Science Grade 7 CIE Learner's Book

9781108742825 Jones, Fellowes-Freeman & Smyth Lower Secondary Science Learner’s Book 8 CVR C M Y K
Cambridge Lower Secondary

Cambridge Lower Secondary Science
From discovering how we breathe, to finding out how gravity works,
Cambridge Lower Secondary Science gets you thinking like a scientist!
Packed with opportunities to plan experiments, make predictions and gather

results, the series helps you think and work scientifically. Each unit ends with a
project, like using chromatographs to solve a mystery, to help you bring together
what you have learnt and show how the topics relate to the real world.
With vocabulary boxes, clear diagrams and supporting illustrations, the course
makes science accessible for learners with English as a second language. Cambridge Lower Secondary
• Talk and think about what you already know with ‘Getting started’ boxes
• Think and work scientifically with practical tasks in the ‘Think like a
scientist’ feature
Science
Science
• Reflect on what you have learnt with ‘Summary checklist’ sections at the
end of each topic
• Topics throughout the series support the new Earth and Space strand of
LEARNER’S BOOK 8
the curriculum framework
Mary Jones, Diane Fellowes-Freeman & Michael Smyth
LEARNER’S BOOK 8
• Answers to all activities can be found in the accompanying Teacher’s Resource
For more information on how to access and use your digital resource,
please see inside front cover.
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Second edition Digital access

Cambridge Lower Secondary
Science
LEARNER’S BOOK 8
Mary Jones, Diane Fellowes-Freeman & Michael Smyth
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
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Introduction
Introduction
Welcome to Stage 8 of Cambridge Lower Secondary Science. We hope this
book will show you how interesting and exciting science can be.
Science is everywhere. Everyone uses science every day. Can you think of
examples of science that you have seen or used today?
Have you ever wondered about any of these questions?
• How do bones and muscles make my body move?
• Where does my energy come from?
• What happens to a substance when it dissolves in water?
• How can we stop iron rusting?
• How does the smell of hot food travel faster than that of cold food?
• What makes a rainbow?
You will work like a scientist to find answers to these questions and more.
It is good to talk about science as you investigate and learn. You will share
your ideas with classmates to help them understand, and listen to them when
you need reassurance. You will reflect on what you did and how you did it,
and ask yourself: ‘Would I do things differently next time?’
You will practise new skills and techniques, check your
progress, and challenge yourself to find out more.
You will make connections between the different
sciences, and how they link to maths, English and
other subjects.
We hope you enjoy thinking and working like
a scientist.
Mary Jones, Diane Fellowes-Freeman, Michael Smyth
3
Contents
Contents
Page Unit Science Thinking and Working Science in Context
strand Scientifically strand
8 1 Respiration Biology: Models and representations Discuss how scientific
8 1.1 The human respiratory Structure and Carrying out scientific knowledge develops
system function enquiry over time by shared
1.2 Gas exchange Biology: Life Scientific enquiry: purpose understanding and
12
processes and planning investigation.
19 1.3 Breathing
Scientific enquiry: analysis, Describe how science is
25 1.4 Respiration
evaluation and conclusions used in different societies
31 1.5 Blood and industries, and how it
is used in research.
Evaluate topics using
scientific understanding.
40 2 Properties of materials Chemistry: Scientific enquiry: purpose Describe how science is
40 2.1 Dissolving Materials and and planning used in different societies
45 2.2 Solutions and solubility their structure Carrying out scientific and industries, and how
Chemistry: enquiry it is used in research.
53 2.3 Planning a solubility
investigation Properties of Scientific enquiry: analysis,
materials evaluation and conclusions
57 2.4 Paper chromatography
68 3 Forces and energy Physics: Models and representations Evaluate topics using
68 3.1 Forces and motion Forces and Carrying out scientific scientific understanding.
77 3.2 Speed energy enquiry
84 3.3 Describing movement Scientific enquiry: analysis,
91 3.4 Turning forces evaluation and conclusions
99 3.5 Pressure between solids Scientific enquiry: purpose
106 and planning
3.6 Pressure in liquids and
gases
114 3.7 Particles on the move
126 4 Ecosystems Biology: Carrying out scientific Discuss how scientific
126 4.1 The Sonoran Desert Ecosystems enquiry knowledge develops
133 4.2 Different ecosystems over time by shared
139 understanding and
4.3 Intruders in an
investigation.
ecosystem
Evaluate topics using
142 4.4 Bioaccumulation
scientific understanding.
Discuss the impact
science can have on the
environment world-wide.
4
Contents
Page Unit Science Thinking and Working Science in Context

strand Scientifically strand
152 5 Materials and cycles Chemistry: Carrying out scientific Discuss how scientific
on Earth Materials and enquiry understanding is used
152 5.1 The structure of the atom their structure Scientific enquiry: purpose and developed by people
157 5.2 Purity Chemistry: and planning working on their own and
Changes to Models and representations working together, such as
165 5.3 Weather and climate
materials Scientific enquiry: analysis, the peer-review process.
171 5.4 Climate and ice ages
Earth and evaluation and conclusions Discuss the impact
177 5.5 Atmosphere and climate science can have on the
Space: Planet
Earth environment world-wide.
Earth and
Space: Cycles
on Earth
190 6 Light Physics: Light Scientific enquiry: purpose Evaluate topics using
190 6.1 Reflection and sound and planning scientific understanding.
197 6.2 Refraction Earth and Carrying out scientific
204 6.3 Making rainbows Space: Earth enquiry
in space Scientific enquiry: analysis,
209 6.4 Colours of light
evaluation and conclusions
217 6.5 Galaxies
Models and representations
222 6.6 Rocks in space
233 7 Diet and growth Biology: Scientific enquiry: purpose Evaluate topics using
233 7.1 Nutrients Structure and and planning scientific understanding.
241 7.2 A balanced diet function Carrying out scientific
248 7.3 Growth, development Biology: Life enquiry
and health processes
252 7.4 Moving the body
263 8 Chemical reactions Chemistry: Scientific enquiry: purpose Describe how science is
263 8.1 Exothermic reactions Changes to and planning used in different societies
269 8.2 Endothermic reactions materials Carrying out scientific and industries, and how it
276 enquiry is used in research.
8.3 Reactions of metals with
oxygen Scientific enquiry: analysis, Evaluate topics using
evaluation and conclusions scientific understanding.
282 8.4 Reactions of metals with
water
286 8.5 Reactions of metals with
dilute acids
293 9 Magnetism Physics: Scientific enquiry: purpose Discuss how scientific
293 9.1 Magnetic fields Electricity and and planning knowledge develops
300 9.2 The Earth as a giant magnetism Scientific enquiry: analysis, over time by shared
magnet Earth and evaluation and conclusions understanding and
Space: Planet Models and representations investigation.
306 9.3 Electromagnets
Earth Carrying out scientific Evaluate topics using
311 9.4 Investigating
enquiry scientific understanding.
electromagnets
321 Science Skills

326 Glossary and index
5
How to use this book
How to use this

1 book
Respiration
This book contains lots of different features that will help your learning.
1.1 The Thesehuman
are explained below.
respiratory system
This list sets out what you will learn in each In this topic you will:
topic. You can use these points to identify the • learn the names of the different parts of the human
respiratory system
important topics for the lesson. • observe carefully, and record your observations, as the
structure of lungs is demonstrated.
Getting started Key words

Getting started
Respiration is one of the characteristics of living things. aerobic respiration
Respiration is one of the characteristics of living things.
This contains questions or activities to help find With a partner, decide which statement in each pair is correct.
With a partner, decide which statement in each pair is correct.
air sac
bronchiole
Be ready to share your ideas.
out what you know already about this topic. Be ready to share your ideas.
1.1 The human respiratory system
bronchus
Respiration happens Respiration only cartilage
First pair: Respiration
inside all thehappens
cells in or Respiration only
happens in cells larynx
First pair:
Continued inside all the
your body.cells in or happens in cells
in your lungs.
your body. in your lungs. respiration
2 Touch the lungs.
respiratory system
What do they feel like when you push
Respiration them? Can you suggest
releases why they feeluses
Respiration like this?
Second
(Look atpair:
the diagramRespiration
of the human releases or to help
respiratory system Respiration
you.) uses trachea
energy from food. up energy.
Key words are highlighted and defined in the 3 Look at the tube that carries air down into the lungs.
a What is the name of this tube?
vocal cords
Respiration voicebox
text when they first appear in the book. You Key b words Respiration
Feel the tube. What
Third pair:
does it feelhappens
like?
or happens in animals windpipe
c in all living things.
will also find definitions of all these words aerobic respiration
What are the names of these two tubes?
air dsacNow look at the top of the big tube, where it is wider.
but not plants.
in the Glossary and Index at the back of bronchiole

What is the name of this wide part? What is its function?
this book. bronchus

cartilage
The diagram of the respiratory system includes a lot of new words.
larynx
How are you going to learn this diagram and all of its labels?
respiration
Remember that, in a test, the diagram might not be exactly the
same as this one.
Activity 1.1.1
What does the larynx do?
larynx (voicebox).
Keep your lips together, and make a loud humming sound.
You will have the opportunity to practise and 8 Can you feel the larynx vibrating?
Your larynx contains your vocal cords. These are bands of muscle that stretch across your
develop the new skills and knowledge that larynx. You can think of them as being like guitar strings. When your vocal cords vibrate,
they make a sound.
you learn in each topic. Activities will involve Now make a higher-pitched humming sound. Then try a really deep pitched sound.
Can you feel the larynx changing when you make the different sounds?
answering questions or completing tasks. Summary checklist

I can name the parts of the respiratory system, and identify them on a diagram.
I can list the organs that air passes through, as it moves into and out of the lungs.
Think like a scientist
Why are air sacs so small? 11
In this activity, you will use some agar jelly to represent the lungs, and some coloured
liquid to represent oxygen in the air.
This provides an opportunity You will need:

• two Petri dishes filled with agar jelly
for you to practise and develop • two cork-borers, one with a diameter of 10 mm and the other with a diameter of 5 mm
scientific enquiry skills with a • some coloured dye • a dropper pipette
partner or in groups. Method

1 Use the larger cork-borer to make eight holes in the jelly in
one of the dishes. Space the holes evenly in the dish.
2 Now use the smaller cork-borer to make 32 holes in the jelly
in the other dish. Try to space the holes evenly in the dish.
3 Using the dropper pipette, carefully fill each hole in both
dishes with the coloured dye. Try to put the same quantity
of dye into each hole. It’s really important not to get any
6
How to use this book

Self-assessment
Think about how you did the experiment.
Continued
Copy each bulleted statement, and then draw a face next to each one according to
2 Touch the lungs.
how well you think you performed.
What do they feel like when you push them? Can you suggest why they feel
1.1 like
Thethis?
human respiratory system
After completing an activity, this provides you 3
I think
(Look
Look
at Ithe
I didatOK,
diddiagram
the but
this really
tubeI could
of well.
the human respiratory system to help you.)
probably
that carries do better.
air down into the lungs.
with the opportunity to either assess your own WhatContinued
a I didn’t is the
do thisname of this
very well at tube?
all.
Ibworked
Feel2the tube.
whichWhat does
the airit would
feel like?
work or another student’s work. •
breathed
c
outTouch
out.
the
tubelungs. go into when I breathed in and when I
What do they feel like when you push them? Can you suggest why they feel like this?
• I managed
What areto(Look
breathe
the in of
at the
names and out with
diagram
these just
thethe
oftubes?
two right respiratory
human force to make the airto
system bubble
help you.)
through the limewater.
d Now3look at the
Look at top
theof the that
tube big tube, where
carries it is wider.
air down into the lungs.
• I stopped as soon as the limewater in one of the tubes went cloudy.
What is the
a name
Whatof is this
the wide
name part? What
of this is its function?
tube?
• I understand what this experiment shows about how much carbon dioxide there
is in inspiredbair and
Feelexpired
the tube. air. What does it feel like?
Is there
The anything
diagram cthat
of the you would
respiratory do differently
system includes ifa you did
lot of thiswords.
new experiment again?
How are you going to learnare
What thisthe
diagram
namesand
of all of itstwo
these labels?
tubes?
Remember that, din aNow
test, the
lookdiagram might
at the top ofnot
thebe exactly
big tube,the
where it is wider.
same as this one.
This contains questions that ask you to look What is the name of this wide part? What is its function?
back at what you have covered and encourages Activity 1.1.1

What doesThe
the diagram of the respiratory system includes a lot of new words.
larynx do?
you to think about your learning. How are you going to learn thislarynx
Keep your lips together,that,
and make a loud
(voicebox).
diagram and all of its labels?
Remember in a test, thehumming
diagramsound.
might not be exactly the
same
Can you feel as thisvibrating?
the larynx one.
larynx. You can think of them as being like guitar strings. When your vocal cords vibrate,
they make aActivity
sound. 1.1.1
Now make aWhat
higher-pitched
does thehumming sound. Then try a really deep pitched sound.
larynx do?
larynx (voicebox).
This list summarises the important ideas that Keep your lips together, and make a loud humming sound.
Summary checklist
Can you feel the larynx vibrating?
you have learned in the topic. I can name the parts of the respiratory system, and identify them on a diagram.
I can listYour larynxthat
the organs contains your
air passes vocal
through, as cords.
it movesThese
into andare
outbands of muscle that stretch across your
of the lungs.
they make a sound.
Now make a higher-pitched humming sound. Then try a really deep pitched sound.
11
Summary checklist
Project: Helping white blood cells toI can
protect usparts
from pathogens
At the end of each unit, there name the of the respiratory system, and identify them on a diagram.
This project is about how scientific knowledge develops over time, and how scientific
is a group project that you can discoveries can help people all over the world.
carry out with other students. Background

Our white blood cells are amazing at keeping us safe from pathogens. Most of the time,
This will involve using some of they manage to destroy the pathogens so that we recover quickly from an infection. 11
the knowledge that you But there are some pathogens that white blood cells cannot destroy in time. The virus that
causes rabies is one of these. If the rabies virus gets into a person’s body, the body needs
developed during the unit. outside help in order to stop the virus spreading. Without treatment, most people die if
they are infected with the rabies virus.
Your project might involve Your task
creating or producing something, You are going to work in a group to find out information about rabies, and how it can be
successfully treated. Each group will work on a different topic.
or you might all solve a problem Choose one or two of the following five topics to research with your group. Also choose
together. how you will present your findings to others. You could make a poster, or give
an illustrated talk.
Discovering what causes rabies
Check your progress

These questions look back 1.1 The list includes some of the structures that air passes through, as it moves
at some of the content you from outside the body to the place where gas exchange happens.
learned in each session in this Write the structures in the correct order.
bronchiole trachea bronchus alveolus (air sac) [2]
unit. If you can answer these,
1.2 The diagram shows an air sac and a blood capillary.
you are ready to move on to
the next unit.
7
1 Respiration
In this topic you will:
• learn the names of the different parts of the human
respiratory system
• observe carefully, and record your observations, as the
structure of lungs is demonstrated.
Respiration is one of the characteristics of living things. aerobic respiration

With a partner, decide which statement in each pair is correct. air sac
bronchiole
bronchus
Respiration happens Respiration only cartilage
First pair: inside all the cells in or happens in cells larynx
your body. in your lungs. respiration
respiratory system
Respiration releases Respiration uses
Second pair: or trachea
energy from food. up energy.
vocal cords
Respiration voicebox
Respiration happens windpipe
Third pair: or happens in animals
in all living things.
but not plants.
8
Why we need oxygen

You may remember that one of the characteristics shared
by all living things is respiration. Respiration is a series of
chemical reactions that happens inside every living cell.
The kind of respiration that usually happens inside our cells
is called aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen.
The cells produce carbon dioxide as a waste product.
The air around you contains oxygen. When you breathe,
you take air into your lungs. Some of the oxygen from the
air goes into your blood. The blood delivers the oxygen
to every cell in your body, so that the cells can use it for
respiration. The blood collects the waste carbon dioxide
from the cells, and takes it back to your lungs.
The organs that help you to take oxygen out of the air, and
get rid of carbon dioxide, make up the respiratory system. In this model of the human body, the lungs are
shown in pink
Can you name any of the other organs shown in the picture
on the right?
The structure of the human

respiratory system
This is a diagram of the human entrance to nose
respiratory system. The white
spaces in this diagram are the entrance to mouth
‘tubes’ (bronchi and bronchioles) voicebox (larynx)
that air moves through, windpipe (trachea)
as it goes into and out of
your lungs. rings of cartilage
lung
bronchiole
bronchus (plural: bronchi)
air sacs
rib bone
muscles between ribs
(intercostal muscles)
diaphragm
The human respiratory system
9
1 Respiration
Questions
1 Put your finger on the entrance to the nose or mouth in the diagram
of the respiratory system. Move your finger along the white space
and down into the lungs.
Write down the structures that the air passes through, as it moves
down into your lungs. Write them in the correct order.
2 Now write the same structures in the order in which air passes through
them as it moves out of your lungs and back into your surroundings.
Air gets into your body through your mouth or nose. Your mouth and nose
both connect to your trachea. The trachea is sometimes called the windpipe.
It has strong rings of cartilage around it. These rings of cartilage keep the
trachea open and prevent it collapsing, so that air can be kept moving in
and out of your body. If you put your fingers on the front of your neck and
move them downwards, you can feel the rings of cartilage on your trachea.
The trachea branches into two bronchi (singular: bronchus). The bronchi
also have cartilage to support them. One bronchus goes to each lung.
Each bronchus carries air deep into the lungs. Each bronchus divides
into several smaller tubes called bronchioles. The structure of these
branches allows the air to reach deeper into the lungs.
The bronchioles end by branching into many tiny structures called
air sacs. This is where the oxygen goes into the blood, and the carbon
dioxide comes out. You can find out more about this in the next topic.
Looking at lungs
In this activity, you are going to look carefully at some real lungs. You will practise using
your senses of touch and sight to make observations, and record your observations.
Before you start this activity, look carefully at the questions and make a risk assessment.
Think about how you will reduce or overcome any risks. Be prepared to share your ideas.
You will need:

• a set of lungs from an animal, such as a sheep or goat (from a butcher)
• a big board to put the lungs onto
• hot water, soap and towels to wash your hands after handling the lungs
Questions
1 Describe what the lungs look like.
If you prefer, you could make a labelled drawing instead of writing about them.
10
Continued
2 Touch the lungs.
What do they feel like when you push them? Can you suggest why they feel like this?
(Look at the diagram of the human respiratory system to help you.)
3 Look at the tube that carries air down into the lungs.
a What is the name of this tube?
b Feel the tube. What does it feel like?
c Follow the tube towards the lungs. Can you find where it divides into two?
What are the names of these two tubes?
d Now look at the top of the big tube, where it is wider.
What is the name of this wide part? What is its function?
The diagram of the respiratory system includes a lot of new words.

How are you going to learn this diagram and all of its labels?
Remember that, in a test, the diagram might not be exactly the
same as this one.
Activity 1.1.1
What does the larynx do?
Hold the fingertips of one hand against your larynx (voicebox).
Keep your lips together, and make a loud humming sound.
Can you feel the larynx vibrating?
they make a sound.
Now make a higher-pitched humming sound. Then try a really deep pitched sound.
Summary checklist
I can name the parts of the respiratory system, and identify them on a diagram.
11
1 Respiration
1.2 Gas exchange

• find out how oxygen gets into your blood from the air, and
how carbon dioxide goes in the other direction
• do an experiment to help you to think about why the air sacs
in the lungs need to be very small
• do an experiment to compare how much carbon dioxide
there is in the air you breathe in and the air you breathe out.
This topic is about two gases – oxygen and carbon dioxide. alveoli
Look at these diagrams. analogy
capillaries
A B C
diffusion
expired air
gas exchange
haemoglobin
inspired air
limewater
With your partner, answer these questions.
1 Which diagram shows the particles in a gas?
2 Choose the correct phrases to complete these sentences:
In a gas, the particles are far apart / touching each other.
In a gas, the particles move freely / vibrate on the spot.
12
1.2 Gas exchange
Air sacs
The photograph shows a tiny part of the lungs,
seen through a powerful microscope. You can
see the lungs are mostly holes. These holes
are called air sacs. Another name for them
is alveoli.
There are also lots of very tiny blood vessels
in the lungs, wrapped around the air sacs.
You cannot see them in the photograph, but
they are shown in the diagram below. These
blood vessels are capillaries.
Part of the lungs, viewed through a powerful microscope
The structure of an air sac

This diagram shows one of the air sacs in the lungs. The air sac has
a wall made of one layer of cells. These cells are very thin.
air moving in air moving out
blood flowing
blood flowing towards the
from the heart heart
diffusion
air inside sac of oxygen
thin wall of air sac

diffusion of
thin wall of carbon dioxide
blood capillary
red blood cell
blood plasma
An air sac in the lungs
You can see that there is a blood capillary around the outside of the
alveolus. The capillary is pressed tightly against the alveolus. The wall
of the capillary is also made of a single layer of very thin cells.
13
1 Respiration
Gas exchange in the air sacs

Inside the air sacs, oxygen from the air goes into the blood. Carbon
dioxide from the blood goes into the air. This is called gas exchange.
Think about the blood capillary on the left of the diagram. The blood
inside this capillary comes from the heart. Before reaching the heart,
it came from the organs in the body. These organs contain cells that
respire, using up oxygen and making carbon dioxide. So the blood in
this capillary contains only a small amount of oxygen, and a lot of
carbon dioxide.
Now think about the air inside the air sac. It came from outside the
body, where the air contains a lot of oxygen and only a small amount of
carbon dioxide.
Inside the alveolus, this air is very close to the blood. There are only two
very thin cells between the air and the blood.
The oxygen particles in the air are a gas, so they are moving freely. They
can easily move from the air, through the thin-walled cells and into the
blood. This is called diffusion. You can find out more about diffusion
in Topic 3.7. The oxygen particules move from where there are a lot of
them (in the air) to where there are fewer of them (in the blood).
When the oxygen gets into the blood, it dissolves. (You can find out
about dissolving in Topic 2.1.) The oxygen goes into the red blood cells
where it combines with haemoglobin. You will find out what happens to
it after that in Topic 1.6.
Now think about the carbon dioxide. There is a lot of it in the blood
in the capillary, and only a small quantity in the air inside the air sac.
So the carbon dioxide diffuses into the air in the air sac.
Activity 1.2.1
Gases in and out
Copy this diagram.
1 On your diagram, draw a green arrow to show how
oxygen diffuses from the air into the blood.
2 How many cells does the oxygen move through, as it leaves
the air and goes into the blood?
3 On your diagram, draw a blue arrow to show how carbon
dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air.
14
1.2 Gas exchange
Why are air sacs so small?

