeptide by
linking amino acids together. The ribosome
moves along the mRNA towards the 3’ end.
Translation is in 5’ -> 3’ direction.
Structure of a nucleosome
Nucleosomes are the basic units of
eukaryotic DNA and are composed of
packaging proteins which hold the DNA
together to form the frame of chromosomes

https://www.google.com/search?q=nucleosome&biw=1391&bih=681&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAWoVChMI4eLUrP_kyAIVRRByCh0hFA6Q#imgrc=HihHGk9Br024PM%3A
Structure of a nucleosome
The DNA double strand coils around histone proteins to form
nucleosomes. This process of supercoiling makes DNA denser, so takes
up less space in the nucleus. Nucleosomes and supercoiling only takes
place in eukaryotic cells and usually during prophase of mitosis/meiosis.

http://s6.postimg.org/585atotap/Molecular_Expressions_Cell_Biology_Chromatin_an.png
Structure of a nucleosome
The histone core is
Each octamer consists of
composed of 8 positively
two copies of 4 different
charged histone protein
types of histones.
molecules (octamer).

The “linker “
DNA connects
Nucleosomes are linked one
by an additional histone nucleosome
protein (H1 histone) to the next

Structure of a nucleosome
What is the purpose of the nucleosome packing?
1. Nucleosomes help to
supercoil and package the
DNA into a smaller volume
to fit in the cell, resulting
in a greatly compacted
structure that allows for
more efficient storage
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-level/topic-7-nucleic-acids/71-dna-structure-and-replic/nucleosome
2. Supercoiling helps 3.
It helps to control
to protect the DNA gene expression and
from damage and DNA replication –
allows for a gene to be
chromosomes to be transcribed it must
mobile during be uncoiled.
mitosis and meiosis.
Nucleosomes Visit the protein data bank and
http://www.rcsb.org/pdb/home/home.do download the image of a nucleosome.
1. Rotate the molecule to see the two
copies of each histone protein. They are
identified by the tails that extend from
the core. Each protein has such a tail.

2. Note the ca.150 bp of DNA wrapped

nearly twice around the octamer core

3. Note the N-terminal tail that projects

from the histone core for each protein.

4. Visualize the positively charged amino

acids on the nucleosome core. Suggest
how they place a role in the association
of the protein core with the negatively
charged DNA.