In this activity, you will use some agar jelly to represent the lungs, and some coloured
liquid to represent oxygen in the air.
You will need:

• two Petri dishes filled with agar jelly
• two cork-borers, one with a diameter of 10 mm and the other with a diameter of 5 mm
• some coloured dye • a dropper pipette
Method
1 Use the larger cork-borer to make eight holes in the jelly in
one of the dishes. Space the holes evenly in the dish.
2 Now use the smaller cork-borer to make 32 holes in the jelly
in the other dish. Try to space the holes evenly in the dish.
3 Using the dropper pipette, carefully fill each hole in both
dishes with the coloured dye. Try to put the same quantity
of dye into each hole. It’s really important not to get any
dye on the jelly!
4 Leave both dishes for at least 15 minutes.
5 Predict what you think will happen.
6 After 15 minutes (or a little bit longer if things are happening slowly)
record your observations.
Questions
1 The holes that you made in the jelly represent the air sacs in
the lungs. The coloured dye represents oxygen in the air sacs.
The holes in the jelly are an analogy for the air sacs, and the
dye is an analogy for oxygen.
Explain how your observations help to show what happens to oxygen in the lungs.
2 The total volume of the 32 small holes is the same as the total volume of the eight
large holes. Use your observations to suggest why it is better to have a lot of very
small air sacs in the lungs, rather than just a few large ones.
3 Do you think that the agar jelly with holes is a good model for what happens in
the lungs? Explain your answer.
15
1 Respiration
Comparing the carbon dioxide content of inspired air and expired air
In this activity, you will use limewater to compare how much carbon dioxide there
is in the air that you breathe in, with how much carbon dioxide there is in the air that
you breathe out.
Work with a partner to do this activity.
You will need:

• rubber tubing • glass tubing, as shown in the diagram
• two rubber bungs to fit the test tubes • two test tubes • limewater
Safety
It is very important that the rubber tubing is perfectly rubber tubing
clean before you use it. Do not share the mouthpiece glass tubing
with anyone else or put it on the work surface when
rubber bung
you have finished.
Method
test tube
1 Read through the method and make an
assessment of all the risks. Decide how
you will overcome or reduce these risks. limewater
2 Look carefully at the apparatus.
Starting with the rubber tubing, follow the
A B
glass tube as it branches into the two test tubes.
What is different about the glass tubing that goes into test tube A and test tube B?
3 Now think about what might happen if you gently blow down the rubber tube.
Predict the tube in which you think bubbles will appear. Why do you think that?
4 Gently blow into the rubber tubing, until bubbles appear in one of the tubes.
Was your prediction correct?
5 Now think about what might happen if you gently suck the rubber tube. Try it.
Was your prediction correct?
6 Put your mouth over the end of the rubber tubing, and gently breathe in and out.
Bubbles will appear in one tube as you breathe out, and in the other tube as you breathe in.
Your partner will check the bubbles and can tell you if you are doing it correctly.
Be careful – don’t suck too hard! Limewater is not poisonous, but it is not a good
idea to get it into your mouth.
7 Continue until the limewater in one of the tubes has gone cloudy. Make a note of
which tube it is.
16
1.2 Gas exchange
Continued
Questions
1 The air that you breathe out is called expired air.
In which tube did your expired air bubble through the limewater?
2 The air that you breathe in is called inspired air.
In which tube did your inspired air bubble through the limewater?
3 In which tube did the limewater go cloudy first?
4 Name the gas that makes limewater go cloudy.
5 Copy and complete these sentences. Use some of these words:
A B expired inspired less more
The limewater went cloudy first in tube ………………… .
This is the limewater that ………………… air bubbles through.
Our results show that expired air contains ………………… carbon dioxide than
inspired air.
Self-assessment
Think about how you did the experiment.
Copy each bulleted statement, and then draw a face next to each one according to
how well you think you performed.
I think I did this really well.
I did OK, but I could probably do better.
I didn’t do this very well at all.

• I worked out which tube the air would go into when I breathed in and when I
breathed out.
• I managed to breathe in and out with just the right force to make the air bubble
through the limewater.
• I stopped as soon as the limewater in one of the tubes went cloudy.
• I understand what this experiment shows about how much carbon dioxide there
is in inspired air and expired air.
Is there anything that you would do differently if you did this experiment again?
17
1 Respiration
Summary checklist
I can describe how oxygen gets into my blood from the air, and carbon dioxide
goes the other way.
I can explain why it is better to have lots of very small air sacs in the lungs, rather
than a few big ones.
I can describe how to do an experiment to compare how much carbon dioxide there
is in inspired air and expired air.
18
1.3 Breathing
1.3 Breathing
• measure how much air you can push out of your lungs
in one breath
• learn how the muscles between your ribs and your diaphragm
move air into and out of the lungs.
On your own, answer each of these questions. breathing

• What is gas exchange? contract
relax
• Where does gas exchange happen in your body?
• Does the air you breathe in contain more or less oxygen than
the air you breathe out?
• Is there any carbon dioxide in the air you breathe in?
• Do you think there is any oxygen in the
air you breathe out?
19
1 Respiration
How much air can you breathe out?

Measuring the volume of air you can push out of your lungs
How much air do you think you can push out of your lungs in one breath?
In this experiment, you will use some very simple apparatus to find out.
You will need:

• big plastic bottle with a lid • measuring cylinder • bendy tubing
• marker pen • water • big bowl
Safety
The bottle and bendy tubing must be clean, and the water you use must be safe to drink.
Do not share the mouthpiece with anyone else or put it on the work surface when you
have finished.
You may get water on the floor as you do your experiment. Take care not to slip in it.
Method
1 You are going to use the plastic bottle to measure volumes.
In your group of three, discuss how you can use the measuring cylinder to mark
a scale on the plastic bottle.
Then mark the scale on the bottle. The scale should go all the way from the
bottom to the top of the bottle.
2 Fill the bottle right to the top with water. Put the lid on.
3 Pour water into the big bowl until it is about half full.
Turn the bottle upside down, and hold it in the bowl.
Very carefully take the lid off the bottle. You should find
that all the water stays in the bottle.
4 Carefully slide the bendy tubing into the top of the
bottle, under water.
5 Take a deep breath in, then put your mouth over the tubing
and breathe out as much air as you can through the tubing.
Your expired air will push out some water from the bottle.
Use the scale that you drew on the bottle to record the
volume of air you breathed out.
6 If you have time, repeat steps 2 – 5 two more times. Use your three results to calculate
a mean value for the volume of air you can breathe out of your lungs.
20
1.3 Breathing
Continued
7 Replace the tubing with another piece of clean tubing. Now another person
in your group can try the experiment.
8 Record all of your results in a table.
Questions
1 Share your results with the rest of the class. Can you see any patterns in the results?
For example:
• Do you think that the volume of air a person can breathe out is related to their size?
• If there is anyone in your class who plays a wind instrument, does this seem to
have an effect on how much air they can breathe out?
2 Plan an experiment to investigate this hypothesis:
People who play the trombone can breathe out more air in one breath than people
who play the violin.

Activity 1.3.1
What happens when you breathe in?

Sit quietly for a moment. Shut your eyes and think about your breathing.
Put a hand just underneath your ribs. Take a deep breath in. You may be able to
feel your ribs moving upwards. You might also be able to feel something moving
inwards as you breathe.
21
1 Respiration
Breathing
Look at the diagrams of the human respiratory system, in Topic 1.1. Find
the ribs, and the intercostal muscles between them. Find the diaphragm.
Remember that air is a gas. The pressure of a gas increases when the
volume of its container is decreased. You can find more about pressure
in Topic 3.6.
When you breathe in, these things happen:
• The intercostal muscles between the ribs

contract (get shorter). This pulls the ribs
upwards and outwards.
• The muscles in the diaphragm contract.
This pulls the diaphragm downwards.
• These two movements make more space
inside the chest cavity. They increase the
volume inside it.
• When the volume increases, the pressure
inside the chest cavity and lungs decreases.
• Air moves down through the trachea into the
lungs, to fill the extra space.
When you breathe out, these things happen: air moves out of lungs
• The intercostal muscles between the ribs relax

(return to normal size). This allow the ribs to
drop down into their natural position.
• The muscles in the diaphragm relax.
This allows the diaphragm to become
its normal, domed shape.
• These two movements make less space inside
the chest cavity. They decrease the volume
inside it.
• When the volume decreases, the pressure
increases. So air is squeezed out of the lungs.
22
1.3 Breathing
Using a model to represent breathing movements
You will need:

• rubber bung with a hole in it • syringe with end cut off • balloon
Method
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
Your teacher may do this for you.
2 Carefully and steadily, pull the plunger of the small hole
syringe out. Note what happens.
rubber bung
3 Now push the plunger back in again.
Note what happens. 10
syringe with end cut off
Questions
20
balloon
1 Which parts of the model represent these 30
structures in the body? 40 plunger
• the lungs 50
• the trachea
• the diaphragm
• the rib cage
2 Explain why the balloon inflates when you pull the
plunger out.
3 Explain how pulling the plunger out represents what
happens in your body when you breathe in.
4 Describe one way in which this model does not completely
represent what happens when you breathe in.
Questions
1 Copy and complete this table.
Use these words:
contract relax
Action What do the diaphragm What do the intercostal
muscles do? muscles do?
Breathing in
Breathing out
23
1 Respiration
2 Copy and complete these sentences.

Use these words:
decrease increase into out of
When we breathe in, the muscles in the diaphragm and between the
ribs ………………… the volume of the chest.
This makes air move ………………… the lungs.
When we breathe out, the muscles in the diaphragm and between the
ribs ………………… the volume of the chest.
This makes air move ………………… the lungs.
Summary checklist
I can use a measuring cylinder to make a volume scale on a bottle.
I can do an experiment to measure the volume of air I can breathe out in one breath.
I can describe how the diaphragm and intercostal muscles cause breathing movements.
I can explain how these breathing movements make air move into and out of the lungs.
24
1.4 Respiration
1.4 Respiration
• find out how every living cell gets the energy it needs
to stay alive
• do an experiment to investigate how, in respiration, some
energy is released as heat
• think about the difference between breathing and respiration.
Think back to Stage 7, when you learned about energy. glucose

With a partner, think about this question: mitochondria
What has to happen to energy, in order to make

something happen?
Can you give some examples?
25
1 Respiration
Using energy to stay alive

Our bodies need energy for many different reasons. For example:
We use energy when we move around. We use energy to send electrical We use energy to keep our bodies
impulses along neurones. warm when it is cold.
All of our energy comes from the food that we eat. Carbohydrates are
especially good for giving us energy.
When we eat food containing carbohydrates, our digestive system breaks
the carbohydrates down to a kind of sugar called glucose. The glucose
goes into our blood. The blood delivers glucose to every cell in the body.
The cells use the glucose to get the energy that they need.
Releasing energy from glucose

Energy must be changed from one type to another, or be transferred,
in order to do something.
The energy in glucose is locked up inside it. Glucose is an energy
store. Before your cells can use the energy, it has to be released from
the glucose.
This is done by tiny structures called mitochondria that are found glucose oxygen
inside cells. Most cells have many mitochondria inside them.
Mitochondria release energy from glucose, so that the cells can
use the energy.
The mitochondria carry out a chemical reaction called aerobic energy
respiration. Aerobic means that is uses oxygen, from the air. released
Here is the word equation for aerobic respiration:
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
In this reaction, some of the energy inside the glucose is released. water carbon dioxide
This is done in a very controlled way. Just a little bit of energy is
Energy is released from glucose
released at a time – just enough for the cell’s needs. inside mitochondria
26
1.4 Respiration
Questions
1 Neurones contain more mitochondria than cheek cells. Suggest why.
2 Look at the word equation for aerobic respiration.
a What are the reactants in this reaction?
b What are the products of this reaction?
3 Use the equation for aerobic respiration to explain why the air that
you breathe out contains more carbon dioxide than the air that you
breathe in.
Respiration and heat production

In Stage 7, you learned that every time energy is transferred or
transformed, some of it is changed to heat energy.
In respiration, chemical energy stored in glucose is transferred to other
substances, so that cells can use it. In this process, some of the energy
is changed to heat energy. So respiring cells get a little bit warmer than
their surroundings.
Investigating respiration in peas

All living things need energy. So all living things respire. Even seeds respire.
Seeds respire especially quickly when they are germinating, because they need a lot of
energy to do this. You can make pea seeds start to germinate by soaking them in water
for about an hour.
You will need:

• two thermometers • cotton wool • two flasks
• insulating material to wrap round the outside of the flasks
• some dead peas • the same number of live, germinating peas
27
1 Respiration
Continued
Method
1 Set up your apparatus
thermometer
as shown in the diagram. 100 100
Take care to make 90
80
90
80
everything exactly the 70 70
same in each piece of 60 60
apparatus. The only cotton wool 50 50
difference is that one

40 40
30 30
flask contains dead peas, 20 20
and the other flask flask

10 10
contains live,
0 0
germinating peas. insulating

material
2 Measure the temperature wrapped
inside each flask. round the
Record it in a results chart. outside
3 Continue to measure and

record the temperature at
regular intervals. For example, dead peas live, germinating peas
you could do this every hour
during the school day.
4 Display your results as a line graph.
• Put time in hours on the horizontal axis.
• Put temperature in °C on the vertical axis.
• Plot the points for the live peas as neat crosses. X
• Plot the points for the dead peas as dots with a circle around them.
• Join the points for each set of peas with ruled, straight lines between the points.
Questions
1 What was the variable that you changed in this experiment?
2 Which variables did you keep the same?
3 Which variable did you measure?
4 Suggest an explanation for your results.
5 If you did the experiment again, would you expect your results to be exactly the
same? Explain your answer.
6 Suggest any improvements you would make to your experiment, if you were able to
do it again. Explain why each of your suggestions would improve your experiment.
28
1.4 Respiration
Activity 1.4.1
Thinking about a thermogram
This photograph is a thermogram of a woman working at
her computer.
The colours on the photograph show the temperatures
of the different objects.
In a group of three, think about the photograph, and
discuss these questions. Be ready to share your ideas.
1 Which object in the photograph has the highest
temperature? Can you suggest why?
2 What is the approximate temperature of most of the woman’s body?
3 Explain why the woman’s body has a higher temperature than the chair she is sitting on.
Activity 1.4.2
Explaining the difference between breathing and respiration
Many people who have not studied science think that respiration and breathing mean the
same thing.
In your group of three, think about the meanings of these two words. (Look at Topic 1.3
to remind yourself about breathing.) Think of a good way of explaining the differences
between respiration and breathing, to someone else.
Choose one of these methods to give your explanation:
• making a poster
• producing a slide presentation
• giving an illustrated talk.
Decide how to share the tasks between you, and then work on your explanation.
Self-assessment
How well did you do each of these things as you worked on this activity?
• I made sure that I really understood the difference between breathing and respiration.
• I helped to decide which method we would use to give our explanation.
• I carried out my part of the task really well.
• I helped others in my group to carry out their tasks.
• I discussed what I was doing with the others in my group.
• I think that our explanation helped other people to understand the difference
between breathing and respiration.
29
1 Respiration
In the activity, you had to work out for yourself how to

explain the difference between breathing and respiration.
Do you think this helped you to understand the difference
yourself? Or would it have been better just to be told the
difference by your teacher?
Why do you think that?
Summary checklist
I can explain that respiration is a chemical reaction that releases useful energy from glucose,
in a controlled way.
I can write the word equation for respiration.
I can state that respiration happens inside every living cell.
I can state that aerobic respiration uses oxygen, and happens inside mitochondria.
I can explain the difference between breathing and respiration.
30
1.5 Blood
1.5 Blood
• learn about the structure of blood
• find out about the functions of red blood cells, white blood
cells and blood plasma.
With a partner, think about these questions. antibodies

• What do red blood cells look like? blood plasma
oxyhaemoglobin
• What is the function of a red blood cell?
pathogens
• How do the features of red blood cells help them to red blood cells
perform this function?
white blood cells
31
1 Respiration
Delivering the requirements for

respiration in cells
You have seen that all of your cells need energy to stay alive. Each cell
gets its energy through a chemical reaction called respiration.
Aerobic respiration happens inside the mitochondria in the cells.
The reactants are glucose and oxygen:
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
So every cell in your body needs a good supply of glucose and oxygen,
and the carbon dioxide and water that the cell makes must be taken
away. The delivery and removal is done by the blood.
The blood moves around the body inside blood vessels. The heart pumps
constantly, to keep the blood moving.
What is blood?
Everyone knows that blood is a red liquid. But if you are able to
look at some blood through a microscope, you may get a surprise.
The photograph shows what you might see.
This is the liquid part of the blood. This liquid
is called blood plasma. You can see that it is
not red at all. It is a very, very pale yellow.
Blood looks red because it contains a lot of

red blood cells, which float in this liquid.
Most of the cells in our blood are red blood
cells. An adult person has at least 20 trillion
red blood cells in their body. There are about
five million of them in every 1 cm3 of your blood.
These are called white blood cells. There are

not many of them, but some of them may be
quite a lot bigger than the red blood cells.
They don't look white in the photograph
because a stain has been added to the blood,
to make the cells show up more clearly.
The dark purple areas in these cells are their
nuclei. (Red blood cells don’t have nuclei.)
Blood viewed through a microscope
32
1.5 Blood
Questions
1 Look at the photograph on the previous page of blood
viewed through a microscope.
Approximately how many times more red blood cells
are there than white blood cells?
2 The photograph on the right was taken with a
powerful electron microscope.
A red blood cell and a white blood cell
What differences can you see between the red blood
cell and the white blood cell?
Plasma
Plasma is the liquid part of blood. It is mostly water. The red and
white blood cells are transported around the body in the blood plasma.
Plasma also has many other different substances dissolved in it.
For example, glucose, dissolved in blood plasma, is transported from
the digestive system to every cell.
You will remember that carbon dioxide is produced in every body cell,
by respiration. The carbon dioxide dissolves in blood plasma and is
carried away from the cells. The blood takes it to the lungs, where the
carbon dioxide diffuses out and is breathed out in your expired air.
Red blood cells

Stage 7, Topic 1.3 described how the structure of red blood cells is
related to their function. Now you are going to think about this in a
little bit more detail.
Red blood cells are very unusual cells. They do not have a nucleus
and they do not have mitochondria. They are full of a red pigment
called haemoglobin. It is haemoglobin that makes blood look red.
The structure of a red blood cell is related to its function.
cell membrane
There is no nucleus, to make
more room for haemoglobin. cytoplasm
The cytoplasm contains a red

pigment called haemoglobin,
which carries oxygen.
There are no mitochondria in

the cytoplasm.
A red blood cell
33
1 Respiration
The haemoglobin helps the red blood cells to transport oxygen.

• As the blood flows through the tiny capillaries next to the alveoli in
the lungs, oxygen from the air diffuses into the blood. Once it is in
the blood, the oxygen then diffuses into the red blood cells.
• Inside the red blood cell, the oxygen combines with haemoglobin.
It forms a very bright red compound called oxyhaemoglobin.
• As the blood continues on its journey around the body, it passes cells
that are respiring. The oxyhaemoglobin lets go of its oxygen and
gives it to the cells.
• The blood, which has given away most of its oxygen, now travels
back to the lungs to collect some more.
This explains why red blood cells have haemoglobin – but why don’t
they have a nucleus or mitochondria? Scientists think that not having
a nucleus makes more space for haemoglobin. They also think that not
having mitochondria stops the red blood cells from using up all the
oxygen for themselves, instead of delivering it elsewhere.
alveolus in lungs
blood containing a
lot of oxygen flows
oxygen diffuses away from lungs
from alveolus
into blood
haemoglobin in
red blood cells
picks up oxygen
haemoglobin in
blood containing
red blood cells
a small amount of
gives away oxygen
oxygen flows away
from body cells
body cells
oxygen diffuses
into body cells
How oxygen is transported around the body
Another way in which red blood cells are adapted for their function
is that they are quite a lot smaller than most cells in the body.
34
1.5 Blood
Being so small helps them to get through very tiny blood capillaries.
This means they can get really close to the alveoli in the lungs, and to
the respiring cells in other parts of the body.
Question
3 Explain why red blood cells might use up oxygen, if they
have mitochondria.
White blood cells

White blood cells are easy to distinguish from red blood cells.
They always have a nucleus, which red blood cells do not have. Some
kinds of white blood cell – but not all – are larger than red blood cells.
Some bacteria and viruses can cause illness when they get into the body.
These bacteria and viruses are called pathogens. White blood cells help
to defend us against pathogens.
Some kinds of white blood cell can change their shape, pathogen
white
and push their cytoplasm out to make ‘fingers’ that can blood cell
capture a pathogen. The white blood cell then produces
chemicals that kill and digest the pathogen.
Other types of white blood cell produce chemicals that kill
pathogens. These chemicals are called antibodies. They are
shown as little Y-shapes on the diagram below. Different kinds
of antibodies are needed for each different kind of pathogen.
The antibodies stick onto the pathogen. Sometimes, they kill the
pathogen directly. Sometimes, they glue lots of the pathogens
together so that they cannot move. This makes it easy for
other white blood cells to capture and kill the pathogens.
1 Bacteria may get into the body.
Some kinds of of bacteria are
pathogens. They could make you ill.
2 Some kinds of white

blood cell make chemicals
called antibodies.
The antibodies
stick to the bacteria.
3 Sometimes, the antibodies simply kill

the bacteria. Sometimes, they stick
them together so that other white
blood cells can come and kill them.
35
1.5 Blood
Activity 1.5.1
Making a picture of blood
You are going to make a picture of some blood, as it might look if you saw it through
a microscope. Work as a pair, or in a small group.
You will need:

• sheet of plain paper • some red card • some white card • scissors • glue
Method
4 Use the red card to make some red blood cells. Think about how many you need to make.
5 Use the white card to make some white blood cells. Use a pen or pencil to draw a
nucleus in each one. Think about how many you need to make.
6 Stick the red blood cells and white blood cells onto the white paper. The white paper
can represent the blood plasma.
7 Write labels to stick onto the paper. Remember to label the blood plasma.
Questions
Component of blood Appearance Function

red blood cell
white blood cell
plasma
5 Name three things that are transported in blood plasma.
Summary checklist
I can describe what blood plasma is, and its function.
I can explain how red blood cells, containing haemoglobin, transport oxygen.
I can explain how white blood cells help to protect us against pathogens.
36
1.5 Blood
Project: Helping white blood cells to protect us from pathogens

This project is about how scientific knowledge develops over time, and how scientific
discoveries can help people all over the world.
Background
Our white blood cells are amazing at keeping us safe from pathogens. Most of the time,
they manage to destroy the pathogens so that we recover quickly from an infection.
But there are some pathogens that white blood cells cannot destroy in time. The virus that
causes rabies is one of these. If the rabies virus gets into a person’s body, the body needs
outside help in order to stop the virus spreading. Without treatment, most people die if
they are infected with the rabies virus.
Your task
You are going to work in a group to find out information about rabies, and how it can be
successfully treated. Each group will work on a different topic.
Choose one or two of the following five topics to research with your group. Also choose
how you will present your findings to others. You could make a poster, or give
an illustrated talk.
Discovering what causes rabies
Who first discovered the cause of rabies, and when did they do this?
First vaccine for rabies
Who created the first vaccine
for rabies, and how did they
do this?
How rabies is transmitted
How can a person be infected
with rabies?
Preventing rabies
In which countries is rabies most
common? What can people in
these countries do to reduce
the risk of getting rabies?
Treatment for rabies
What should someone do if they
have been bitten by an animal
with rabies? How do rabies
vaccines help our white blood
cells to fight the virus? Illustration of a rabies virus
37
1 Respiration
Check your progress

1.1 The list includes some of the structures that air passes through, as it moves
from outside the body to the place where gas exchange happens.
Write the structures in the correct order.
bronchiole trachea bronchus alveolus (air sac)[2]
1.2 The diagram shows an air sac and a blood capillary.
a Copy the diagram. Label:

• the blood capillary
• the wall of the air sac. [2]
b Draw two red blood cells in the correct place on your diagram. [1]
c Draw an arrow to show the direction in which oxygen diffuses.
Label your arrow O. [1]
d Draw an arrow to show the direction in which carbon dioxide diffuses.
Label your arrow C. [1]
e Describe how the red blood cells transport oxygen to all the cells in the body. [2]
1.3 In each of these groups of statements, only one is correct.
Choose the correct statement, and write down its letter.
a A Every living cell respires.
B Only animal cells respire.
C Respiration uses up energy. [1]
38
1 Respiration
b A Expired (breathed out) air contains only carbon dioxide.

B Expired air contains more carbon dioxide than inspired (breathed in) air.
C Expired air contains more oxygen than inspired air. [1]
c A Respiration means using your diaphragm to move air into the lungs.
B Respiration is the diffusion of gases between the air sacs and the blood.
C Respiration is a series of chemical reactions that releases useful energy
from glucose. [1]
d A Muscles in the lungs contract to make air move into them.
B The diaphragm muscles contract to move air into the lungs.
C Muscles between the ribs pull them downwards when we breathe in. [1]
1.4 The diagrams show two blood cells.
a Copy the drawing of the red blood cell.

Label the cell membrane and cytoplasm. [1]
b Name two structures that most cells have, but that red blood cells do not have. [2]
c The white blood cell shown in the diagram kills pathogens by producing
chemicals. Describe how it does this. [2]
d Other kinds of white blood cell have a different way of killing pathogens.
Explain how they do this. [3]
39
2 Properties of
materials
2.1 Dissolving
• correctly use the scientific terms associated with dissolving
• investigate the properties of solutions
• practise measuring mass and volume
With a partner: conserved

• explain the differences between an element, a compound dissolving
and a mixture opaque
• draw a diagram of the way particles are arranged in a liquid solute
solution
• share your answers with the class.
solvent
transparent
40
2.1 Dissolving
What is a solution?
When you place a lump of sugar in water, the sugar seems gradually to
disappear. The sugar is dissolving. You are left with a colourless solution.
The substance that dissolves is called the solute. The substance that it
dissolves into is called the solvent.
A solution is a mixture. So, in our example, the colourless solution is
a mixture of sugar and water. Although the sugar seems to disappear,
it is still there. The sugar particles have simply spread out among the
water particles.
Sugar is the Water is the When the sugar cube is When the sugar has dissolved,
solute solvent added to the water, the the sugar and water mixture
sugar starts to dissolve is the colourless solution
The diagrams below show what happens to the sugar particles when the
cube dissolves.
The sugar crystal is visible because it is made of lots of groups of vibrating

particles that are tightly packed together.
As the water particles vibrate and slide past one another, they bump into the
vibrating sugar particles. The movement helps to separate the sugar particles
and they get mixed up with the water particles.
Eventually, the water particles separate all the sugar particles. The sugar
particles are no longer in groups and are too small to be seen.
41
2 Properties of materials
All solutions are transparent. This means you can see through them.
Transparent doesn’t mean colourless. For example, if you dissolve a
coloured salt, such as copper sulfate, the solution formed is blue.
But you can still see through it. It is still transparent.
A liquid such as milk is not transparent. You cannot see through it.
It is opaque. Because of this, you can tell that milk is not a solution.
Copper sulfate forms a solution; it is transparent Milk is not a solution; you can tell this because it is opaque
It is easy to confuse melting with dissolving. Remember: dissolving

needs two substances, a solute and a solvent.
Examples of dissolving Examples of melting

Sugar (solute) in black tea Butter in a frying pan
(solvent)
Instant coffee (solute) in hot Ice cream on a warm day
water (solvent)
Nail polish (solute) in nail polish Candle wax as the candle burns
remover (solvent)
42
2.1 Dissolving
Dissolving and mass top pan balance
00.00 g
You will need:
• top pan balance • filter paper filter paper
• salt • stirring rod • beaker of water salt
Method stirring rod
1 Place the filter paper on the top pan balance. beaker

Measure and record its mass. containing at
least 100 cm3
2 Add about 20–25 g of salt. This is the solute. water
Measure and record the mass of the salt.
3 Remove the paper and salt from the balance.
4 Place a beaker containing at least 100 cm3 of water on the top pan balance.
Measure and record the mass of the water and the beaker together. The water
is the solvent.
5 Add the salt to the water. Stir until all the salt has dissolved. Measure the mass
of the beaker and salt solution.
Questions
1 What was the mass of salt used?
2 What was the mass of the water and the beaker?
3 What was the mass of the solution and the beaker?
4 What does this tell you about the salt solution?
When salt is added to water and it dissolves, it has not disappeared.

The salt particles are still in the water. The mass of the solution equals
the total mass of the solute and solvent. This is true for any solution.
mass of solute + mass of solvent = mass of solution
No mass has been lost. The mass has been conserved.
43
Questions
1 In a solution of sugar and water, which is the solvent and which
is the solute?
2 What is the difference between dissolving and melting?
3 What mass of salt solution is made when 9 g of salt is dissolved
in 50 g of water? Explain how you worked out your answer.
4 A green powder was placed into a beaker of water. After it was
stirred, the water looked cloudy and lumps of powder could still be
seen. Has a solution been formed? Explain your answer.
5 When measuring the volume of a liquid, what should you do in
order to make your measurement as accurate as possible?
Summary checklist
I can use the words solvent, solute and solution appropriately.
I can use particle theory to explain some of the properties of solutions.
I can measure mass and volume of liquids accurately.
44
2.1 Dissolving
2.2 Solutions and

solubility
• make solutions of different concentrations
• compare the number of solute particles in solutions
of different concentrations
• investigate solubility
• compare the solubility of various solutes
You have one minute to think about the meanings of the words concentrated
solvent, solute and solution. You have one minute to discuss dilute
them with a partner. Now write your meanings on different insoluble
pieces of paper. Share them with the class. saturated
solubility
soluble
45
Solutions
A solution is made when a solute is dissolved in a solvent.
More particles of the solute are dissolved in a concentrated solution
than in a dilute solution.
sugar particle
water particle
A concentrated solution of sugar has a lot A dilute solution of sugar has fewer
of sugar particles sugar particles
Making different concentrations of a solution
You will need:

• safety glasses • test tubes • test tube rack • pipette
• two measuring cylinders, suitable for measuring 10 cm3
• concentrated solution of food dye • beaker of water
Method
1 Carefully measure out 10 cm3 of the concentrated food dye solution.
When you have added about the correct volume you can use
the pipette to add or remove the final amount drop-by-drop,
so that your measurement is as accurate as possible. Place it in
a test tube and leave it in the test tube rack. This is solution A.
2 Carefully measure another 8 cm3 of the concentrated food dye
solution. Pour it into a test tube.
3 Measure out 2 cm3 water and add it to the 8 cm3 of food dye.
Leave it in the test tube rack. This is solution B.
46
2.1 Dissolving
Continued
4 Use the table below to make up food dye solutions C, D and E.

Place the solutions in the test tube rack, in order, from A–E.
Solution Volume of concentrated Volume of water Total volume

food dye solution in cm3 in cm3 in cm3
A 10 0 10
B 8 2 10
C 6 4 10
D 4 6 10
E 2 8 10
5 Look carefully at the solutions you have made.
Questions
1 What do you notice about the solutions?
2 How can you tell which is the least concentrated?
3 If you repeated this task using a salt or sugar solution, would you
be able to identify the most and least concentrated solutions?
Explain your answer.
4 Why is it important to measure the food dye solution and the
water accurately?
5 If you only had a measuring cylinder that measured up to 100 cm3,
would using these same volumes of copper sulfate and water
be accurate?
6 Compare the number of particles of food dye in the most
concentrated solution of food dye and the most dilute solution.
Solubility
A solid that dissolves in a solvent such as water is said to be soluble.
Sodium chloride (common salt) and sugar are soluble.
A solid that will not dissolve in water is insoluble. Iron filings are
insoluble in water.
If you keep adding a soluble solid to a beaker of water, there comes
a point where no more of the solid will dissolve. You have made a
saturated solution.
47
Some soluble substances are more soluble than others. If you have
100 cm3 of water, you would be able to dissolve a lot of sodium chloride
in it, but only a tiny amount of lead chloride. Sodium chloride has
greater solubility than lead chloride.
Solubility in water
You will need:

• test tubes • test tube rack • safety glasses • measuring cylinder • spatula
• a range of solutes such as sodium chloride, potassium sulfate and sugar
In this task you will use various solutes and investigate their solubility in water.
You will use water at room temperature.
Method
1 Place a measured volume of water
in a number of test tubes. Use a
different test tube for each of
the solutes.
2 Add the first solute to the water.
Count how many spatulas of the
solute you can add until no more
will dissolve. After you add each
spatula of the solute, shake or
stir the contents of the test tube
carefully.
3 Repeat for the other solutes.
4 Record your results in a table.
Questions
1 Which was the most soluble of the solutes you used?
2 Which was the least soluble of the solutes you used?
3 In this investigation you used the number of spatulas as a measure of the quantity
of solute added. Suggest another way of measuring the quantity of solute used,
to improve the accuracy of the results.
How can you ensure your results are as accurate as possible?
48
2.2 Solutions and solubility
Comparing solubility
To compare the solubility of different solutes you must measure how
much of each solute will dissolve in a known amount of the solvent.
The table shows the solubility of different salts. It shows how much of
each salt can be dissolved when it is added to 100 g of water at 20 °C.
Solute Solubility in grams of solute

per 100 g of the solvent at 20 °C
sodium chloride 36
copper sulfate 32
calcium chloride 74
potassium chlorate 7
lead chloride 1
Questions
1 What is a saturated solution?
2 How much copper sulfate will dissolve in 100 g water at 20 °C?
3 How much potassium chlorate will dissolve in 200 g water at 20 °C?
4 How much sodium chloride will dissolve in 50 g water at 20 °C?
5 Use the data in the table to draw a bar chart to show the solubility
of the various solutes in 100 g water at 20 °C.
Temperature and solubility

Most solutes will dissolve more quickly and easily in hot water than in
cold water. Think about what happens to the particles when they have
more energy. The more energy the particles have, the more they vibrate
and move.
You can dissolve a greater mass of a solute in hot water than in the same
volume of cold water. In other words, as the temperature increases, the
solubility of most solutes also increases.
For example, if you have 100 g of water at 20 °C you can dissolve 204 g
of sugar in it. If you heat the water to 80 °C, you can dissolve 362 g of
sugar in it.
49
Worked example
Question
204 g of sugar dissolves in 100 g of water at 20 °C.
a How much sugar will dissolve in 200 g of water at 20 °C?
b How much sugar will dissolve in 50 g of water at 20 °C?
Answer
a 200 g of water is twice as much as 100 g, so twice as much sugar will dissolve: 204 × 2 = 408 g
b In 100 g water, 204 g sugar dissolves
In 1 g water, 204  100 g sugar dissolves = 2.04 g
In 50 g water, 2.04 × 50 g sugar dissolves = 102 g
Questions
6 How much sugar can be dissolved in 250 g of water at 20 °C?
7 How much more sugar can be dissolved if the 250 g of water
is at 80 °C?
Comparing the solubility of different salts

This table and the graph on the next page show the solubility of three
salts at a range of temperatures. Look carefully at the graph and answer
the questions.
Temperature Potassium nitrate in Sodium nitrate in Copper sulfate in

in °C grams per 100 g grams per 100 g grams per 100 g
of water of water of water
0 14 73 13
10 21 81 15
20 32 88 17
30 45 96 20
40 63 105 30
50 84 114 35
60 108 124 40
70 136 134 47
80 168 148 56
50
2.2 Solutions and solubility
170
160
150
140
130
120
sodium nitrate potassium nitrate
110
100
90
Mass of salt dissolved
in 100 g water in g 80
70
60
copper sulfate
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Temperature in °C
Graph showing the solubility of three salts at a range of temperatures
Questions
8 What is the general trend for the solubility of all three salts?
9 What is the solubility of potassium nitrate at 45 °C?
10 Which of these three salts is most soluble at 10 °C?
11 Which salt is the most soluble at 80 °C?
51
Other solvents
Water is not the only solvent. Some substances that are insoluble in
water will dissolve in other solvents.
For example, some types of oil paint are not soluble in water. So, if
you need to clean your brushes after you’ve used oil paint, you will
need to use a solvent that the paint will dissolve in, such as methanol
(methylated spirits).
Nail polish does not dissolve in water but dissolves in nail
polish remover. Most nail polish remover contains the solvent
propanone (acetone).
These paint brushes are being cleaned in jars of The nail polish remover on the cotton pad contains
methylated spirit propanone (acetone)
Summary checklist
I can describe how to make solutions of different concentrations.
I can compare the number of solute particles in solutions of different concentrations.
I can carry out an investigation safely.
I can compare the solubility of various solutes.
52
2.3 Planning a solubility investigation
2.3 Planning a solubility

investigation
• plan an investigation, considering all the variables
• carry out an investigation.
Discuss with a partner the difference between accurate results control variables
and reliable results. Share your ideas with the class. dependent
variable
independent
variable
interval
range
variables
53
Dissolving salt in water

These students are discussing how they will investigate how temperature
affects the amount of salt that will dissolve in water. They are trying to
think of all the different things that could affect the results. These are
the variables.
The volume of
Salt dissolves faster in
water will make
hot water than it does
a difference.
in cold water.
We need to be sure
we only change the
temperature of the water.
We can count the
number of spatulas of cm3
100
salt that we add. 90
80
70
Questions 60
50
40
1 Which variables have the students identified? 30
20
2 How do you think the volume of water will affect the results if it
10
is not kept the same? Explain your answer.

The volume of water is kept
The students carry out the experiment. They decide to count the the same
number of spatulas of salt (sodium chloride) that will dissolve in
50 cm3 of water. They will repeat the experiment at different °C °C
temperatures from 20 °C to 80 °C.

50 50
40 40
The variable they change is the temperature of the water. They will 30 30
count the number of spatulas of salt that will dissolve. This is the 20 20
variable that depends on the temperature of the water. 10 10
0 0
The volume of water is the variable that the students keep the same,
to ensure that the test is fair.
The temperature is changed
The variable you change is called the independent variable.
The variable you measure is called the dependent variable. spatula salt °C
The variables you keep the same are the control variables. 50
40
When you plot a graph of your results, the independent variable 30
always goes along the horizontal axis. The dependent variable 20
always goes up the vertical axis. 10
The number of spatulas used

is measured
54
2.3 Planning a solubility investigation
Questions
3 Which variable is the independent variable in the students’ investigation?
4 Which variable is a control variable in the students’ investigation?
Is there any other variable that needs to be controlled?
(Hint: Think about the spatula.)
5 Which is the dependent variable in this investigation?
6 What would the label be on the vertical axis of a graph of the results
of this investigation?

Plan and carry out an investigation into the effect of water temperature on the
amount of sodium chloride (common salt) that will dissolve in it
Part 1: Planning the investigation
In a group of two or three, discuss the plan for your investigation.
You need to consider the variables, risk assessments, equipment and method.
Discuss these questions.
• What volume of water you will use?
• How you will change the temperature of the water and how you will keep it at that
temperature while you add the sodium chloride?
• What range of temperatures you will use? (The highest and lowest temperatures
you will use.) Remember to be practical about this.
• What interval between temperatures will you use? (Will you use gaps of 10 °C
between temperatures, or 5 °C?)
• What will you do to ensure you are safe while carrying out your investigation?
• What equipment will you need?
• What method will you use?
You need to prepare a table to use for your results. Think about how many columns
you will need. What headings will you use? What units will you use? How many readings
will you take? Will you repeat your tests?
Once you have discussed your plan with your teacher, you may need to
change a few things.
Make sure you have a full plan written, including a step-by-step method,
before you carry out the investigation.
Have you considered everything you need for your investigation?

How can you improve your planning?
55

Plan and carry out an investigation into the effect of water temperature on the
amount of sodium chloride (common salt) that will dissolve in it
Part 2: Carrying out the investigation
Collect the equipment that you chose in your plan.
Make sure you have your step-by-step method to follow.
Carry out your investigation.
Questions
1 Plot an appropriate graph.
2 Explain what you have found out.
3 Would you expect similar results if you used another salt, such as copper
sulfate or lead chloride?
How accurate were your results?

How could you improve the accuracy?
Summary checklist
I can identify different types of variables.
I can plan an investigation.
56
2.4 Paper chromatography

• use paper chromatography to separate dissolved substances
• interpret chromatograms
• use scientific language accurately.
Draw diagrams to show the ways you could separate mixtures chromatogram
that involve solutions. Check your ideas with a partner. paper
chromatography
permanent
solvent front
57
Colours in ink
Black coloured ink looks as if it is just one colour – black. In fact, it is
a mixture of different coloured inks. You can separate out the coloured
inks by using a technique called paper chromatography.
Special paper, a bit like filter paper, is used.
Look at the photograph (right). A small drop
of black ink has been placed on the paper.
The water in the beaker has soaked up into the
paper. As the water moves up the paper, the
different coloured inks that make black ink
separate out.
The resulting image on the paper is called
a chromatogram.
The coloured inks separate because the water
dissolves them. Water is the solvent. As the
water moves up the paper, it carries the ink
particles with it. The different kinds of ink particles are carried different
distances before they are left behind on the paper. This is because not all
the ink particles have the same solubility. The more soluble the ink, the
further its particles are carried.
In the photograph below, you can see the different coloured inks that
make up the ink in three different coloured pens – green, black, and red.
Some ink is not soluble in water, such as the ink in permanent marker
pens. To separate out the colours in these inks, you would need to use a
different solvent, such as alcohol.
58
Separating the colours in ink
You will need:

• chromatography paper (or filter paper) • beaker • water • pencil and ruler
• glass rod or wooden spill • ink or a pen • various other inks and/or food dyes
• pipette (if using liquid ink)
Method
1 Take a strip of chromatography paper. Draw a pencil line about 1 cm
from the end.
2 Place a spot of ink on the pencil line. The spot should be as small
as possible.
3 Dry the spot and then add a little more ink.
4 Place about 2 cm depth of water in a beaker.
5 Hang the paper over a glass rod, pencil or wooden spill so that the
end with the ink spot is just in the water. Make sure the ink spot stays
above the level of the water.
6 Watch what happens as the water moves up the strip of paper.
7 Remove the strip of paper before the water reaches the top.
You need to be careful as the wet paper can tear easily.
8 Allow the strip to dry and then stick it in your book. This is
your chromatogram.
You can try this with all sorts of coloured liquids. Different inks and food
dyes, especially from sweets or fruit syrup, are very good. You could also
try this with permanent marker pens that have ink that is not soluble
in water.
Questions
1 Why did you use a line drawn in pencil on the paper?
2 Why was it important not to let the ink spot go under the water?
3 Why was it important to remove the strip of paper before the water level
reached the end of the strip?
4 Describe your results.
59
Did you have any difficulties carrying out this practical work?
How did you overcome them?
How could you improve the way you carried out this practical task?
When comparing different substances, a scientist may use a large piece

of chromatography paper and place spots of different items alongside
each other. The scientist will allow the solvent to move up through all
the samples at the same time. To do this, the
paper needs to be placed in a large
chromatography tank.
The chromatogram shown here has been
produced using this technique. It shows
the colours in a number of different felt
tip pens.
Scientists use chromatography to study the
dyes used in food. Some food dyes contain
only one substance; they are a pure substance.
Other dyes contain a mixture of substances.
It is important to know exactly what is being
used when our food is processed – we need
to know if any substances could be a health
risk; for example, they could be toxic or cause
allergic reactions.
Questions
The drawing of a chromatograph, on the
right, shows the results for some food dyes.
1 Which food dyes are pure substances?
2 Which food dye is not a pure substance?
3 Which coloured substance in the food dyes is the most soluble?
4 Which coloured substance in the food dyes is the least soluble?
Public health scientists may also use chromatography
to check that the colourings being used in products
such as hair dye or the ink in pens are not harmful. blue brown yellow
To do this they compare chromatograms taken from a

solution of the food, hair dye or ink with chromatograms
taken from the colourings that are permitted.
60
The diagrams here show a chromatogram from a hair

dye called Sunny Red and a chromatogram D
showing all the permitted dyes.
5 The chromatogram for Sunny Red shows four C
separate substances. Are any not permitted?
If so, which? B
6 The scientist decides to run the test again. A
Why does she do that?
7 Which of the substances in Sunny Red is the
most soluble? Give a reason for your answer.
chromatogram chromatogram of permitted dyes
from Sunny Red
Activity 2.4.1
Using the correct words
This unit uses a number of words that look and sound similar. For example: solute, solvent
and solution; chromatography and chromatogram; dissolve and dilute. Your task is to
make up a game to help you learn them. You could make a set of cards with the words
written on them, and another set of cards with the meanings written on them.
Think how you could use these to make a game. Your game can be for any number of
players; you decide how many you want to play.
How do you learn new words and terms? Does a game help?
Which is the most effective way of learning for you?
61
Is the green colour in plant leaves pure?
You will need:

• fresh plant material such as spinach • pestle and mortar • ethanol • pipette
• chromatography paper • beaker • pencil • glass rod or spill
Safety
When using ethanol, make sure you are in a well-ventilated room
and there are no heat sources close to you. 1 pestle
Method
1 Add a handful of spinach and a few drops of ethanol into
the mortar. Use the pestle to crush the spinach and ethanol
mortar
together. Let it stand for about 10 minutes to leave time for
the green pigment to dissolve in the ethanol.
2 Prepare the chromatography paper with a pencil line and a 2
cross, about 1 cm from the end.
3 Use a pipette to load some of the green liquid from the mortar
onto the cross. Allow the spot to dry before adding more of 3
the liquid.
4 Place the chromatography paper over a glass rod or pencil.
Hang it in a beaker containing some ethanol, so that the
pencil line is just above the ethanol.
4
5 Watch carefully and remove the chromatography paper before
the ethanol reaches the top of the paper. The point that the
solvent reaches is called the solvent front.
Allow the chromatogram to dry and then stick it in your book.
Questions
1 Why was ethanol used in this investigation and not water?
2 Is the green pigment in plants pure? What is your evidence for this?
Did you have any difficulties carrying out this practical work?
How did you overcome them?
How could you improve the way you carried out this practical work?
62
Summary checklist
I can describe how to use chromatography to carry out a practical task to separate
dissolved substances.
I can explain what the results of a chromatogram show.
I can use scientific language accurately.
63
Project: The secret formula

This project shows how scientists work together and share their ideas.
You can only use the information available and make deductions – just
like research scientists. As you share your ideas, you will think about the
information in different ways and then develop a theory and suggest more
investigations.
Background
Professor Sneeze has been working on a new medicine that will protect
people from coughs and colds. If this medicine works it will save a lot of
people from feeling ill and taking time off work or school. It will also make
him famous and make a lot of money for his university.
Unfortunately, news that he has produced the medicine has reached some
people who want to steal the formula, sell it to a company that will make
the medicine and make themselves rich.
While he is working in his laboratory, a note is delivered to Professor
Sneeze. The note asks him to meet Professor Clean in her laboratory at
11.00 am as she has an interesting experiment that she wants to show
him. Just before 11.00 am he goes to Professor Clean’s laboratory. When
he arrives, Professor Clean is pleased to see him but has no idea why he
has come. She did not send the note.
Dear Professor Sneeze,

I have an experiment due to finish today. I think you will be very interested to
see the results as they may help you to improve the way your new medicine can
be produced. Please come to my laboratory at 11.00 am when the experiment will
have finished and we can discuss the results.
Best wishes,
Professor Clean
By the time Professor Sneeze gets back to his laboratory, his equipment
has been damaged and the medicine formula has been stolen.
64
Continued
Your task
Your group is going to help the professor try to find out who wrote
the note. Ink from the note has been dissolved in water and given to
you as a solution. Choose the equipment you will need and produce
a chromatogram to show the different components in the ink.
The professor has borrowed pens from the four most likely suspects.
Doctor Price: pen A; Doctor May: pen B; Doctor Burns: pen C and
Professor Green: pen D.
Your job is to test the ink from all four pens to identify which pen was
used to write the note.
In your group, discuss these questions.
• Who do you think wrote the note? Explain why you think that.
• Explain how you produce a chromatogram.
• What precautions must you take?
• Is this enough evidence to be sure you have the person who has
the formula?
• What other evidence would you look for?
Present your evidence to the class.
65
Check your progress

2.1 Copy and complete these sentences. Use the words from the list.
You may use each word once, more than once or not at all.
solvent mixture solution mass temperature

solid saturated dissolve volume insoluble
A solute is a solid that … in a liquid.
The liquid it dissolves into is called a … .
Together they make a …
A solid that does not dissolve in a liquid is called … .
The solubility of a solid measures how much of a solute will dissolve.
When you measure the solubility of a solute you must use the same …
and type of solvent at a given … . [6]
2.2 The table gives the names, colours and solubility in water of four compounds.
Name Colour Solubility in water

sodium chloride white soluble
zinc carbonate white insoluble
iron sulfate green soluble
copper carbonate green insoluble
The compounds were added to separate beakers of water. There was enough
water to dissolve the soluble compounds completely. The contents of each
beaker were filtered.
a One of the compounds left a white solid in the filter paper.
What is the name of this compound? [1]
b What is the colour of the filtrate from this beaker? [1]
c Describe how you could obtain pure crystals of iron sulfate from
a mixture of copper carbonate and iron sulfate. [3]
66
2.3 Some learners have been investigating the mass of copper sulfate that can
be dissolved in water at different temperatures. The learners added copper
sulfate until no more would dissolve. They carefully measured the mass of
copper sulfate they added. Here are their results.
Temperature of water in °C 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Mass of copper sulfate dissolved in g 22 24 28 32 30 46 58
a What name is given to a solution when no more of the solute can be
dissolved in it? [1]
b What range of temperatures did the learners use? [1]
c What interval did the learners use for the temperatures? [1]
d Name one variable that the learners should keep the same. [1]
e Which is the independent variable? [1]
Here is a graph of their results.
60
50
Mass of copper sulfate

40
dissolved in g
30
20
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Temperature of water in °C
f Identify any results that do not fit the pattern. [1]

g What conclusion can the learners draw from their results? [1]
67
3 Forces and energy
3.1 Forces and motion
• understand what is meant by balanced and unbalanced forces
• describe the effects of balanced forces on motion
• describe the effects of unbalanced forces on motion.
Work in groups to discuss answers to these questions. balanced

1 What is the unit of force? change direction
direction
2 How are forces shown on diagrams?
force
3 One or more forces always act on any object on Earth. Is this true? opposite
slow down
unbalanced
68
Balanced or unbalanced?
Look at any object that is not moving.
You may think that if an object is not moving,
no forces are acting to push, pull or twist it.
This is not true.
Look at the rock in the picture. The force of gravity
is pulling it toward the centre of the Earth. This force
is called its weight. The rock does not move toward contact force
the centre of the Earth because the ground is pushing
up on the rock. This force is the contact force.
These two forces are balanced. This means the forces rock
are equal in size and opposite in direction.
There could be more than two forces acting on ground
the rock.
Imagine the wind is blowing. The wind will push
the rock from one side. weight
Why does the rock not move sideways? The pushing The forces acting on the rock
force from the wind is balanced by friction between
the rock and the ground.
contact force
These forces can be shown in a force diagram. In a
force diagram, the arrows show the size and direction
of each force. The longer the arrow, the bigger
rock
the force. So, when you draw a force diagram with
wind friction
balanced forces, make sure the arrows are the same
length and point in opposite directions. ground
Starting to move weight

Imagine the rock is now pushed with a much larger
force than the wind, such as a large vehicle. The forces acting on the rock when the wind
is blowing
When the vehicle pushes on the rock, the pushing
force will be larger than friction.
69
3 Forces and energy
The rock will now move because the sideways forces are contact force
not balanced.
push from
This can be shown on the force diagram. large vehicle
The rock will now start to move in the direction of the friction
larger sideways force.
The rock will not move up or down because the forces
acting up and down are still balanced. weight
The forces are no longer balanced and the rock

Slowing down will start to move
Unbalanced or unequal forces can also make moving

objects slow down. A parachute makes a falling object slow down.
When an object is falling quickly, the parachute causes a force of air
resistance that is larger than the weight of the object.
These forces can be shown in a force diagram.
air resistance
air resistance
weight weight
When the parachute first opens, the forces are When the object slows, the air resistance
unbalanced. This unbalanced force makes the decreases, so the forces become balanced
object slow down. again. Then the object falls at a constant
speed.
This force diagram shows the object falling
at a constant speed.
70
Changing direction
Unbalanced forces can also make objects change direction.
This tennis ball will change direction because of an unbalanced force.
When the ball contacts the tennis racket, the ball pushes on the tennis
racket. To make the ball go back in the opposite direction, the hitting
force must be larger than the force from the ball.
This can be shown in a force diagram.
tennis racket
hitting force on the ball
Stage 7, Topic 3.3 described planets orbiting the

Sun due to the force of gravity. direction of orbit
direction of planet
The force of gravity on a planet is a constant, force from the
unbalanced force. Sun’s gravity
When an object moves in a circle, its direction is

always changing. A constant unbalanced force is Sun
needed to keep an object moving in a circle.
71
3 Forces and energy
Summary
• When forces are equal in size and opposite in direction, the forces
are balanced.
• Balanced forces cause no change in movement.
• When forces are not equal in size and/or act in directions that are
not opposite, the forces are unbalanced.
• Unbalanced forces cause change in movement: speeding up, slowing
down or changing direction.
Size of forces Direction of forces Balanced or Change in movement

unbalanced
Equal Opposite Balanced None
Equal Not opposite Unbalanced Change of direction
Increase or decrease
Not equal Opposite Unbalanced
speed
Increase or decrease
Not equal Not opposite Unbalanced speed and change
of direction
Questions
1 a Describe what is meant by ‘balanced forces’.
b A box is on the floor. The box is not moving.
i Draw a labelled force diagram to show all the forces acting
on the box.
ii Arun pushes the box sideways. The box does not move.
Draw another labelled force diagram to show all the forces
acting on the box when Arun is pushing.
72
2 A tug of war is a game played by two teams of people, each pulling on the same rope. The
team that pulls the rope to their side wins.
The picture shows a tug of war. The teams in this game are called Team A and Team B.
Team A Team B
Both Team A and Team B are pulling on the rope.

The rope is not moving.
Use ideas about forces to answer these questions.
a Explain why the rope is not moving.
b The rope starts to move towards Team B. Give two changes that
could make the rope move towards Team B.
3 The diagram shows the forces on an
aeroplane in the air. lift
a Explain why this aeroplane is:

thrust drag
i flying at a constant speed
weight
ii not getting higher or lower.
b Name the force that should
increase to make the aeroplane:
i go faster ii go higher
c Name the force that should decrease to make the aeroplane: A
i go lower ii go faster. D B
4 The picture shows a toy train moving around a circular track.
toy train
The locomotive contains an electric motor that drives the train.
C track
The train moves in a circle at a constant speed. direction of
movement
Give the letter of the arrow that shows the direction of: of toy train
a the driving force of the train
b the force of friction on the locomotive
c the force that keeps the train moving in a circle.
73
3 Forces and energy
Activity 3.1.1
Balanced or unbalanced forces?
On a large piece of paper, draw a table with two columns: one for balanced forces and
one for unbalanced forces.
Put each of these situations into the correct column, according to the forces that are acting.
The situations are:
• a motorcycle going around a corner
• a boy on a skateboard slowing down
• a bowling ball rolling at constant speed in a straight line
• a girl on a swing getting faster
• a computer sitting on a desk
• a helicopter going straight upwards at a constant speed
• a coconut falling from a tree and getting faster.
How did you decide which situations had balanced forces and which
had unbalanced forces?
Did your strategy work?
Could you use this strategy again, or would you change it?
Measuring balanced and unbalanced forces

You will investigate the effects of balanced and unbalanced forces.
Work in pairs.
You will need:

• two forcemeters • piece of string • coloured tape • scissors
Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram.

forcemeter string coloured tape forcemeter
100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
0
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
coloured tape fixed to desk
74
Continued
Method
1 Each person in the pair holds one forcemeter (also known as a newton meter).
The string should be tight.
The coloured tape on the string should be lined up with the coloured tape on
the desk.
2 Each person pulls with an equal force, for example, 4 N.
Questions
1 What directions must you both pull to keep the pieces of coloured tape lined up?
2 Both people increase the pulling force to, for example, 8 N.
Explain why the string does not move, even when the force is increased.
3 One person decreases their force by 1 N. If the force was 8 N, then decrease the
force to 7 N.
a Describe what happens to the string.
b Use a force diagram to explain what happens to the string.
4 Now make the difference between the forces larger so that, for example, the
difference is now 2 N or 3 N.
How does the difference between the sizes of the forces affect the movement
of the string?
5 Explain why the two forcemeters do not have to be the same.
6 This investigation is an analogy of a tug of war. That means the investigation can
be compared with a tug of war.
State what is represented by the forcemeters in this analogy.
75
3 Forces and energy
Continued
Self-assessment
Decide how confident you are about each of these statements.
Give yourself 5 if you are very confident and 1 if you are not confident at all.
• I understand what balanced forces are.
• I can draw force diagrams to show balanced forces.
• I can draw force diagrams to show unbalanced forces.
• I can predict some things that can happen when forces are unbalanced.
• I understand that there can be forces acting on an object even when it is not moving.
Summary checklist
I can describe what is meant by balanced forces in terms of size and direction.
I can understand that forces can be acting on an object that is not moving.
I can recognise when forces are unbalanced.
I can list some of the effects of unbalanced forces.
76
3.2 Speed
3.2 Speed
• understand what is meant by speed
• learn about the unit of speed
• be able to calculate speed
Work in groups to discuss answers to these questions. average speed

1 What are the speed limits for cars where you live? calculate
constant
2 Signs showing speed limits usually do not have units.
What are the units used for speeds of cars? m/s
metre
metres per
second
per
second
speed
77
3 Forces and energy
Units of speed
There are many different units of speed. Different units are sometimes
used in different countries and for different things. For example, the
speed of ships is often measured in knots, whereas aeroplanes often use
Mach. Some countries have road speed limits in kilometres per hour,
whereas some countries use miles per hour.
So, to avoid confusion, scientists use standard units for measurement in
all countries.
The standard unit for speed is metres per second.
The word per means ‘in each’. Therefore, metres per second means the
number of metres travelled in each second. For example, a horse running
with a speed of 15 metres per second means the horse travels a distance
of 15 metres in each second.
Metres per second is written as m/s.
Calculating speed
The way you calculate speed is linked to the unit metres per second, m/s.
For example, think of a bus that travels a distance of 100 m in a time of 20 s.
The bus has travelled 100 m in 20 s, so how many metres does it travel in
each 1 s?
total distance travelled
number of metres travelled in each second = _________________
total time
number of metres travelled in each second = speed
total distance travelled

speed = _________________
total time
100 m
= _____
20 s
= 5 m/s
You can summarise this equation for speed as:
distance
speed = _______
time
78
3.2 Speed
Note: the term average speed is sometimes used because the speed of
an object during a journey is not always constant. Constant means not
changing. Average speed is calculated in exactly the same way as speed.
The equation for speed can be used in a formula triangle. This means
you can also use the equation to calculate:
• the distance travelled, if you know the speed and the time taken
• the time taken, if you know the speed and the distance travelled.
distance distance distance distance
speed time speed time speed time speed time
distance distance
speed = time = distance = speed × time
time speed
A formula triangle
Worked example
Question Question
Marcus rides his bicycle at a speed of 4 m/s Sofia is in a car travelling at a speed of 35 m/s.
for 60 s. How far does he go in this time? How long will the car take to travel 2100 m?
Answer Answer
distance = speed × time   distance
time = _______
speed
= 4 × 60
  2100
= ____
= 240 m 35
= 60 s
The worked examples above both use metres, seconds and metres per
second. Sometimes, the values are given in different units. So, for example,
if you have a distance in km and a time in hours, the equation will give you
a speed in km/h as you are dividing a distance in km by a time in hours.
79
3 Forces and energy
Worked example
Question
An aeroplane travels 2500 km in a time of 5 hours. What is the speed of the aeroplane in km/h?
Answer
  distance
time = _______
speed
  2500 km
= ________
5 hours
= 500 km/h
However, unless you are told otherwise, always work in metres, seconds and
metres per second. Remember, in calculations, always:
• show the steps you used in working out the answer
• include the correct units with the answer.
The highest possible speed

Since the 1930s, the highest possible speed is thought to be the speed of
light, which is 1 000 000 000 km/h. This was predicted by calculations
made by Albert Einstein and confirmed by other scientists doing
experiments. No scientist, so far, has observed anything moving faster.
This is how science advances: through collaboration (scientists working
in groups) and peer-review (scientists checking each other’s work).
Questions
1 a
Write an equation for speed, when you know the distance
travelled and the time taken.
b Write down the standard scientific unit of speed.
c Write an equation for distance travelled, when you know the
speed and the time taken.
d Write an equation for time taken, when you know the speed
and the distance travelled.
In each question that follows, show your working and give the unit with
your answer.
2 a
An Olympic sprinter completes the 100 m race in a time of 10 s.
Calculate the average speed of the sprinter.
b Explain why this value is an average speed.
80
3.2 Speed
3 A car travels a distance of 210 m in a time of 6 s.

a Calculate the speed of the car in m/s.
b Calculate the distance, in m, travelled by the car in 14 s.
c Calculate the time taken, in s, for the car to travel a distance of 1925 m.
4 a
An aeroplane flies between two cities that are 8100 km apart.
The aeroplane takes 9 hours to complete the journey.
Calculate the average speed of the aeroplane, in km/h.
b A different aeroplane can fly at 800 km/h. Calculate the
distance, in km, that this aeroplane could fly in 6 hours.
c Another aeroplane can fly at 950 km/h. Calculate the time taken,
in hours, for this aeroplane to travel a distance of 7125 km.
5 Anna sees a worm on the grass. Anna sees the same worm 2 hours
later. The worm has moved a distance of 3 m in that time. Calculate
the average speed of the worm, in metres per hour.
Activity 3.2.1
Speed, distance and time
Use a map or internet search engine to find the distances between some places
near to where you live.
You should include:
• some shorter distances, such as from home to school
• some longer distances, such as between cities.
The table gives some typical speeds for different methods of travel.
Method of travel Typical speed in m/s
walking 2
cycling 7
horse riding 10
bus 12
small motorcycle 20
car 30
train 35
aeroplane 200
Use the information in the table to calculate the times taken for your different distances.
For each distance, choose some of the most appropriate methods of travel.
81
3 Forces and energy
Calculating speed
In this investigation, you will make measurements to calculate the speed of a tennis ball.
Work in groups of three or four.
You will need:

• ramp (such as a plank of wood or thick card) • tennis ball • metre rule
• coloured tape • books • smooth level surface (such as a desk or the floor)
• stopwatch
Method
coloured tape ball
ramp
coloured tape
colou metre rule coloured tape
height
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 27 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 77 79 70 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
cm
1 Use coloured tape to fix the bottom of the ramp to the desk or floor.
2 Fix some coloured tape 1 m from the end of the ramp.
3 Fix some coloured tape near the top of the ramp to mark where you will
release the ball.
4 Measure the height from the desk or floor up to the position where you
will release the ball.
5 Release the ball and measure the time the ball takes to move between
the two pieces of coloured tape on the desk or floor.
6 Repeat this two more times and calculate the average time to travel between
the two pieces of tape.
7 Do this for a range of different heights.
82
3.2 Speed
Continued
Results and questions

2 Use your results to calculate the speed of the ball between the two pieces
of tape. Add another column to your table, or draw a new table, to include
the speed. Remember to put the unit of speed in the column header.
3 Plot a line graph of the results. Put height on the hoizontal axis and speed on
the vertical axis. Include the units on each axis.
4 What is:
a the independent variable in this investigation
b the dependent variable in this investigation?
5 State two variables that were controlled in this investigation.
6 Explain why each measurement is repeated. Give two reasons.
7 Describe the trend in your results.
Self-assessment
Decide how well you:
• made measurements
• recorded results in a table
• drew the graph of the results.
Choose one thing that you could do better next time.
How will you do this better next time? What will you change?
Summary checklist
I know the equation that links speed, distance and time.
I can use the equation to calculate speed, when distance and time are known.
I can use the equation to calculate distance, when speed and time are known.
I can use the equation to calculate time, when distance and speed are known.
I know that metres, seconds and metres per second are standard units.
I can calculate speeds using different units.
83
3 Forces and energy
3.3 Describing movement

• learn how to use graphs to describe movement
• understand what a distance/time graph shows
• learn to draw a distance/time graph.
Work in groups to discuss the answer to this question. at rest

distance/time
Imagine you are standing on a path.
graph
You start running at a constant speed.
safety precautions
What would a line graph look like if you plotted sketch
the distance you had run on the vertical axis
stationary
and time on the horizontal axis?
84
Distance/time graphs
Scientists use graphs to describe how two variables are related.
We can use graphs to describe the movement of an object.
One way to do this is to plot a measure of distance on the vertical axis
and a measure of time on the horizontal axis.
A graph like this is called a distance/time graph.
Graphs are more useful than words for describing movement because:
• it is easier to see trends and patterns
• you can read any value of distance or time during the journey,
from the graph
• other values, such as speed, can be calculated from the graph
• information about the whole journey can be seen easily.
This is a distance/time graph. It shows the journey of a car from a
starting position, A, to a destination, C. The car then returns to its
starting position.
1 2 3 4
Distance
from A B
A
A
Time
Now take a closer look at what the graph shows in each of the four
sections. These sections are in different colours so you can see
them clearly.
1 At the starting position, A, the car has travelled zero distance. The
car travels at a constant speed away from the starting position to
point B. When moving at constant speed, the car travels the same
distance in each second. The distance from A increases with time.
The distance/time graph show this as a straight, upward sloping line.
2 The car stops at B. It is stationary. Stationary means not moving,
with a speed of zero. You can also use the term at rest to mean
stationary. The distance of the car from A does not change when the
object is stationary, but time still passes. The distance/time graph
shows a straight line that is horizontal.
85
3 Forces and energy
3 The car starts again and moves at a constant speed to its destination,
C. It moves faster than when it travelled between A and B, meaning
that it travels a greater distance each second. So, the distance/time
graph shows this as a steeper, straight, upward sloping line.
4 From C, the car travels at a constant speed back to the starting
position, A. The distance of the car from the start decreases with
time. The distance/time graph shows this as a straight, downward
sloping line.
The distance/time graph for the car journey was a sketch. If you draw
a sketch graph you do not have to put numbers on your graph axes.
Sometimes, distance/time graphs have values on the axes. This means
you can use the graph to make calculations. Read the distance from the
vertical axis, and the time from the horizontal axis. Then use the equation:
  distance
speed = _______
time
Worked example
Question
This distance/time graph shows a short train journey between two stations, P and R,
that are 2000 m apart.
• The train leaves station P at time 0.
• The train takes 200 s to travel from P to R.
• The train stops at station R for 140 s.
• The train then travels back from station R to station P in a time of 100 s.
2500
arriving at R leaving R
2000
Distance from P in m
1500
1000
500 arriving
leaving P at P
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time in s
a At what speed does the train travel from station P to station R?

b What is the speed of the train on the way back from station R to station P?
86
Continued
Answer
a The distance is 2000 m and the time taken is 200 s.
distance
speed =  _______
time
  2000
= ____
200
= 10 m/s
b The distance is 2000 m and the time taken is 440 − 340 = 100 s.
distance
speed =  _______
time
  2000
= _____
100
= 20 m/s
Questions
1 a
Sketch a distance/time graph for an object moving at a constant
speed away from a starting position.
b On the same graph, sketch another line to show another object
moving faster, away from the same starting position.
Label this line ‘faster’.
c On the same graph, sketch another line to show another object
moving slower, away from the same starting position.
Label this line ‘slower’.
2 Marcus is making a journey from home to a shop.
For the first part of the journey, he rides his bicycle at a constant speed.
Marcus then stops to talk to a friend.
For the last part of the journey, he continues to ride his bicycle at a
slower constant speed than before until he arrives at the shop.
a Sketch a distance/time graph for Marcus’s journey.
b Label each part of Marcus’s journey on your graph.
87
3 Forces and energy
3 A boat goes straight across a lake. After some time, the boat crosses
the lake again to return to its original position.
The graph shows the journey made by the boat.
100
90
80
70
Distance from start in m
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time in s
Use information in the graph to answer these questions.

a How far did the boat travel when crossing the lake once?
b Calculate the speed of the boat crossing the lake the first time.
c How much time did the boat spend stopped before crossing
the lake again?
d Calculate the speed of the boat crossing the lake the second time.
e How much time did the boat take for the complete journey:
across the lake, stopped and coming back?
88
Activity 3.3.1
My journey
Think about a journey you made recently.
The journey could be walking or any other
method of travel.
The journey could be coming to school or a
longer journey.
Sketch a distance/time graph for that journey.
Label your graph with what each part
represents.
Swap your graph with someone else.
Can they understand your journey by looking
at the graph?
Can you understand someone else’s journey
by looking at their graph?

Walking and running
In this activity, you will plan an investigation, make measurements, do calculations
and draw a distance/time graph.
You will need:

• space where you can run safely • tape measure • stopwatch
• one sheet of graph paper per person
Method
You need to calculate the average speed of walking for one person in the group, in m/s.
You then need to calculate the average speed of running for one person in the group, in m/s.
It does not have to be the same person.
1 Plan what measurements you will need to make and how you will make these
measurements.
2 Make a list of the safety precautions that the person who is running should take.
3 Make your measurements safely and record them in a suitable way.
89
3 Forces and energy
Continued
Questions and results

1 a Calculate the average walking speed for the person, in m/s.
b Calculate the average running speed for the person, in m/s.
2 Draw a distance/time graph. Put walking and running on the same graph
and label the lines clearly.
3 Explain the difference between the two lines. Refer to distance and time in
your explanation.
Self-assessment
1 Decide how confident you are about each of these statements.
Give yourself 5 if you are very confident and 1 if you are not confident at all.
• I made useful contributions to planning.
• I made useful contributions to making the measurements.
• I drew my graph carefully, neatly and accurately.
2 Which do you think is better:
• drawing a distance/time graph for a journey, or
• describing a journey in words?
Summary checklist
I can sketch a distance/time graph for an object moving at a constant speed away
from a starting position.
I can sketch a distance/time graph for a stationary object.
I can sketch a distance/time graph for an object moving at a constant speed back
towards a starting position.
I can tell whether objects are moving quickly or slowly, or are stationary, from a
distance/time graph.
I can tell what direction an object is moving from a distance/time graph.
I can sketch a distance/time graph from a description of a journey.
I can draw a distance/time graph accurately.
I can read values from a distance/time graph.
90
3.4 Turning forces
3.4 Turning forces

• recognise when a force causes something to turn
• know how to use the term moment
• be able to calculate the moment caused by a force.
Work in groups. lever

Make a list of things, such as a door handle, that are turned moment
by forces. newton metres
pivot
turn
91
3 Forces and energy
Turning effects of forces

When you push down on a door handle, the handle turns.
When you push down on the pedal of a bicycle, the crank arm turns.
When you pull on a door, the door turns toward you.
These are all examples of forces that cause an object to turn.
The object that turns is called a lever.
The point around which the lever turns is called the pivot.
The lever and pivot are shown in the picture of the bicycle pedals.
When you bend your arm, the arm acts as a lever. Your elbow is the pivot.
lever lever
pivot
pivot pivot
lever
Calculating moments
The moment of a force describes its the turning effect of a force.
The moment of a force depends on:
• the size of the force (the bigger the force, the bigger the moment)
• the distance between the position where the force acts and the pivot
(the greater the distance, the greater the moment).
You can calculate a moment from this equation:
moment = force × distance
92
3.4 Turning forces
Distance in the equation is the distance from the pivot to the position
where the force acts.
The unit of force is the newton. The unit of distance is the metre.
Therefore, the unit of moment is newton × metre, which is written as
newton metre or N m.
Remember to use an upper case N and a lower case m when writing N m.
Worked example
Question
A pulling force of 35 N is needed to open a door. The distance from the door handle to
the door hinges (the pivot) is 0.8 m What is the moment caused by the pull on the door?
Answer
= 35 × 0.8
= 28 N m
Worked example
Question
Look at this diagram.
What is the moment caused by the weight on the arm?
0.25 m
pivot 20 N
Answer
= 20 × 0.25
= 5Nm
93
3 Forces and energy
Balancing
A seesaw is a type of lever.
People sit on either side of the pivot of a
seesaw and make the lever turn one way
and then the other.
The result is that each person moves up
and down. A seesaw will be balanced
when the moments on both sides of the
pivot are equal and opposite.
Worked example
Question
Marcus weighs 600 N and sits at a distance of 2 m from the pivot of a seesaw. Arun weighs 800 N.
Where should Arun sit to make sure the seesaw is balanced?
Answer
Marcus will exert a moment of 600 × 2 = 1200 N m
For the seesaw to be balanced, the moment on the other side must also be 1200 N m.
moment
So, distance = _______
force
1200
distance = ____
800
= 1.5 m
94
3.4 Turning forces
Questions
1 a Describe what is meant by the word ‘moment’ in physics.
b Write the equation that links moment, force and distance.
c Write the unit of moment.
2 Arun has a spanner for turning a nut. The direction

that the nut must turn is shown by the arrow. The
B
pivot is in the centre of the nut. A
a Which arrow shows the direction that Arun wrench nut
should push on the spanner to produce the

largest moment in the direction needed to turn nut must turn
the nut? this way
D
Write the letter. C
b Explain your answer to part a.
4N
3 The drawing shows a door handle.

Sofia pushes on the door handle with a force of 4 N
0.12 m
at the position shown in the drawing.
Calculate the moment caused by this force.
F
0.09 m
4 The drawing shows a bicycle brake lever.

A moment of 1.8 N m is needed to turn this brake lever.
Calculate the force F needed to produce a moment
of 1.8 Nm. pivot
5 Zara weighs 450 N. Zara sits on a seesaw at a distance of 1.5 m

from the pivot.
Sofia weighs 500 N.
Sofia sits on the seesaw on other side of the pivot from Zara.
Calculate the distance from the pivot that Sofia must sit to balance
the seesaw.
95
3 Forces and energy
Activity 3.4.1
Identifying moments
Look for pictures in old magazines.
Cut out pictures showing objects that use moments to work.
Remember: anything that turns when pushed or pulled uses moments.
Stick the pictures to a large piece of paper to make a display.
Write the name of each object beside it.
Think of a title for your display.
Calculating moments
In this investigation, you will investigate how the force needed to turn an object
varies with distance from the pivot.
Work in groups of two or three.
You will need:

• metre rule • forcemeter • two clamp stands • elastic (rubber) band
• ruler • string • sticky tape • G-clamp
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

loop of string stuck to loop of string
clamp stand metre rule with tape metre rule clamp stand
pivot elastic band forcemeter ruler

stuck to metre
G-clamp to rule with tape
secure clamp
stand to table
top
96
3.4 Turning forces
Continued
Make a prediction about what will happen to the force needed to pull the metre rule
down as the distance between the force and the pivot decreases.
Method
1 Move the loop of string with the forcemeter as far from the pivot as you can.
2 Record the distance between the pivot and the forcemeter.
3 Raise the forcemeter so it is not pulling down on the metre rule.
4 Use the forcemeter to pull down on the metre rule. The distance that you pull
depends on the strength of the elastic band. The metre rule needs to be pulled
down far enough to get a reading of about 1 N at the furthest point from the pivot.
5 Use the ruler to record the distance that the metre rule moves.
This will be the distance the metre rule should be pulled down each time.
6 Record the force.
7 Repeat this, pulling the metre rule down the same distance each time.
Each time, use the loop of string to move the forcemeter closer to the pivot.
8 Your results should be a set of distances and forces.
9 Decide whether you need to repeat any of your measurements.
Results and questions
1 Describe how you made the experiment safe.
2 Record your results in a table. Make sure that you record distances in metres,
so you may need to convert from cm or mm. Remember to reverse the order
of your results, so in the table the distances are increasing.
3 Draw a line graph of your results. Put distance on the x-axis and force on
the y-axis.
4 Explain the pattern in your results.
5 Was your prediction correct?
6 Explain any improvements you could make to the method that would help
get more accurate results.
Self-assessment
1 Describe anything you did during the investigation to help get more accurate results.
2 a Did you repeat any of your measurements? Explain why, or why not.
b Explain your answer to part a.
97
3 Forces and energy
Summary checklist
I understand that forces can cause turning effects.
I understand what is meant by the term moment.
I know and can use the equation that links moment, force and distance.
I know the unit of moment.
98
3.5 Pressure between solids

• recognise that forces can cause pressure on an area
• understand what affects pressure
• be able to calculate the pressure caused by a force on an area.
Work in groups. newtons per

metre squared
The nail in the picture has a sharp point at one end.
point
Make a list of some other objects that have sharp points or
sharp edges. pressure
sharp
What are these things used for?
surface area
99
3 Forces and energy
The pushing effect of a force

The picture shows a knife being used to cut modelling clay.
The knife works because the force used to push down on the clay causes
pressure on the clay.
You can think of pressure as the pushing effect of a force.
Suppose the clay is difficult to cut. How could you increase the pushing
effect of the force?
You could:
• increase the force on the knife; as the force increases, the pressure
increases
• use a sharper knife (a sharp knife has less surface area in contact
with the clay); as the area decreases, the pressure increases.
The equation linking pressure, force and area is:
force
pressure =  ____
area
Pressure is force divided by area. The unit of force is the newton.

The unit of area is the metre squared. That means the unit of pressure
is newtons per metre squared, or N/m2.
Sometimes you can use smaller areas, measured in cm2. If the area is
in cm2 then the unit of pressure will be N/cm2.
If the area was in mm2, the unit of pressure would be N/mm2.
Some things have large areas to decrease pressure; others have small
areas to increase pressure.
100
The camel has large feet. This means

the force from the weight of the camel is
applied over a large area. The pressure on
the sand is decreased, so the camel will
not sink in the sand.
The woman in the picture is lying on a

bed of nails. Each nail has a sharp point
on the end. The weight of the woman
acts on many hundreds of nails, so the
pressure from each nail is very small.
One end of this pin has a sharp point.

The sharp point has a small area to
increase pressure. The increased pressure
means the pin will easily go into wood
or card.
The other end has a larger surface area to
decrease pressure. The decreased pressure
means this part of the pin will not go into
your finger.
Scissors have sharp blades. The area along

the cutting edge of each blade is small.
This increases the pressure, making things
easier to cut.
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3 Forces and energy
Calculating pressure
Worked example
Question Question
An elephant stands on four feet. The total weight of a bicycle and rider
is 1000 N.
The bicycle has two tyres in contact with
the ground. The weight is supported equally
on both tyres.
The area of each tyre in contact with the
ground is 5 cm2.
What is the pressure that each tyre exerts
on the ground?
The weight of the elephant is 50 000 N.

The total area of all four feet is 0.4 m2.
What is the total pressure that the elephant
exerts on the ground?
Answer Answer
force 1000
weight on each tyre =  ____
pressure =  ____
area 2
50 000 = 500 N
=  _____
0.4 force
pressure =  ____
area
= 125 000 N/m2 500
=  ___
The unit of pressure here is N/m2 because 5
the area is given in m2. = 100 N/cm2
The unit of pressure here is N/cm2 because
the area of the tyres is given in cm2.
102
Worked example
Question
A hammer is used to push a nail into wood.
The area of the point at the end of the nail is 1.5 mm2
The pressure needed for the nail to go into the wood is 50 N/mm2
Calculate the force needed from the hammer.
Answer
  force
pressure = ____area
so, force = pressure × area
= 50 × 1.5
= 75 N
Questions
1 a Write down the equation that links pressure, force and area.
b Use the equation to explain why:
i a nail that goes into wood has a sharp point
ii shoes for walking on snow are wide and flat.
2 Write down the unit of pressure when force is in newtons and area is in:
a m2 b cm2 c mm2
3 A box has a weight of 60 N. The area of the box in contact with the
ground is 0.5 m2.
Calculate the pressure that the box exerts on the ground.
Show your working and give your answer in N/m2.
4 A car has a weight of 8000 N. The car is supported by four tyres.
The weight on each tyre is equal.
The area of one tyre in contact with the ground is 150 cm2.
Calculate the pressure that one tyre exerts on the ground.
Show your working and give your answer in N/cm2.
5 A thumb tack has an area of 0.5 mm2 in contact with a wall.
A pressure of 40 N/mm2 is needed for the thumb tack to go into
the wall.
Calculate the force needed to push the thumb tack into the wall.
Show your working and give the unit with your answer.
103
3 Forces and energy
Calculating pressure
In this investigation, you will investigate how the pressure that a person exerts on
the floor varies.
You will need:

• a person who is willing to be weighed, or who knows their body mass
• a bathroom scale, if body mass is not known • sheets of squared paper
• pencil
Method
1 Measure or record the body mass of the person.
2 Convert the mass to weight using:
weight in N = mass in kg × strength of gravity in N/kg
Take the strength of gravity as 10 N/kg.
3 Ask the person to place one foot on a piece of squared paper.
They can do this while wearing shoes.
4 Use the pencil to draw around the foot of the person.
Questions
1 Use the shape of the outline on the squared paper to work out the area of
the foot in cm2.
2 Calculate the area of both feet.
3 Calculate the pressure that the person exerts on the ground when they are:
a standing equally on both feet
b standing on one foot.
4 Explain the difference in your answers to 3a and 3b.
5 Now ask the same person to put the front of one foot on squared paper as
if they were standing on their toes.
Use the same method as above to work out the area of the front of the foot in cm2.
6 Calculate the pressure exerted by the person on the ground when standing on the
front of one foot.
7 A person can be supported by the front of one foot during some everyday activities.
Give an example of such an activity.
104
Continued
8 a Describe how you could work out the area in contact with the ground when
the person is lying down.
b i Predict how the pressure would change when the person was lying down
compared to standing.
ii Explain your answer.
Self-assessment
1 Decide how confident you are about:
a how force affects pressure
b how area affects pressure.
2 Decide how confident you are about:
a calculating pressure when you know the force and the area
b working out the unit of pressure using the units of force and area.
Summary checklist
I understand that pressure is the pushing effect of a force.
I know and can use the equation that links pressure, force and area.
I understand how the unit of pressure can be worked out from the
units of force and area.
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3 Forces and energy
3.6 Pressure in liquids

and gases
• recall how particles move in liquids and gases
• understand how particle movement causes pressure in liquids
and gases
• predict how changes in liquids and gases affect the pressure.
Work individually. altitude

Draw a diagram to show how particles are arranged in: atmospheric
pressure
a a liquid b a gas.
collide
container
depth
sea level
106
3.6 Pressure in liquids and gases
Pressure in liquids
Look at the picture of a dam. The wall of this dam is wider at the
bottom than it is at the top.
Behind the wall of the dam, the water is almost to the top of the wall.
You can see water coming out from two levels.
The water coming out close to the top is coming out with less force.
The water coming out from further down is coming out with more force.
This is because pressure in the water increases with depth.
The wall is wider at the bottom to make the wall stronger where the
pressure from the water is greatest.
Pressure and depth in liquids

The pressure in a liquid increases with depth, but why?
As you go deeper in a liquid, there is more liquid above you.
The weight of this liquid, caused by gravity, pushes on the particles
of the liquid.
When the particles of the liquid are pushed, the force on the
particles increases.
As the particles in a liquid are moving randomly in all directions,
then the pressure in the liquid is equal in all directions.
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3 Forces and energy
Pressure in gases
Before you blow up a balloon, there is a small volume
of air inside the balloon. The balloon is open at one
end, so the pressure of the air inside is the same as
the pressure of the air outside.
As you blow air into the balloon, you are adding
more gas particles.
Particles in a gas move randomly and collide with
the walls of the container. The container is
the balloon.
Every time a gas particle collides with the wall of the
container, the particle exerts a small force on the wall.
The more particles there are in the gas, the more collisions happen
with the walls, and so the force on the walls increases.
As this force is exerted on an area, the force causes pressure.
The pressure inside the balloon gets bigger as you blow in more air,
pushing the walls of the balloon outwards.
Look at the tyre in this picture.

The air inside the tyre is at low pressure. The pressure
is not enough to support the weight of the vehicle.
If more air is put inside the tyre, the pressure will
increase. More collisions will happen with the inside
walls of the tyre, pushing the tyre outward and
supporting the vehicle.
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Pressure and depth in gases

As with liquids, the pressure in a gas increases with depth.
Most people on Earth live at low altitude. Altitude is height above sea level.
The Earth’s atmosphere, which we call air, is made from gases.
The atmosphere extends to a height of about 400 km above sea level.
Sea level is, therefore, where the atmosphere is at its deepest.
So, at sea level, atmospheric pressure is highest.
As you go higher in the atmosphere, two variables that affect
atmospheric pressure change:
• the number of particles in 1 m3 of air decreases, so the concentration
of gas particles decreases
• the weight of air above your current position decreases.
Atmospheric pressure at sea level is about 100 000 N/m2. This pressure
is the equivalent of the weight of two large elephants pushing on every
1 m2 of surface! We are not aware of the pressure from the atmosphere
because we live in the atmosphere all the time.
Effects of atmospheric pressure

The effect of atmospheric pressure can be shown by pumping
the air out of a metal container.
Before the air is pumped out, the pressure on the inside of the
container is equal to the pressure on the outside.
When the air is pumped out, the pressure inside the container
becomes close to zero. The pressure on the outside does
not change.
The container is crushed by the pressure of the air outside
the container. The picture shows a container crushed by
atmospheric pressure.
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3 Forces and energy
Pressure and temperature in gases

As the temperature of a gas increases, the speed of the particles in the
gas increases.
When particles are travelling faster, their collisions exert more force.
This means that increasing the temperature of a gas will increase the
pressure of the gas.
High pressure can be used to cook food.
The picture shows a type of cooking pot called a
pressure cooker.
Water and food are placed inside the pressure cooker.
The pressure cooker has a sealed lid. When the water
boils, the steam cannot escape so the pressure of the
gas inside increases. This increases the temperature.
On top of the pressure cooker, there is a weight to
control the pressure and valves that allow steam to escape,
once the required pressure has been reached.
Questions
1 a Submarines are ships which are designed to go underwater.
Explain why submarines that go to the deepest parts of the
oceans must be very strong.
b Explain why the wall of a dam is thicker at the bottom than
at the top.
2 The sketch graph shows how the pressure in a liquid changes
with depth in the liquid.
a Explain the pattern shown in the graph.
b Copy and complete the sentence using the best word. Pressure
Use information in the graph.
When the depth in the liquid doubles, the pressure in the
liquid .
Depth in liquid
3 A fish is in water. The water exerts pressure on the fish.
Which of these causes pressure on the fish? Write one letter.
A The weight of water beside the fish.
B The weight of water all around the fish.
C The weight of water above the fish.
D The weight of water below the fish.
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4 Marcus plays basketball. The ball is filled with air.

a Explain what causes the pressure inside the ball.
b Explain how putting more air in the ball will change the pressure
inside the ball.
c Marcus notices that the pressure inside the ball is lower on a
cold day and higher on a hot day.
Explain why the pressure inside the ball is higher on a hot day.
5 A metal container is connected to a vacuum pump. The vacuum
pump removes all the air from inside the metal container.
There is now a vacuum inside the metal container.
a Explain why the pressure in a vacuum is zero.
b The metal container collapses when there is a vacuum inside.
Explain why.
Observing the effects of pressure

Part 1: Pressure and depth in liquids
In this investigation, you will observe the effect of pressure increasing with depth in water.
You will need:

• 1- or 2-litre empty plastic bottle • adhesive tape
• something to make small holes in the side of the bottle
• large tray or sink to collect water
Method
1 Make three small holes in the side of the bottle at different
heights. Try to make the holes the same size.
2 Predict what will happen when the bottle is filled with water.
3 Now use one piece of adhesive tape to cover all the holes.
holes
4 Place the bottle in the tray or the sink.
5 Fill the bottle with water, but do not put the lid on the bottle.
6 Pull off the adhesive tape to open the holes.
7 Watch what happens.
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3 Forces and energy
Continued
Questions
1 Did your observation fit with your prediction?
2 Draw a labelled diagram to show what you observe.
3 Explain what you observed, using ideas about pressure.
Part 2: Pressure and temperature in gases
In this activity, you will observe the effect of changing temperature on the
pressure in a gas.
You will need:
• empty plastic bottle (0.5–2 litre) with lid • access to a warm place
• access to a cold place, such as a refrigerator
Method
1 Take the lid off the bottle.
2 Leave the bottle and the lid in a warm place for 5–10 minutes.
3 Put the lid tightly on the bottle without squeezing the bottle.
Do this while the bottle is still in the warm place.
4 Put the bottle into a cold place for 15–20 minutes.
5 Observe what has happened to the bottle.
Questions
4 Draw a diagram of the bottle before and after the activity.
5 What happened to the pressure of the air inside the bottle when it was
moved to the cold place?
6 Explain your answer to 5.
7 Predict what would happen if you did this activity the other way around.
The open bottle starts in the cold place, then the closed bottle is taken
to a warm place.
Include ideas about particles and pressure and include the observation
that you would make.
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Continued
Peer-assessment
Swap your answers for these activities with another group.
Rate their score for each answer on a scale of 0–3.
3 means very good and well explained.
2 means good with some explaining.
1 means difficult to understand, but some explaining is given.
0 means you cannot understand the answers or they are incorrect.
Summary checklist
I understand what causes pressure in a liquid.
I understand how pressure changes with depth in a liquid.
I understand what causes pressure in a gas.
I understand how altitude affects atmospheric pressure.
I understand how the quantity of gas in a container affects the pressure.
I understand how the temperature of a gas in a closed container affects the pressure.
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3 Forces and energy
3.7 Particles on the move

• describe how random movement of particles causes diffusion
• understand how diffusion happens in liquids and gases.
Work in groups to discuss the answers to these questions. concentration

1 How can you smell food cooking when you are some
distance away from the food?
2 When you pour orange juice into water, why does all the
liquid eventually turn orange?
114
Mixing gases
The particles in a gas move randomly. Both the speed of the particles
and the direction of the particles are random.
If we mix two gases in one container, each one will have particles that
move randomly.
That means each gas will spread to fill the container.
The movement of the particles of each gas is called diffusion.
Diffusion means the overall random movement of particles from an
area where they are in higher concentration to an area where they are
in lower concentration. Concentration is the number of particles in a
particular volume.
Look at the diagrams. They show how two gases diffuse.
1 At the start, the tap is closed.

The blue gas particles are at high concentration
on the left, and zero concentration on the right.
The red gas particles are at high concentration on
the right, and zero concentration on the left.
2 The tap is opened and the gases start to spread out

(diffuse). At random, some particles of each gas will
pass through the space where the tap opens.
The blue gas particles are now at quite high
concentration on the left, and low concentration
on the right.
The red gas particles are at quite high concentration
on the right, and low concentration on the left.
3 After some time, the gases have completely diffused.

There is equal concentration of both gases on
both sides.
Diffusion stops when the concentrations are equal.
However, the movement of individual particles does
not stop when diffusion stops.
115
3 Forces and energy
Diffusion explains how you can smell food when it is cooking.

When food is heated, some particles in the food change state and
become gas.
The gas particles from the food move randomly and so spread
out through the air by diffusion.
The strength of the smell will get stronger as you move closer
to the food. This is because the concentration of the particles
is higher, the closer you get to the source of the particles.
Many animals use this change in strength of smell to find food.
Mixing liquids
Diffusion also happens in liquids. Particles in a liquid also move at random.
The picture shows what happens when blue ink is added to water.
The blue ink moves from the area of high concentration to the areas of
low concentration, until it is completely diffused throughout the water.
Speed of diffusion
The speed of diffusion depends on:
• the difference in concentration of the particles
• temperature.
The bigger the difference in the concentrations of the particles, the faster
the diffusion.
The higher the temperature, the faster the diffusion. Higher temperature
makes particles move faster, so the particles can spread out faster.
For example, when you make a cup of tea, the tea diffuses through the
water. It diffuses faster in hot water than it does in cold water.
116
Questions
1 Zara’s mother opens a bottle of perfume. Zara is at the other side
of the room.
After a few minutes, Zara can smell the perfume.
a Which of these explains why Zara smells the perfume?
Write one letter.
A All the gas particles of the perfume move in one direction.
B All the gas particles of the perfume move randomly.
C All the particles in the air move in one direction.
D All the particles in the air are stationary (not moving).
b Which of these changes would result in Zara smelling the
perfume in a shorter time?
In each case, no other variable changes.
Write the letters for all the correct statements.
A The perfume in the bottle is at a higher temperature.
B Zara moves further away from the bottle of perfume.
C Zara’s mother puts the lid on the perfume bottle.
D The air in the room is at a lower temperature.
2 Describe what is meant by the term ‘diffusion’.
3 The diagram shows two types of particle in containers, container
container
A A container
container
B B
A and B. The containers have the same volume.
a Explain whether the particles in the containers are
in a solid, liquid or gas state.
b Explain how the concentrations of the blue
particles compare in containers A and B.
c Explain how the concentrations of the red particles
compare in containers A and B.
4 Sofia is making an orange flavour drink. She pours a
small volume of concentrated orange juice into a glass.
She then adds water until the glass is full.
a Explain how the orange colour from the juice
spreads into the water.
b Sofia says: ‘When the orange colour has
stopped spreading, the particles in the liquid
have stopped moving.’
Explain whether Sofia is correct.
117
3 Forces and energy
5 Which of these will result in diffusion?

Write the letters for all the correct statements.
A Adding milk to coffee.
B Adding sand to water.
C Adding salty water to pure water.
D Allowing gas from a cylinder to escape into the air.
E Throwing small pieces of rock into the air.
Activity 3.7.1
Watching diffusion
In this activity, you will observe the diffusion of a coloured solution in water.
You will need:

• transparent container, such as a 200 cm3 (or larger) glass beaker • water
• water-soluble ink or food dye • dropper pipette • glass tube or drinking straw
Method
1 Fill the container with warm water.
2 Leave the container to stand for a few minutes so the water stops moving.
3 Use the dropper pipette to carefully add one or two drops of ink or food dye to the
bottom of the container. Squeeze the top of the pipette gently so it does not squirt
out into the water and start mixing.
4 Observe what happens.
Questions
1 Write about what you did in this activity. Write this in your own words and
do not copy the method shown here.
2 Make a series of labelled drawings to show your observations in this activity.
3 Predict what would happen if the activity was repeated with water at a
higher temperature.
118
The effect of temperature on the speed of diffusion

In this investigation, you will investigate how temperature affects the speed of
diffusion in liquids.
You will need:

• three or more identical beakers • water • a way to heat the water
• a way to cool the water (optional) • water-soluble ink or food dye
• measuring cylinder • thermometer • dropper pipette • stopwatch
Method
1 Add equal volumes of water at different temperatures to each of your beakers.
2 Measure and record the temperature of the water in each beaker.
3 Use the dropper pipette to carefully add a small volume of ink or food dye to
the bottom of each beaker. Squeeze the top of the pipette gently so it does not
squirt out into the water and start mixing.
Add the ink or food dye to the water in order from the lowest to the highest
temperature.
4 Use a stopwatch to time the diffusion process in each beaker.
5 Stop the stopwatch when the ink or food dye has fully spread out through the water
of the beaker being tested.
Questions
2 Explain this trend.
3 Explain why you used the same volume of water in all the beakers.
4 Suggest at least two improvements to the method that would give more reliable results.
Peer-assessment
Swap your answers with another group.
You will assess their answers to questions 2 and 4.
Instead of marking their answers, write some feedback to the group.
Include:
• what they have done well in their answers
• how they could improve their answers.
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3 Forces and energy
Summary checklist
I know how to describe diffusion.
I understand how diffusion happens in gases.
I understand how diffusion happens in liquids.
I understand that the speed of diffusion is affected by the difference
in concentration and by the temperature.
120
Project: Making a balance for weighing

This project is about using moments to find the weights of objects. You will make
a balance and then use it to find some unknown weights.
Background
The earliest balances for weighing
needed equal weights on both sides of
the balance.
The unknown weight was placed on one
side, and known weights were added on
the other side until the system balanced.
A system such as this is balanced
because there are two moments acting.
One moment tries to pull one side
down.
The other moment tries to pull the other
side down.
When the moments are equal and
opposite, the system is balanced.
This happens when the weights are
equal because the distances from the
pivot are also equal.
Your task
Make a balance that can be used to weigh a range of different weights without
changing the known weight.
Your balance will work in a different way to the one in the picture, so yours will
not look like this.
Work in groups.
You can use equipment such as:
• a metre rule
• a triangular prism
• a known weight
• any other equipment that your teacher makes available.
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3 Forces and energy
Continued
Remember:
• do not confuse weight with mass
• weight is a force
• the moment caused by a force depends on the distance from the pivot.
When your balance is made and working, you can demonstrate to the class
how it works.
122
3 Forces and energy
Check your progress

3.1 An object has balanced forces acting on it.
Which of these describes the movement of the object? [1]
Write two letters.
A The object could be moving at a constant speed in a straight line.
B The object could be moving at a constant speed in a circle.
C The object could be stationary.
D The object could be getting faster in a straight line.
3.2 Describe the effects of the unbalanced forces on each of these objects.
a A bicycle is moving in a straight line. There is an unbalanced force
opposite to the direction the bicycle is moving. [1]
b A car is moving in a straight line. There is an unbalanced force in
the same direction as the car is moving. [1]
c A ball is moving in a straight line. There is an unbalanced force
sideways to the direction the ball is moving. [1]
3.3 Which of these is the standard unit of speed used by scientists? [1]
Write one letter.
A km/h
B m/s
C N/cm2
D Nm
3.4 Marcus goes running. After some time, Marcus gets tired and starts walking.
Marcus does not stop.
Sketch a distance/time graph for Marcus. [3]
3.5 A train travels a distance of 550 m in 10 s at a constant speed.
a Draw a distance/time graph for the train. [4]
b Calculate the speed of the train. Show your working and give the unit
with your answer. [3]
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3 Forces and energy
3.6 There have been different units of measurement throughout history.

This picture shows the unit of length called the rod.
One rod is the total length of the left feet of 16 people.
In the picture, the 16 people have been chosen at random.
a Explain one disadvantage with using the rod as a unit of length. [1]
b Explain one advantage of using the rod as a unit of length. [1]
3.7 Zara has a metre rule, a stopwatch and a forcemeter.
Zara can directly measure some quantities with this equipment.
Zara must calculate some quantities that cannot be directly measured
using this equipment.
Draw a table with these headings.
Can be measured Must be calculated
Write each of these quantities into the correct column in the table. [2]
force moment length area pressure time speed
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3 Forces and energy
3.8 a Write the equation that links moment, force and distance. [1]
b Arun is trying to turn a nut with a spanner.
Arun exerts his maximum force on the spanner, but the nut will not turn.
Explain why Arun can make the nut turn if he uses a longer spanner. [2]
3.9 a Write the equation that links pressure, force and area. [1]
b The picture shows four different types of shoes.
A B C D
Write the letter of:

i the shoes that would be best for not sinking in snow [1]
ii the shoes that could make holes in a soft wood floor. [1]
3.10 Which statement is true about a liquid? [1]
Write one letter.
A Pressure increases with depth.
B Pressure decreases with depth.
C Pressure does not depend on depth.
D There is no pressure in a liquid.
3.11 Write down two variables that will increase the speed of diffusion of a gas. [2]
125
4 Ecosystems
4.1 The Sonoran Desert
• find out about some of the animals and plants that live
in a desert
• think about how these animals and plants interact with
each other
• learn what an ecosystem is
• think about some of the different habitats in a
desert ecosystem.
Cacti (the plural of cactus) are plants that are adapted to live in adaptations
deserts. ecology
Look at a cactus, or a picture of one. ecosystem
environment
With a partner, discuss these questions.
food web
• Why is a desert a difficult place to live?
habitat
• How are cacti adapted to live in a desert? interact
nectar
nocturnal
pollen
pollinating
126
A desert in Arizona
The photograph shows the Sonoran Desert in Arizona,
in the USA.
Deserts are not easy places for animals and plants to live.
Deserts do not get much rainfall, so the organisms that live
there must have adaptations that help them to survive with
little water.
The tall plants in the photograph are saguaro cacti. They grow
very slowly. The ones in the photograph may be more than
100 years old. Their roots spread out widely just underneath
the soil, ready to absorb any rain that falls.
Many animals live among the cacti and other desert plants.
Gila woodpeckers make holes in the cacti, to make their
nests. Other birds also visit these holes.
Cactus wrens often use a different kind of cactus, called
a teddy bear cholla, to make their nests. Teddy bear
chollas are so spiky that very few other animals will get
close to them. So the cactus wren’s eggs and young ones
are protected from predators.
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4 Ecosystems
During the hot days, lizards, tortoises and other animals

rest in the shade of the plants, or burrow into the soil
where it is cooler. At night, when the temperature falls,
kangaroo rats come out to feed, wary of their predators
such as rattlesnakes and coyotes.
In the Sonoran Desert, it usually rains heavily at least once a
year. When the rains come, the desert is transformed. Many
plants quickly produce flowers. A kangaroo rat
Insects feed on the nectar and pollen in the flowers, helping

the plants to reproduce by pollinating them. At night, bats
feed on nectar from the flowers of agave plants.
Seeds fall to the ground and are collected by ants, to take
into their nests to provide a food store. Many months or
years later, some of the uneaten seeds may germinate to
produce new plants.
Interactions in the Sonoran Desert A bat feeding on agave nectar

As you read the information above, and looked at the
photographs, you may have realised that all the different
animals and plants depend on each other.
They interact with each other. The actions of one organism
affect another.
Ants collecting seeds
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Activity 4.1.1
Interactions between organisms in the desert
Work with a partner.
You will need:

• a large sheet of paper • coloured pens
• (optional) pictures of the animals and plants in the desert, that you can cut out
• (optional) scissors and glue
Read the information about life in the Arizona Sonoran Desert, and look at the
photographs. Make a list of different ways that the animals and plants interact
with one another.
Now think about how you could show these interactions in a picture.
On a piece of rough paper, make a rough sketch of the design for your picture.
Build up your picture on a large sheet of paper. You could draw pictures of the
organisms, or stick cut-out pictures of them onto the paper.
Write descriptions about how they interact with each other.
Non-living things in the desert

It is not only other organisms that affect the plants and animals
in the Sonoran Desert. There are also interactions between the
organisms and the non-living parts of their environment.
• Light: The bright sunlight helps the plants to photosynthesise,
producing food that other organisms can eat.
• Temperature: The temperature is often very high during the
day, but much lower at night. Some animals are nocturnal,
which helps them to avoid overheating or drying out. It is
cooler underneath the soil, so some animals – such as the
tarantula in the picture – dig burrows for shelter during
the day.
• Soil: Rocks and soil provide minerals for the plants to grow,
as well as building material for ground-nesting birds.
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4 Ecosystems
• Water: All organisms need water to keep their cells

alive. Rain, when it comes, allows them to become
more active and to reproduce.
• Air: The desert air provides carbon dioxide for the
plants to use in photosynthesis, and oxygen for all
the organisms to use in respiration.
The organisms also affect their environment. For example,
droppings from the kangaroo rats become part of the soil.
The gases that they take in and give out affect the composition
of the air.
The desert ecosystem

Everything in the desert interacts with
everything else. All of these interactions
make up the desert ecosystem. An
ecosystem is a network of interactions
between all the living organisms and the red-tailed h
hawk
non-living things around them.
Some of the interactions in an ecosystem
involve food webs. Remember that plants
rattlesnake
are the producers in a food web. They use collared lizard
energy in sunlight to make food.
As animals eat the desert plants and each
other, the energy is passed through the
desert food web. kangaroo grasshopper
rat
Food webs are a very important part of
the interactions in an ecosystem, but they
are not the only interactions. For example,
plants may provide places for some of the
animals to make nests. Plant roots help to
hold the soil together, so that it does not prickly pear cactus brittlebrush
wash away when it rains. Animals help A food web in the Sonoran Desert
plants to reproduce by pollinating their
flowers or spreading their seeds.
The interactions in an ecosystem are usually very complicated.
The study of ecosystems is called ecology. No ecologist would ever
claim to have discovered all of the different interactions in an
ecosystem. There is always something new to find out, even in an
ecosystem that scientists have been studying for a long time.
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Questions
1 Name the two producers in the diagram of a food web in the
Sonoran Desert.
2 Explain why the food web could not exist without the producers.
3 What do the arrows in the food web represent?
4 Give two examples of interactions between organisms in the desert
that are not to do with feeding.
Habitats in a desert ecosystem

The place where an organism naturally lives is called its habitat.
There are many different places to live in a desert.
• The habitat of a saguaro cactus is the open desert.
• The habitat of a Gila woodpecker is a saguaro cactus (where it
makes its nest) and the air and ground in the open desert (where
it collects food).
• The habitat of a desert ant is underneath the rocks and soil and
on the soil surface.
• Termites live at the base of the saguaro stems.
• Sap beetles live inside the saguaro flowers.
• Kangaroo rats live in burrows and come out to look for food
at night.
Question
5 Explain the difference between an ecosystem and habitat.
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4 Ecosystems
Activity 4.1.2
How a species fits into the desert ecosystem
Work in a group of three or four for this activity.
You are going to choose one species that lives in the desert. You could
continue to think about the Sonoran Desert in Arizona, or you could choose
a different desert.
Investigate how your species interacts with other organisms, and with the
non-living things around it. You could choose one of the species mentioned
in this topic, or a completely different species.
Use the internet and the library to find out as much as you can about your
species. Concentrate especially on how your species interacts with other
organisms, and with its environment. For example, you could try to find out:
• what it eats, and what eats it
• the habitat it lives in within the desert ecosystem
• how the species is adapted to survive in its habitat
• how its actions (other than feeding) affect other organisms,
or non-living parts of the ecosystem
• how other organisms and non-living things affect it (other than feeding).
Use your information to make an illustrated poster or presentation that you can
share with the rest of your class.
Questions
1 Where did you find the best and most interesting information?
2 When you used the internet to find information about your species:
a which websites were most relevant for your research?
b how did you choose websites that were most likely to provide
correct information?
Summary checklist
I can describe some of the interactions between the organisms in
a desert ecosystem.
I can describe some of the interactions between the organisms
and the non-living parts of the environment in a desert ecosystem.
I can name some of the different habitats in a desert ecosystem.
I can explain the difference between a habitat and an ecosystem.
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4.2 Different ecosystems

• learn about some of the many different kinds of ecosystem
on Earth
• describe some of the different habitats in an ecosystem.
Getting started

Marcus says that an ecosystem is a place.
Sofia says that an ecosystem is not just a place – it is more than that.
Who is correct? Think about this on your own, then share your
ideas with your partner.
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4 Ecosystems
More about ecosystems

The ecosystem in the Arizona Sonoran Desert is just one of many
different ecosystems on Earth. Here are three more examples of
ecosystems: mangrove forests, sea ice in the Arctic Ocean, and a
rice paddy.
Mangrove forest
• Mangroves are trees that can grow with their roots
in sea water. They form forests along the coasts of
many tropical countries.
• Young fish live among the mangrove roots, safe
from larger fish that might eat them. Mud skippers
climb out onto the mud when the tide is out,
feeding on whatever they can find.
• As the mangrove leaves fall onto the mud,
they are decomposed by bacteria. Prawns
and crabs eat the partly decomposed leaves.
• Crab-eating macaques, a type of monkey,
climb through the trees and catch crabs on the
tree roots and mud.
Sea ice in the Arctic Ocean

• During the winter in the Arctic Ocean, it is so cold
that some of the sea water freezes.
• Seals hunt for fish in the water, but have to come to
the surface to breathe air.
• Polar bears patrol the ice, looking for seals to kill
and eat. Polar bears are good swimmers, and can
move from one ice floe to another.
• Arctic foxes also look for food on the ice.
• Enough light passes through the ice to allow tiny
algae (single-celled plants) to grow on the underside
of the ice floes.
• Tiny shrimp-like organisms eat the algae.
Fish eat the shrimp-like organisms.
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Rice paddy
• Not all ecosystems are natural. This area of rice
paddies in Malaysia is farmed by people.
• At some times of year, the paddy fields are flooded
with water. Algae grow in this shallow water, and
on the mud at the sides of the flooded areas.
• Fish swim into the flooded paddies from the
irrigation canals. Frogs and dragonflies breed
in the water.
• Because the water is shallow, it heats up quickly
during the day, and cools down quickly at night.
• Farmers often add fertiliser to the paddy fields,
making not only the rice but also the algae grow
faster, providing more food for the animals.
• Many birds feed in and around the paddy fields.
Activity 4.2.1
Habitats in an ecosystem
Choose one of the ecosystems shown in the photographs.
Use the internet to find out more about your chosen ecosystem.
Make a list of the different habitats in this ecosystem, and some
of the organisms that live in each of the habitats in your list.
Investigating a local ecosystem

You are going to investigate an ecosystem near your school.
For example, you could investigate:
• a garden area • a group of trees
• part of the playing field • a pond.
Safety
You will be working outside. It is important to stay in the same area as the rest
of your class. Always stay with a partner.
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4 Ecosystems
Continued
You will need:

a selection of the apparatus and materials shown; choose what is suitable
for the ecosystem you are studying. These items are not drawn to scale.
This is a pitfall trap. This This is a sweep net. It has You can use this
one is made from a plastic a large net on the end of apparatus to find insects
cup which has been set a long pole. It is useful living in the lower
into the ground as shown. for catching insects. You branches of trees. Gently
Small animals that crawl can sweep it through long hit a branch with the stick,
or run over the surface grass. You can also use it as your friends hold the
of the ground – such to catch organisms in a large piece of material or
as beetles – fall in and pond or small stream. a sheet underneath. If you
cannot get out. haven’t got any material,
It is important to check you can use an upside-
your pitfall trap regularly. down umbrella.
If not, you may find
just one extremely fat
carnivorous beetle in it,
and nothing else.
A hand lens is useful for A camera is useful for You can use books to try
looking at very small taking photographs of to identify the animals
organisms. organisms, especially if and plants that you find.
you do not know their Quick identification keys
names. You can use your are also very useful.
photos to try to identify
the organisms later.
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Continued
It is important to remember that, if you catch any animals, you must take great
care of them. Do not take them away from their habitat. Release them exactly
where you found them.
Method
1 Look all around the area you are studying. What kind of ecosystem is it?
Write a short description of it or draw a picture. For example:
• How big is it?
• What kind of plants grow there?
• Is there a lot of light, or is it shady?
• Is it damp or dry?
2 Find different habitats in the ecosystem. For example, if you are studying
a garden, habitats could include underneath stones, in the soil, on the
soil surface, on leaves, in flowers, on tree trunks and in the air.
3 Look for organisms living in each habitat. Make a list of them. If you don’t
know their names, take a picture or make a drawing. You might find some
fungi, as well as plants and animals. If there are animals, what are they doing?
4 If possible, visit the ecosystem at different times of day – or even at night.
How does it change?
5 Draw a diagram to show some of the interactions you have seen between the
organisms, and between organisms and the non-living parts of the environment.
For example, if you were looking at a garden:
• Did you see any insects visiting flowers?
• Did you see any animals eating anything?
• Did you find anything hiding from predators or the hot Sun underneath
part of a plant?
• Had anything made a burrow in the soil?
• Did you see any decomposers?
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4 Ecosystems
Continued
Self-assessment
Read these statements, then assess yourself on how well you did the activity.
Give yourself:
0 if you did not try
1 if you think you did quite well
2 if you are quite pleased with how well you did.
• I was careful to stay with the group and stay safe.
• I made a good description or picture of the study area.
• I found at least five different habitats in the ecosystem.
• I used at least two different methods to find organisms.
• I found at least ten different kinds of organism.
• I made a good diagram, showing interactions in the ecosystem.
If you gave yourself two marks for everything, the best possible score
would be 12. How many marks have you given yourself out of 12?
If you did a similar investigation in future, how could you do it better?
Summary checklist
I can describe some of the habitats and interactions in an ecosystem.
I can use different methods to find out about habitats and interactions in
an ecosystem near my school.
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4.3 Intruders in an ecosystem

• learn about how new or invasive species can affect an
ecosystem.
Getting started Key Words
Work in a group of three. eradicate

extinct
Think about the saguaro cacti in the Sonoran Desert.
invasive species
Now imagine that someone brings a new species of cactus that
native species
can grow and reproduce faster than the saguaro cactus.
What might happen to the saguaro cacti?
What might happen to some of the other species in the
Sonoran Desert?
Make a list of your ideas, ready to share.
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4 Ecosystems
New species in an ecosystem

In your studies of ecosystems, you have seen how all the different
organisms interact with each other and their environment. In this topic,
you will find out what happens if a new species suddenly arrives.
How does the new species fit into the network of interactions?
How does this affect the species already there?
Introduced species in New Zealand

New Zealand is a country in the Pacific Ocean. New Zealand
became separated from all the other areas of land in the world
about 66 million years ago. Because of this separation, the
species that developed in New Zealand were different from
those elsewhere on Earth.
Before humans arrived in New Zealand, there were no predatory
mammals there. Many of the native species of birds nest on the
ground. There were no predators to eat their eggs, so the eggs and
young birds were safe. Even the adults of several species of native
bird – such as the kiwi – cannot fly.
Nobody knows exactly when humans first arrived in New Zealand,
but it was probably about 700 years ago. Humans brought species of
animals with them that did not belong in New Zealand. For example,
rats stowed away on their boats. Rats now live in most of the country.
The rats eat birds’ eggs and defenceless young birds.
Since then, other species have been introduced to New Zealand.
Farmers brought sheep, to farm for their wool and meat.
Rabbits were brought on sailing ships, to use as food. But the
rabbits escaped and began to eat grass in the sheep pastures.
So people brought stoats from Europe to control the rabbits.
Now stoats have spread all over New Zealand. They are
fierce hunters and breed rapidly. They can kill and eat birds
much larger than themselves. Stoats have made several species
of native bird extinct,, including the laughing owl and the
New Zealand thrush. Stoats eat almost 60% of kiwi chicks.
People in New Zealand are now trying to eradicate (completely
get rid of) stoats, but this is very difficult to do. The best that can
be done is to control their numbers.
Scientists think that 53 species of native bird in New Zealand
have become extinct since humans arrived. The extinctions have
been partly caused by people hunting and killing the birds, but
mostly because of introduced invasive species.
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Questions
1 In your own words, explain what a ‘native species’ is.
2 Name some native species in your own country.
3 Suggest why it is very difficult to eradicate an introduced species,
once it has settled into a new place.
Activity 4.3.1
Why do some introduced species cause problems?
Stoats normally live in Europe. Stoats are not a ‘problem animal’ in the ecosystems
where they normally live.
1 With your partner, think of ideas to explain why stoats are such a problem in
New Zealand, but not a problem in their native countries.
2 When everyone is ready, share your ideas with the rest of the class.
Make a list of the ideas on the board.
3 Once all your ideas have been listed, work together with the rest of the class
to make a shorter list. For example, perhaps you can explain some of the
ideas more clearly if you use fewer words. Or perhaps two of the ideas are
really the same idea, and can be combined.
Questions
4 Buffelgrass is native to Africa, Asia and the
Middle East. It was planted in Arizona in the
1930s, as food for cattle. Now, it is spreading
rapidly through the Sonoran Desert.
What is the name for a plant, such as
buffelgrass, that is growing in an ecosystem
where it does not belong?
5 Buffelgrass grows in dense patches. It takes
water and nutrients from the soil.
Look at the picture that you made in Topic 4.1, showing interactions
in the Sonoran Desert. Suggest how buffelgrass could affect some of
the native species in the desert.
Summary checklist
I can explain how new or invasive species can affect an ecosystem.
I can describe examples of invasive species and their effects.
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4 Ecosystems
4.4 Bioaccumulation
• find out about DDT
• use a model to explain what happens to DDT in a food chain
• learn what bioaccumulation is, and why it happens.
Think about what you learned about decomposers in Stage 7. accumulate

With a partner, answer these questions. bioaccumulation
1 What is a decomposer? biodegradable
biomagnification
2 What kinds of substance can decomposers break down?
insecticide
3 What kinds of substance are decomposers unable to
persistent
break down?
toxic
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4.4 Bioaccumulation
DDT
DDT is an insecticide. This means that it
kills insects.
DDT was first produced in the 1940s. It was used
to kill insects that transmit diseases. It was
especially useful for killing mosquitoes that
transmit malaria, and fleas that transmit a
disease called typhus. DDT was also used to
kill insects that eat crops.
No one thought that DDT could harm organisms
other than insects. This old picture was taken in
the 1940s. It shows a beach being sprayed with
DDT to kill mosquitoes. The people on the beach
are being sprayed, too.
DDT is very good at killing insects. But gradually, people began to
realise that it was also harming animals that no one wanted to kill.
In 1962, an American author called Rachel Carson wrote a book called
Silent Spring. She described how DDT was killing not only mosquitoes,
but also birds.
Her book made many people realise that some insecticides, including
DDT, are very harmful to the environment. Scientists now understand
how it causes harm to ecosystems.
DDT in food chains

We now know that DDT does not break down. It is a persistent
chemical. It stays in the environment for many years. It is not
broken down by decomposers.
When DDT is sprayed, some of it is carried
up high into the air. It can be blown for
very long distances, far away from where
it was used.
When DDT gets into an animal’s body, it
stays there for the whole life of the organism –
it never breaks down.
DDT is very harmful to many kinds of animal.
It is toxic (poisonous). For example, it makes
the shells of birds’ eggs very thin and easy to
break. This old photograph shows some eggs
of a bird called an ibis. The eggs did not hatch,
because the female ibis that laid them had
DDT in her body.
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4 Ecosystems
Modelling DDT in a food chain
You will need:

• at least 25 people to do this activity – it’s even better with 30
• at least 200 tokens, some blue, some yellow, and some red
• a stopwatch
• a cup or small bag for each person, to put tokens in
• one card with ’eagle’ written on it
• about eight cards with ’small bird’ written on them
• about 21 cards with ’insect’ written on them
• one bag, big enough to hold all the cards
• a method of marking out an area of ground outside, for example, traffic cones
(you could borrow something from the sports department, or you might be able
to use a marked-out part of a pitch used for sports)
• a clipboard and paper so that someone (the teacher, or the eagle) can
record results
Method
1 Mark out an area big enough for people to run around. It could be
25 m by 25 m, but the exact size does not matter.
2 Spread all of the coloured tokens randomly in the marked-off area.
3 Put all of the cards into the large bag. Each person puts a hand into the bag
and takes one card.
4 Everyone takes a small bag, and then stands on the edge of the marked-off area.
5 One person (it could be your teacher) starts a stopwatch and says: ‘Go!’ Each
‘insect’ goes and ‘feeds’ in the area. They do this by picking up tokens and
putting them into their bags. Only one token can be picked up at once!
6 After 15 or 20 seconds, the timer shouts: ‘Stop!’ The insects stop feeding.
Each ‘insect’ counts the tokens in their bag. They count how many tokens
of each colour they have. The recorder writes down the results for each ‘insect’.
7 The timer starts the stopwatch again, and the ‘small birds’ go and feed on the
‘insects’. They do this by tapping an ‘insect’ on the shoulder. The captured
insect transfers their tokens into the small bird’s bag. A ‘small bird’ can only
eat one ‘insect’ at a time.
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4.4 Bioaccumulation
Continued
8 After 15 or 20 seconds, the timer shouts: ‘Stop!’ The ‘small birds’ stop feeding.
The ‘insects’ (whether or not they have been eaten) move outside the marked
area. Each small bird counts the tokens in their bag. The recorder writes down
how many tokens of each colour each small bird has.
9 Now repeat steps 6 and 7, but this time the ‘eagle’ feeds on the ‘small birds’.
10 Go back into your classroom. The recorder can now write all of the results
onto the board.
Questions
1 a Calculate the mean number of red tokens that an ‘insect’ collected.
b Calculate the mean number of red tokens that a ‘small bird’ collected.
c How many red tokens did the ‘eagle’ collect?
2 Copy and complete this 'food chain', using your results.
insects à small birds à eagle

… red tokens each … red tokens each … red tokens each
3 Explain why the mean number of red tokens that each animal has increases
as you go along the food chain.
4 Now imagine that the red tokens represent DDT. What happens to the quantity
of DDT in an animal’s body as you go up the food chain? Why does this happen?
5 In this activity, you modelled what happens to DDT in a food chain.
Do you think this is a good model of what happens in a real ecosystem?
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification

Imagine that DDT has been sprayed onto some water. Tiny algae take
up some of the DDT. Shrimps eat the algae, and fish eat the shrimps.
Cormorants (fish-eating birds) eat the fish.
All the DDT in all of the algae that a shrimp eats over its lifetime
accumulates, or builds up, in its body. The longer the organism lives, and
the more DDT it takes in, the more DDT it gets in its body. This process
is called bioaccumulation.
All of the DDT in all of the shrimps that a fish eats accumulates in the
fish’s body. Eventually, all the DDT in all of the fish that a cormorant
eats in its lifetime accumulates in the cormorant’s body.
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4 Ecosystems
This means that the concentration of DDT in an animal’s body

increases as you go up the food chain. This is called biomagnification.
The next diagram shows how the concentration of DDT in the bodies
of species in a food chain increases along the chain. The concentration
is measured in parts per million (ppm). This is the number of grams of
DDT in one million grams of the organisms.
Questions
1 How many times greater is the concentration of DDT in a
cormorant’s body than in a minnow’s body?
2 Explain, in your own words, why the concentration in the cormorant
is greater than in a minnow.
People often get confused between bioaccumulation and

biomagnification. How will you try to remember the difference
between them?
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4.4 Bioaccumulation
Activity 4.4.1
Biodegradable insecticides
Work in a group of three for this activity.
Some insecticides are biodegradable. This means that they can be broken down
by microorganisms in the environment, or inside an animal’s body.
Questions
In your group, discuss these two questions.
1 Do you think biodegradable insecticides show biomagnification?
Explain why.
2 Why doesn’t everyone stop using DDT, and change over to using
biodegradable insecticides?
Be ready to share your ideas with the other groups in your class.
Summary checklist
I can explain what is meant by bioaccumulation.
I can explain why DDT shows bioaccumulation.
I can explain why organisms at the top of a food chain have higher
concentrations of DDT in their bodies than organisms at the base
of the food chain.
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4 Ecosystems
Project: Impact of an introduced species

This project is about how people develop and use scientific understanding,
and how the uses of science can have a global environmental impact.
Your task
Work in a group of three or four.
You are going to investigate how a new or invasive species has affected
an ecosystem.
Use the internet to find an example of a species that has been introduced
into an ecosystem in your country.
Try to answer some of these questions.
• Where does the species normally live?
• Why and when was the new species introduced to your country?
• How has it affected the ecosystems it has been introduced to?
• Is it an invasive species? If so, why is it invasive in your country, but not
its native country?
• Why did people not realise that the species might be a problem, when
it was first introduced? How has understanding improved over time?
• Are people trying to eradicate or control the species? If so, how are they
doing this, and how successful are they? Is everyone happy about this,
or do some people want to protect the species?
Make a presentation about your findings, and be
ready to share with others.
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4 Ecosystems
Check your progress

4.1 Tropical rainforests are very complex ecosystems.
Many different species live in a tropical rainforest.
Bromeliads are plants that grow in a Bromeliads have spiky leaves arranged
tropical rainforest. They often grow in circles. They trap rainwater in their
on tall forest trees. centres. Small animals often live in the
little ponds in a bromeliad plant.
a Use the photographs to describe two habitats in the tropical

rainforest ecosystem. [2]
b Suggest the advantages to bromeliads of growing in their
particular habitat. [2]
c Suggest the advantages to the frog of living in their particular habitat. [2]
d Explain the difference between an ecosystem and a habitat. [2]
4.2 Coral reefs are formed by tiny animals called coral polyps. Their hard
skeletons provide many different habitats where other species can live.
One of these species is a single-celled alga that makes a toxic substance
called ciguatoxin. Herbivorous fish eat the alga. Carnivorous fish eat the
herbivorous fish. Humans often eat the carnivorous fish.
a Thousands of different species live on coral reefs.
Use the information to suggest why so many species can live there. [2]
b What is meant by ‘a toxic substance’? [1]
c Use the information to construct a food chain. [3]
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4 Ecosystems
d Ciguatoxin does not break down inside a fish that has eaten it.
Instead, it builds up in the head, liver and skin of the fish.
What is the name for this process? Choose one of these words.
bioaccumulation ecosystem poisoning [1]
e People who have eaten fish containing ciguatoxin can become very ill.
Suggest why eating a carnivorous fish is more likely to make you ill
than eating a herbivorous fish. [2]
4.3 Winged loosestrife is a plant with purple
flowers. It grows in North America.
Purple loosestrife, shown in the
photograph, also has purple flowers.
It normally lives in Europe and Asia. It is
an introduced species in North America.
Both species of loosestrife are pollinated
by insects. After pollination, the flowers
produce seeds.
Scientists noticed that numbers of
winged loosestrife plants were decreasing in places where purple loosestrife had been
introduced.
They did an experiment to test this hypothesis:
When purple loosestrife is present, fewer winged loosestrife flowers

are successfully pollinated.
• They grew plants of winged loosestrife in pots.

They also grew plants of purple loosestrife in pots.
• When all the plants had flowers, the scientists arranged the pots in a field.
They used two different patterns.
Key
winged loosestrife plant
purple loosestrife plant
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4 Ecosystems
• The scientists counted how many insects visited the flowers on each
winged loosestrife plant over a 15 minute period.
• They left the plants in their pots until they produced seeds.
Then they counted how many seeds each plant produced.
Their results are shown in the table.
Arrangement of plants Mean number of insect visits Mean number of

to each winged loosestrife seeds produced
plant in 15 minutes by each winged
loosestrife plant
winged loosestrife alone 35 80
winged loosestrife and 26 58
purple loosestrife
a Explain what is meant by an ‘introduced species’. [2]

b Explain why the scientists used two different patterns when they put
the plants in the field. [3]
c Describe how the presence of purple loosestrife affected the number
of insect visits to winged loosestrife. [2]
d Do the results support the scientists’ hypothesis? Explain your answer. [2]
e Suggest two ways the scientists could improve their experiment.
Explain each of your suggestions. [4]
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5 Materials and
cycles on Earth
5.1 The structure of the atom
• describe the structure of the atom
• list the particles found in an atom
• describe some of the properties of the particles found in
an atom.

atoms
deflected
electrical charge
electrons
electrostatic
attraction
These three cups have been filled with water. neutrons
Would you expect these three cups to have: nucleus
protons
a exactly the same mass
sub-atomic
b masses that were nearly the same particles
c masses that were very different?
Discuss this with a partner. Give reasons for your choice.
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Atoms
In Stage 7 you learnt that atoms are so small that you cannot see them
without using the most powerful microscopes yet invented. The word
‘atom’ comes from a Greek word that means ‘cannot be split’.
All the atoms of a particular element are the same.
Different elements have different atoms.
What is an atom like?

Scientists have discovered that atoms are made up of −
even smaller particles, called sub-atomic particles. Atoms
are made up of three kinds of particles protons, neutrons neutron
and electrons. nucleus
proton +
+
The particles are arranged in a similar way in all atoms.
The protons and neutrons are grouped closely together electron −
in the centre of the atom. They form the nucleus of the
atom. (Be careful not to confuse the nucleus of a cell
with the nucleus of an atom.) A helium atom
The electrons move around the nucleus.

The three different particles in an atom have different properties.
• Protons and neutrons have much more mass than the electrons.
In fact, electrons have almost no mass.
• Protons and neutrons have the same mass.
• Protons have a positive electrical charge.
• Neutrons have no electrical charge.
• Electrons have a negative electrical charge.
There is a lot of empty space between parts of the atom.
This space really is completely empty – there is nothing in it at all.
There is an attraction between the positive and negative charges.
This electrostatic attraction between the positive charge on the
protons and the negative charge on the electrons is what holds
individual atoms together.
153
5 Materials and cycles on Earth
Questions
1 Which sub-atomic particle has a positive electrical charge?
2 Which sub-atomic particle has the smallest mass?
3 Which sub-atomic particles make up the nucleus of an atom?
4 The size of the negative charge of an electron is exactly the same
as the size of the positive charge on a proton. What is the overall
charge of the helium atom shown in the diagram?
5 How are the individual atoms held together?
How did scientists come up with this model of

the structure of the atom?
Scientists from all over the world have worked on different ideas.
Together, the ideas have led to the model of the atom, that scientists
use today.
In the late 1890s a British scientist called J. J. Thompson discovered the
electron. His model for the atom was that the electrons were scattered
throughout the structure of the atom. It is sometimes called the ‘plum
pudding model’ because the particles are arranged randomly throughout
the model, like fruit in a cake or pudding.
positively
− charged
− matter
− −
−
− −
electrons
−
−
−
J. J. Thompson’s model of the atom
154
One of Thompson’s students was originally from New Zealand.

His name was Ernest Rutherford. Rutherford discovered the
proton in 1909 and the nucleus in 1911.
Rutherford’s most famous experiment was the gold foil experiment.
In this experiment, Rutherford fired fast moving particles, smaller
than an atom, at very thin gold foil. Most of the particles passed
straight through the foil. Only a few of the particles (about 1 in 8000)
were deflected in various directions. (Deflected means that the direction
of the particle was changed.)
particle source gold foil particle detector
Ernest Rutherford
particles that have

rare particle passed through the foil
bounces back
Rutherford’s gold foil experiment
The results of this experiment led Rutherford to the idea

that the gold atoms must be mostly empty space, with their −
particles packed into a dense nucleus at the centre. −
James Chadwick also worked with Rutherford and
Thompson. In 1932, he proved that neutrons exist. ++
− + +++
When scientists make a discovery, they write about what
they have done and what they think it means. Sometimes, if −
the work is very complicated, many different scientists may −
be involved. These different scientists often live in different −
countries, but still work together. This is called collaboration.
Other scientists then look closely at the findings to see if they
can repeat the experiments. Some scientists look for mistakes
Rutherford’s model of the atom
in the work, or whether the conclusions about the results are
wrong. This is called peer review.
When work is peer reviewed it must be done fairly. More than one
person must do the review and they must consider whether there are
sufficient observations or measurements to support the conclusions. The
scientists who carry out the review cannot be influenced by the people
who did the original work.
155
Each scientist builds on the ideas and the discoveries of others.

Chadwick, Rutherford and Thompson won Nobel prizes for
their work. Their experiments and ideas have helped us to
understand the structure of the atom.
There is still a lot we do not know about atoms. Scientists
continue to work to improve our understanding of the
structure of the atom. For example, scientists from all over
the world are using the Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland
to further understand the structure of matter.
Tunnel in the Large Hadron Collider
Questions
6 Explain how Thompson’s model of the atom is different from the
one scientists use today.
7 Who discovered the electron? When did they discover it?
8 Who proved that the neutron existed? When did they do this it?
9 What two things did Rutherford discover about the structure
of the atom?
10 How is Rutherford’s model different from the model scientists
use today?
Activity 5.1.1
An atomic timeline
In a group of three, make a time line of the discoveries that have
led to the model of the atom we use today. Do some research on
the three scientists J. J. Thompson, Ernest Rutherford and James
Chadwick. Find out where and when they worked and some
personal details; add this to your time line.
How does the use of a model help me to understand the

structure of the atom?
Summary checklist
I can describe the structure of the atom.
I can list the particles found in an atom.
I can describe some of the properties of the particles found in an atom.
I can describe some of the discoveries that have helped to create the model
of the atom that is used today.
156
5.2 Purity
5.2 Purity
• explain what is meant by purity
• calculate percentage purity
• describe how it is difficult to get a pure product.
Answer the three questions on your own and then check with a carat
partner. Be ready to share your answers with the class. suggest
1 What does it mean if a substance is pure? translucent
2 Which of these items are pure substances?
sodium chloride; oxygen; sea water; gold; orange juice;
copper oxide; silver nitrate; soil; black ink; potassium.
3 Of the items in question 2, which are elements,
mixtures and compounds?
157
Pure elements
If an element is pure, it means that every one
of its atoms is exactly the same and made of
just one type of atom. For example, pure gold
is made of gold atoms.
When you buy gold it is usually marked to
state if it is pure gold (24 carat) or an alloy
such as 18 carat or 9 carat. This is a measure
of its purity. The more gold it has, the higher
its purity. 18 carat gold has 18 parts out of
24 that are gold; the rest (6 parts out of the 24)
is made up of other metals such as silver or
copper. 18 carat gold has a purity of 75%.
To calculate this:
18 × 100 = 75%
__
24
The photograph shows samples of 8 carat, 14 carat, 18 carat, and
24 carat gold. You can see that the colour changes from slightly
coppery to yellow-gold.
When silver is sold, it is usually marked with the number

of parts per thousand that are silver. So, silver marked 925
has 925 atoms out of 1000 that are silver, and 75 atoms of
some other metal. You can see this mark in the photograph
of the silver ring. Silver marked 900 is of lower purity than
silver marked 925.
This silver ring has the mark 925.
The ring contains 925 parts silver out of 1000 parts.
925 × 100 = 92.5%
____
1000
So, it is 92.5% pure silver.
158
5.2 Purity
Diamonds are made from the element carbon. The carbon atoms are
arranged in a particular way. If they are pure, diamonds contain no
other elements. Pure diamonds are colourless and translucent (lets the
light through).
If diamonds have other elements mixed in with the carbon atoms, they
can be different colours. For example, if a few carbon atoms per million
are replaced with nitrogen, the diamond will be yellow. If some carbon
atoms are replaced by atoms of the element boron, then the diamond
will be blue. The rarest of all is a green diamond, formed when one atom
per 1000 of carbon atoms is replaced by nitrogen, nickel or hydrogen.
A pure diamond A yellow diamond
A blue diamond A green diamond
Questions
1 What percentage of 9 carat gold is gold?
2 What percentage of silver is in silver marked 900?
3 Which element mixed with carbon in diamonds makes them blue?
4 Which elements may cause a diamond to be green?
159
Seawater
Seawater is made up of water and various
salts, such as sodium chloride. If you
want to obtain sodium chloride from
seawater you can evaporate off the water.
In some countries, this is done by letting
seawater fill flat and shallow areas called
beds, and allowing the water to evaporate
in the heat from the Sun.
If you take 1000 g of seawater, about 35 g
(or 3.5%) of it is made up of salts. Of this
35 g, about 68% is sodium chloride; the
rest is made up of magnesium chloride, Workers carrying salt in Nha Trang, Vietnam
sodium sulfate, calcium chloride and
some other salts. If you want pure sodium chloride, you need to do some
work to remove the other salts.
seawater
water 96.5% salts from seawater
magnesium chloride 14.6%

sodium
salts 3.5% chloride sodium sulfate 11.4%
68% calcium chloride 3.1%
other salts 2.9%
The salt that is obtained from this seawater is only 68% sodium chloride.
The mass of sodium chloride in 1000 g seawater is:
68
 ____ × 35 = 23.8 g
100
Salts are compounds made from acids. The names tell you which acid has
been used to form them. For example, sodium chloride, is formed from
hydrochloric acid and sodium sulfate is formed from sulfuric acid.
Questions
5 Draw up a table to show the percentage of salts found in seawater.
6 What mass of magnesium chloride would you expect to find in the
seawater sample?
160
5.2 Purity

Finding the mass of salts in seawater
You will need:

• evaporating basin • tongs • Bunsen burner • tripod • pipe-clay triangle
• safety glasses • top pan balance • seawater sample
Method
1 Read through the method and think very carefully about any risks there may be
when you carry out this task. Write a risk assessment.
2 Place an evaporating basin on a top pan balance and record its mass.
3 Add some seawater and find the mass of the seawater.
4 Heat the seawater until it begins to spit. pipe clay
Remove from the heat and allow the rest of the triangle
water to evaporate.
5 When there is no longer any water remaining and bunsen burner
the basin is cool, find the mass of the salts. evaporating basin
Questions
top pan
1 What mass of salts did you obtain from balance
the seawater?
2 What percentage of the seawater is this? tripod
3 About 68% of the salt in seawater is sodium 250 g
chloride. Estimate the mass of sodium chloride
in your sample.
4 Is this about what you expected? If not, why not?
5 What difficulties did you have carrying out this investigation?
How did you try to overcome them?
6 What safety measures did you have in place whilst carrying out this investigation?
161
Pure products
Often, when scientists carry out a chemical reaction, it is important
that they obtain a pure product. For example, if they are carrying out
a chemical reaction to make a medicine, impurities in the product could
stop the medicine from working, or it could harm the patient.
In some simple reactions there is only one product. For example:
magnesium + oxygen  magnesium oxide

In other reactions, there may be more than one product. For example:
silver nitrate + sodium chloride  sodium nitrate + silver chloride

sulfuric acid + sodium hydroxide  sodium sulfate + water
barium chloride + sodium sulfate  barium sulfate + sodium chloride
lead nitrate + potassium iodide  potassium nitrate + lead iodide
copper carbonate + hydrochloric acid  copper chloride + water + carbon dioxide
When there is more than one product they are mixed up together.
These products need to be separated and purified to produce whichever
pure product you want. The products may also be mixed up with some
of the reactants if they have not all been used up in the reaction.
Reactions with more than one product
You will need:

• safety glasses • test tubes • test tube racks • universal indicator solution
• conical flask • measuring cylinder • burette • boiling tube
• delivery tube with bung • clamp stands • safety glasses • limewater
• chemical reactants as listed above
Safety
You must wear safety glasses to carry out all these reactions. Wash your hands
after handling any chemicals.
Method
The equations above are examples of chemical reactions you could carry out.
You can try other reactions if your teacher prefers. Remember, if you are going
to do a neutralisation reaction, you will need to measure the reactants carefully.
Carry out a risk assessment for each reaction you attempt.
162
5.2 Purity
Continued
Reaction 1
Safety: Silver nitrate is an irritant. Take care when you use it.
Half fill a test tube with silver nitrate solution. Slowly add some
sodium chloride solution.
Reaction 2
burette
Safety: Sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide are
irritants: take care when you use them. Fill the
burette carefully using a small funnel.
sulfuric acid
Your teacher may decide to do this as a
demonstration as a burette can be difficult to use.
Place 20 cm3 of sodium hydroxide in a conical flask,
as shown. Add a few drops of universal indicator
solution. Put sulfuric acid in the burette and add to
the flask until the alkali is neutralised.
Take care when you use the burette and ask for help
if you have not used one before. conical flask
Reaction 3 sodium hydroxide and

universal indicator
Safety: Barium chloride is harmful if swallowed.
Half fill a test tube with barium chloride solution and add
sodium sulfate solution.
Reaction 4
Place lead nitrate in a test tube and add potassium iodide.
Wash your hands after handling lead compounds.
Reaction 5
delivery tube
rubber bung
Safety: Copper carbonate is harmful
so wash it off you skin if you spill any.
Place a few spatulas of copper boiling tube
test tube
carbonate in a boiling tube and add
hydrochloric acid. Place the delivery
hydrochloric acid
tube bung in the mouth of the boiling limewater
tube and allow the gas to be passed
into a test tube of limewater copper carbonate
(see diagram).
163
Continued
Questions
1 Record each reaction you carry out. For each one, write the word
equation and your observations.
2 For each reaction suggest or offer ideas on how the products
could be separated and purified.
3 What safety measures did you have in place whilst carrying out these reactions?
What does ‘pure’ mean? When chemical reactions take place

how can you be sure you have a pure product?
Summary checklist
I can explain what is meant by purity
I can calculate percentage purity
I can explain why it is difficult to obtain a pure product.
164
5.3 Weather and climate

• learn the difference between weather and climate
• make observations of the weather.
With a partner, write down as many words about the weather as atmosphere
you can. Be prepared to share them with the class. You must be climate
ready to explain the meanings of the words you write down. climatology
humidity
meteorology
statistics
visibility
weather
165
What is weather?
When you look out of the window, what is the weather like?
What people mean by weather is the state of the atmosphere and its
changes from minute to minute, hour to hour, day to day, or week to
week. In some places, the weather is very similar each day, but in others
the weather changes frequently.
When people talk about the weather they say things such as, ‘What is the
weather like today?’, ‘How hot is it today?’ or ‘Will it rain tomorrow?’
They are thinking in the short term.
People generally think about weather as the combination of temperature,
humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, visibility and wind.
Countries all over the world take careful measurements of the weather
to help predict what will happen next, to see patterns in the weather, and
to provide information about the weather over time. For example, it is
important to be prepared for snowstorms or heat waves as they can affect
the transport systems, production of food, how much power people need
to run their homes, and even what people want to buy in the shops.
Scotland Namibia New Zealand
Canada Republic of Ireland Bangladesh
Questions
1 Describe the weather in each of the photographs. Use as many of
the words from the Getting started task as you can.
2 Why do scientists take careful measurements of the weather?
166
Activity 5.3.1
Recording the weather
In this activity you will record the details of the weather over a period of at least a week.
Method
3 In your group, discuss which weather features you will be able to
measure and/or observe. Share these ideas with the class.
4 After the discussion make a list of the weather features that you will
measure and/or observe.
5 Decide how your group will collect this information.
What equipment will you need?
You may need to do some research to decide this.
You may need some laboratory equipment.
A camera might also be useful as you could take photographs to
record cloud cover.
Remember that you should take readings at the same time each day.
Record the temperature in the shade, not in full Sun. Make sure the bulb
of the thermometer is not touching anything other than the air.
6 Prepare a results table to record your findings.
7 Record your findings each day for at least a week.
Questions
1 Why should the readings be taken at the same time each day?
2 Why are the temperature readings always taken in the shade?
3 Write a report about the changes in the weather over the week.
In this report you should present your observations in an appropriate way.
4 Plot a line graph to show the changes in temperature during your investigation.
5 Compare your readings with someone else in your class. Are there any
differences and, if so, can you give reasons for the differences? Is this
comparison a fair comparison?
6 Compare your readings with those that are recorded nationally. You could
use the internet to find these. Are yours different? If so, explain why they
are different. Is this comparison a fair one?
167
Activity 5.3.2
Finding out about the weather
In this activity you will find and evaluate information about the weather in
a particular place.
1 Work with a partner. Choose a place, anywhere in the world.
It might be somewhere you would like to go on holiday – a beach,
mountains for skiing, or somewhere to sail a boat.
2 Find as much information as you can about the weather in that place.
For example: What is the average number of hours of sunshine?
How much rain is expected? How windy is it? How much snow
will there be?
Make sure you find information from different sources. You might look at
websites for travel agents, the national weather service or local
weather watchers. You could also look at past weather records over a few
years and compare them.
3 Think about these questions and discuss them with your partner:
• Is the information you find from all sources exactly the same?
• Can you suggest why this is?
• Which source of information do you think is more reliable?
• Could some sources be biased? Perhaps someone wants to give the best
view of the weather to encourage you to go there.
4 Present your findings, as a poster or a talk, and suggest the best time of year to
visit your chosen place. Use the suggested questions as a starting point to explain
which sources of information you have used and how much you feel able to trust
the information.
How can I explain the difference between the weather and the
climate where I live?
168 168
Weather or climate?
What is the difference between weather and climate?
When people talk about climate, they mean the weather of a place over a
much longer time, usually more than 30 years. Weather can change in a
few hours or even in minutes.
Climate is the average weather in an area and takes several years
to change. Climate information includes the statistics of weather
information that tells us about the normal weather as well as the range
of extreme weather at that place.
Weather is affected by factors such as temperature, humidity, cloudiness
and precipitation.
Climate is affected by two key factors: temperature and precipitation.
The study of weather is called meteorology.
The study of climate is called climatology.
Climate zones
The map below shows the main climate zones on Earth. The key shows
the names of these zones.
Key
polar
tundra
mountains
temperate
mediterranean
arid
tropical
169
Each zone has a characteristic climate.
Climate zone Description of climate

Polar very cold and dry all year
Temperate cold winters and mild summers
Arid hot and dry all year
Tropical hot and wet all year
Mediterranean mild winters and hot, dry summers
Mountains/tundra/taiga very cold all year
Questions
3 Which climate zone do you live in?
4 Name two countries that are in the arid zone. (You may need to use
an atlas to help you.)
5 Name two countries that have areas with a Mediterranean climate
but are not near the Mediterranean Sea.
6 Name three countries that are in the tropical zone.
7 What is the difference between the climate in the arid zone and the
tropical zone?
8 What are the differences between the climate in the temperate zone
and the Mediterranean zone?
What do I notice about how the climate zones are distributed?
Summary checklist
I can explain the difference between weather and climate.
I can make observations and take measurements of the weather.
170
5.4 Climate and ice ages

• learn about how the Earth’s climate has changed
• find out about ice ages, glacial periods and interglacial
periods
• look at some evidence that the Earth’s climate cycles between
colder and warmer periods.
The photgraph shows the boulder

body of a baby mammoth, cycle
which has been named glacial period
Yuka. Her frozen body glaciers
was discovered in 1977 in
eastern Siberia. In that part ice ages
of the world, it is so cold interglacial period
that the lower layers of the peat bog
soil stay frozen solid all
year round. Scientists think
that Yuka lived and died
about 39 000 years ago,
when the temperature was even colder than it is now.
With a partner, discuss why Yuka’s body has been preserved for
so long. Be ready to share your ideas with the rest of the class.
171
Ice sheets
Look at the photograph in the Getting started section. When Yuka was
alive, and for thousands of years afterwards, the Earth was much colder
than it is now. The map shows the parts of the world that were covered
by ice sheets 25 000 years ago.
Key
ice sheet
Activity 5.4.1
Where in the World is there ice?
Working in a group of three or four, use an atlas to find out which
parts of the Earth are covered with ice today.
Compare this with what the Earth looked like 25 000 years ago.
Questions
1 Name a part of the Earth that was covered with ice 25 000
years ago, but is no longer covered with ice.
2 When you look at the parts of the Earth that are covered with
ice today, what do they have in common?
172
Glacial and interglacial periods

The very cold period when Yuka lived lasted until
about 10 000 years ago. Because so much of the
Earth was frozen, it is called a glacial period.
‘Glacial’ means ‘frozen’. Today, the Earth is in an
interglacial period. ‘Inter’ means ‘between’. Over the
last 450 000 years, the Earth’s climate has cycled, or
swung, between glacial and interglacial periods.
• In an interglacial period, there is permanent ice
close to the North and South Poles.
• In a glacial period, the ice spreads much further
south from the North Pole and further north When Yuka was alive, the Earth was in a glacial period;
from the South Pole. much more of the Earth was frozen than now
Ice ages
Looking even further back in time, scientists have found that this cycle
of glacial periods and inter-glacial periods did not always happen.
There were long periods of time when Earth was so warm that there was
no permanent ice on its surface, not even at the North Pole or South Pole.
In between these warm periods, there were cold periods, with glacials and
interglacials. These cold periods are called ice ages.
The graph below shows when scientists think the ice ages happened on
Earth. They think the second one, which began about 850 million years
ago, was the coldest. Some scientists think that the whole Earth was
covered with ice and snow then. The Earth was like a giant snowball.
ice ice
ice age ice age age age ice age
25
20
Average global
temperature 15
in °C
10
5
2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
Millions of years ago today
173
Questions
1 How many ice ages do scientists think there have been on Earth?
2 Is the Earth in an ice age now? Explain why you think that.
3 Explain the difference between a glacial period and an ice age.
4 Is the Earth in a glacial period now?
How do scientists know the Earth

was colder in the past?
The photograph shows some boulders (big rocks) in
California, USA. People have often wondered how
rocks like this got into their strange positions.
The best explanation is that they were carried there
by ancient glaciers. Glaciers are rivers of ice that
move slowly downhill (they are formed from snow
that, over many years, becomes compressed into thick
masses of ice). The glaciers carry rocks with them.
If the glacier melts, the rocks are left behind. These rocks are in Yosemite National Park, in California;
Sometimes, scientists can see scratches on the rock scientists think they were left behind when a glacier
surfaces, where the moving ice dragged other rocks melted, thousands of years ago
across them.
Boulders like this were the first clue that there were
glaciers in parts of the Earth that are much warmer
now. Later, other evidence was found that supports
this idea. For example, in places that are now quite
warm, there are fossils of animals and plants that
were adapted to live in very cold places.
Questions
5 Use an atlas or the internet to identify and list
glaciers nearest to where you live.
6 When rivers run through rock, they wear the
rock away. This sometimes creates very deep A glacier in Iceland
valleys, such as the Grand Canyon in Arizona.
When glaciers moved millions of years ago,
they left their mark on the landscape. Find out
about and describe the effect that glaciers had
on the land.
174
Pollen evidence for glacial and

interglacial periods
When plants die they decay. In some conditions, without oxygen and
slightly acid, the decay is very slow and a peat bog may be formed. The
different layers of peat represent different periods of history: the deeper
the peat, the older it is. Scientists can take samples of the peat bog by
using an instrument called an auger to remove a core of the peat bog.
They must be careful to remove the core and keep it in the correct order
so that they know which part is oldest.
This scientist is using an auger to extract A core sample from a peat bog showing different layers
a core sample from beneath the ice
In New Zealand, a scientist extracted a core of soil from a peat bog.

The deepest level of the soil in the core was formed 127 000 years
ago. The scientist collected pollen from different parts of the core.
He identified the plants from which the pollen came. Because he knew
the type of climate that each kind of plant can live in, he was able to
work out what the climate was like between 127 000 years ago and now.
175
Summary checklist
I can describe how the Earth’s climate has changed in the past.
I can explain the difference between ice ages, glacial and
interglacial periods.
I can give some evidence that the Earth’s climate cycles between
colder and warmer periods.
176
5.5 Atmosphere and climate

• learn about the atmosphere of the Earth
• learn how a change in the atmosphere can affect the climate
• learn about renewable resources.
What is an ice age? What evidence is there to show that the bioplastics
Earth’s climate was different in the past? deforestation
Think about the two questions. Write down your ideas. Then emissions
discuss them with a partner. Together, sort your ideas out and fossil fuels
be prepared to share them with the class. global warming
greenhouse effect
locked up
photosynthesis
recycled
renewable
resources
177
The atmosphere
The atmosphere is a layer of gas above
the Earth’s surface. It is very different
today from the atmosphere when the
Earth formed.
Scientists think that the Earth formed
about 4600 million years ago. The Earth
was very hot and it was molten for
millions of years. Then, as the Earth
cooled, a solid crust formed. There was a
lot of volcanic activity, much more than there is now. The volcanoes
produced gases, which formed the early atmosphere. Water vapour
was produced by the volcanoes and, as the Earth cooled, this water
vapour condensed into liquid water. The water fell as rain and formed
the first lakes and oceans.
About 4000 million years ago, scientists think that the atmosphere
contained mainly carbon dioxide, little or no oxygen, small amounts
of methane and ammonia gas, and some water vapour. This early
atmosphere on Earth was like the atmosphere on Venus is today.
The temperature on Venus is very high – on the surface, it is 467 °C
which is hot enough to melt lead.
Questions
1 Where did the early atmosphere on Earth come from?
2 Give at least two differences between Earth’s early atmosphere
and the atmosphere today.
3 Explain why the Earth’s early atmosphere was not suitable for
humans or any other animals.
178
Changes to the atmosphere

About 3500 million years ago, micro-organisms
developed on Earth. They lived in the oceans. They
used the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to make
food. They produced oxygen as a waste product of
this process. As plants developed over millions of
years, they began to grow on land. Plants use
carbon dioxide to produce food (glucose, a sugar)
by the process of photosynthesis.
carbon dioxide + water  glucose + oxygen
The levels of oxygen in the atmosphere continued
to rise. Scientists know this because there was These rocks in Dallo, Ethiopia, have bands of red iron
enough oxygen to combine with iron in the rocks oxide and date from about 2.1 to 2.0 billion years ago
to form iron oxide.
By 200 million years ago there was very little carbon dioxide left in the
atmosphere. Most of the carbon had been used to make the chemicals,
which are part of all living things.
When the organisms die and rot, the carbon in them is released back
into the environment. It is recycled. Some organisms do not rot when
they die and are turned into fossil fuels such as oil or coal. The carbon is
locked up in the fossil fuels until they are burned.
Many organisms with shells evolved around 600 to 400 million years
ago. The shells are made from calcium carbonate, CaCO3. When these
shelled animals died and fell to the bottom of the oceans as sediment,
the many layers of shells pressing down on each other formed rocks,
such as limestone. So, carbon is also locked up in these rocks.
Fern fossil in coal This limestone is full of fossils of animals with shells
179
Scientists can find out about the composition of the atmosphere in the
past by analysing the pockets of air trapped inside samples of ice cores.
The ice cores are taken from deep layers of polar ice that were formed
many hundreds of thousands of years ago.
Questions
4 What are fossil fuels?
5 How did the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere get used up?
6 What evidence is there that the levels of oxygen increased?
7 What two elements are present in carbon dioxide?
8 What three elements are present in calcium carbonate?
9 Limestone is a sedimentary rock. How is it formed?
10 When did carbon first start to be locked up?
Atmospheric changes today

The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere fell until about
200 years ago. Then the levels of carbon dioxide began to rise. Where
is the carbon dioxide coming from? Humans caused this rise because
they started to release the carbon that had been locked up in the Earth
for millions of years. They burn fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, to
keep themselves warm.
carbon + oxygen  carbon dioxide
As humans developed industry and transport, they burned more and

more oil and coal. So, there are greater emissions of carbon dioxide.
Humans use a lot of fossil fuels to generate electricity in power stations.
A container ship burning diesel rick factories producing waste

B Cars burning petrol
gases from fossil fuel
180
Humans also make the situation worse as they cut down forests of large
established trees that use a lot of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. This
deforestation is done for many reasons: to use the wood for building or
to make things, to get to resources such as minerals which are mined, to
produce crops for profit such as palm oil, to grow more food crops or to
provide pastures for animals such as cattle. Because there are fewer trees,
less of the carbon dioxide is being used up, so the level in the atmosphere
increases. Cattle eat the grass and produce carbon dioxide and methane in
their intestines. This also changes the atmosphere.
This forest is being cut down to Many of the trees in this forest have been This forest is being cut down to provide
provide wood cut down to grow palm oil plants more land for agriculture
When limestone, which consists of calcium carbonate, is used to make

other products such as building cement, the carbon in the calcium
carbonate is released into the atmosphere.
calcium carbonate  calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

All these things lead to a change in the atmosphere and an increase in
carbon dioxide levels.
Atmospheric changes and climate

There is evidence that the carbon dioxide and other gases, such as methane,
act like a blanket around the Earth. This is an analogy. The ‘blanket’
represents the gases that keep the Earth warm. Another analogy is that the
gases are like putting the Earth in a greenhouse. A greenhouse lets in light
and heat from the Sun, but heat energy is trapped inside.
181
Think about how an analogy can help you to understand

an idea.
The layers of gases produce the greenhouse effect. This is a natural

effect; without it, the Earth would be much colder. However, increasing
the levels of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane and
water vapour, increases the greenhouse effect. So, as the levels of
carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour increase, the amount of heat
escaping decreases, and so the Earth’s climate becomes warmer.
This is known as global warming.
5
atmosphere
2
4
3
Earth
Sun
1. Energy from the sun falls on the Earth and warms it up.
2. Some of this energy does not get through the atmosphere and is reflected back into space.
3. Energy leaves the Earth and passes into the atmosphere.
4. Much of this energy is reflected back to Earth by the layer of greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour.
5. Some of this energy from the Earth passes through the atmosphere into space.
182
The greenhouse effect
You will need:

• three large plastic bottles, such as 2-litre drinks bottles with lids,
with a hole in each lid
• three thermometers
• a means of fixing the thermometers in place, such as modelling clay
• carbon dioxide supply
°C °C °C
thermometer
100 100 100
90 90 90
modelling clay 80 80 80
70 70 70
60 60 60
50 50 50
40 40 40
plastic bottle
30 30 30
20 20 20
10 10 10
0 0 0
extra carbon dioxide extra water normal air
Method
1 Place a thermometer in each of the bottles so that the bulb does not touch
the bottle in any way.
2 Add some carbon dioxide to one bottle.
3 Add about 5 cm3 of water to another bottle.
4 Leave the third bottle with normal air.
5 Label the bottles.
6 Place the bottles alongside one another outside. If this is not possible,
you can leave them in the classroom near the window.
7 Take the temperatures in each bottle at the start.
8 Record the temperatures in the three bottles over the next few days.
It is up to you to decide when and how often.
183
Continued
Questions
1 What did you consider when deciding when and how often to take readings?
2 Present your findings in a table.
3 What do your results show?
4 Why did you have one bottle with normal air in it?
5 Can you explain why you got these results?
6 How could you improve the investigation?
Reducing global warming

You have seen that humans contribute to global warming by burning
fossil fuels. One way to reduce this impact is to use renewable resources.
A renewable resource is one that does not deplete (run out) or can be
replenished within a human’s life time. Examples include wind, tidal and
solar power.
A non-renewable resource is a resource that cannot be replaced after it is
used. Examples include coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
Renewable resources
When fossil fuels are burned to generate electricity, carbon dioxide is
produced. This adds to the problem of global warming.
The more electricity is produced, the more carbon dioxide adds to
the problem.
To reduce global warming, people need to generate more of their
electricity from renewable energy resources. These energy resources will
become more important as the supplies of fossil fuels run out.
184
Wind
People have been using the power of the wind for hundreds of years.
They used windmills to grind wheat into flour and to pump water.
Now they use wind turbines to generate electricity. You need a lot of
wind turbines to generate as much electricity as a power station so
wind turbines are grouped together to form wind farms. No harmful
waste product, such as carbon dioxide, is produced when electricity is
generated in this way. The problem with wind-generated power is that
electricity is only produced when the wind blows.
This windmill in France was used to This wind pump is used to pump water This wind farm, made up of many wind
grind wheat on this farm turbines, is used to generate electricity
in China
Tidal
Tides make water rise and fall twice every day.
This happens as a result of the pull of the
Moon’s gravity as the Earth spins. It is possible
to use this movement to generate electricity. To
do this, water in river estuaries is trapped behind
a barrier and then released as the tide goes out.
When released, the water flows through electricity
generator turbines. The problem is that electricity
is only generated at certain times
A hydroelectric turbine at a tidal farm in Brest,
each day. Also, the barrier may interfere with
North West France
wildlife habitats.
Solar
The energy from the Sun can be used to generate
electricity. Photovoltaic cells can change solar
energy to electrical energy. This can only happen
when the Sun is shining.
These photovoltaic cells are part of a large solar energy farm

in Mexico
185
Bioplastics
The use of plastics has developed over the past hundred years. Plastics
are useful materials but they have one big problem: they do not break
down easily and cause many problems for wildlife when they are thrown
away. The waste builds up on land and in the oceans. Humans produce a
lot of plastic waste, especially from plastics that are only used once.
Bioplastic is a biodegradable material that comes from renewable
sources (biomass, such as vegetable oils, sawdust or food waste).
Conventional plastics are made from petroleum.
Plastic waste on a beach Cutlery made from biodegradable bioplastic
The use of bioplastics from renewable sources will help to reduce the
use of fossil fuels and to prevent damage to the environment caused
by disposal of single-use plastics.
What can I do to reduce my use of single-use plastics?
Summary checklist
I can describe Earth’s atmosphere today and in the past.
I can describe how a change in the atmosphere can change
the climate
I can identify renewable sources of energy.
I can explain how the use of renewable energy sources will reduce
the greenhouse effect.
186
Project: Global warming and climate change debate
Background
In June 2019, the average world temperature was 16.6 °C. It was an increase of 1.1 oC
above the average global temperature for the whole of the twentieth century.
During this worldwide heat wave there were:
• wildfires in the Arctic with millions of hectares burning in Northern Russia
• severe water shortages in India
• more than 5000 people in Japan taken to hospital for treatment due to heat
• a huge impact on the growth of crops.
July 2019 was the hottest on record in Europe. People died of heat stroke.
Overhead power cables expanded in the heat and failed. Crops were damaged
so food production was affected.
Scientists say it is the latest sign that the Earth is experiencing a huge increase in
global warming. Nearly all scientists think that the rise in carbon
dioxide emissions from human activities is altering the temperature. A climate
researcher from the European Union’s Copernicus Climate Change Service, said
in a television interview:
‘This particular month has been very warm, but to me this is not the main point.
All the months of 2019 have been warm in comparison to other years. And that
trend is not likely to stop unless we do something about reducing the emission of
greenhouse gases.’
However, some people think that the change in temperatures is just part of the
Earth’s normal cycle and there is no need to reduce the emissions of greenhouse
gases as there is no proof it is these gases that cause climate change.
Your task
Work in groups of two to four. Create two lists of evidence and give your
reasoning: one list in support of the idea that humans are contributing to climate
change, and one list that does not support that idea.
Your teacher will select which point of view each group will represent. During
the debate your group must stick to the point of view you have been given.
187
Check your progress

5.1 a Copy the diagram of a helium atom and label it, using these labels.
proton neutron electron nucleus
−
+
+
−
[4]
b Name the subatomic particle that:
i has a positive charge [1]
ii has no charge [1]
iii has the least mass [1]
iv is made up of protons and neutrons. [1]
5.2 Gold jewellery is marked to tell you how pure the gold is.
Which is the marking that has the most gold? Write one letter. [1]
A 15 carat gold B 9 carat gold C 18 carat gold
5.3 Pure diamond is made up of carbon atoms arranged in a particular way.
How do pure diamonds differ from diamonds that contain other elements? [1]
5.4 Match the terms, A–E, with the meanings, 1–5. [5]
A weather 1 a measure of the amount of water vapour in the

atmosphere
B climatology 2 the state of the atmosphere in a particular place
C climate 3 the study of weather
D meteorology 4 the weather conditions prevailing in an area in
general and over a long period
E humidity 5 the study of climate
188
5.5 The graph shows the average global temperatures over the past 400 million years.
25
20
Average global
15
temperature in °C
10
5
400 300 200 100 0
Millions of years ago today
a What was the average global temperature between 330 and 280 million
years ago? [1]
b What is this period of time known as? [1]
c What was the average global temperature 100 million years ago? [1]
5.6 Greenland has been frozen for a long time. Scientists study ice cores from
deep in the ice in Greenland. How does this help us to understand how our
atmosphere has changed over time? [2]
5.7 What evidence is there that the Earth is getting warmer? [2]
5.8 The atmosphere has changed since the Earth formed.
For each of these statements write true or false.
a The atmosphere now has more carbon dioxide than the earlier atmosphere. [1]
b The early atmosphere had little or no oxygen. [1]
c The atmosphere was formed from the gases produced by volcanoes. [1]
d The atmosphere today contains about 50% nitrogen. [1]
e The atmosphere today contains about 0.04% carbon dioxide. [1]
5.9 a
Much of the electricity you use is generated using fossil fuels.
Name three ways electricity can be generated without using these fuels. [1]
b What is meant by the term ‘global warming’? [2]
c Explain how using fossil fuels adds to the problems of global warming. [2]
5.10 What is an analogy? Give an example. [2]
189
6 Light
6.1 Reflection
• describe how light is reflected from a plane surface
• understand the law of reflection
• be able to draw ray diagrams to show reflection of light.
Work in groups to discuss answers to these questions. angle of incidence

1 Does light travel in straight lines or in curved paths? angle of reflection
incident ray
2 Describe the evidence to support your answer to question 1.
law of reflection
normal
perpendicular
plane mirror
protractor
ray diagram
rays
reflection
set square
190
6.1 Reflection
Reflection
When you think of reflection you probably think of using a mirror.
Most of the mirrors you use are plane mirrors. Plane means a
flat surface.
To see what reflection looks like from a surface that is not plane,
you can look at your own reflection from a spoon. The reflection
is distorted.
Remember that light travels in straight lines called rays.
A light ray arriving at a surface, such as a mirror, is called an incident
ray. An incident ray is the ray coming onto a surface.
The incident ray makes an angle with the surface of the mirror. Measure
this angle from a line perpendicular to the mirror and not from the mirror
itself. The line perpendicular to the mirror is called the normal.
In physics and maths, ‘normal’ means perpendicular or at right angles
to something.
We can use this information to draw ray diagrams. They show what
happens to the light rays during reflection.
Ray diagrams should obey the law of reflection: the angle of reflection
is equal to the angle of incidence.
In science, a law is something that always applies.
We can use the law of reflection in everyday situations.
For example, mirrors can be used to see behind us.
In this picture, light from the Sun is reflected from the cyclist. This is
the incident ray on the mirror. The reflected ray from the mirror goes
to the driver’s eye.
The driver of the car can see the cyclist by using this mirror; the ray diagram shows how this works
191
6 Light
Drawing ray diagrams

When drawing light rays, always use a ruler and put an arrowhead on
the ray to show its direction.
1 Draw the incident ray and the mirror. Sometimes,

this is done for you. incident
ray
incident
plane
ray
mirror
incident plane
ray mirror
incident
incident plane
2 Use a ruler to make the incident ray meet the mirror. ray
ray mirror
incident
plane
ray
incident plane
mirror
ray mirror
incident plane
ray normal mirror
plane
incident mirror
incident
ray plane
ray normal
mirror
incident
plane
3 Use a protractor or set square to draw the normal. The ray
incident
normal
plane
mirror
ray mirror
normal is perpendicular to the mirror where the incident incident plane
ray meets the surface. The normal is usually a dashed ray normal mirror
plane
normal
line so it is not confused with the light ray. incident mirror
incident
ray normal plane
i
ray mirror
incident normal plane
ray i plane
incident normal mirror
ray mirror
incident plane
4 Use a protractor to measure the angle between the ray normal
i
normal
mirror
plane
incident ray and the normal. We call this angle the angle incident
incident
reflected mirror
plane
ray i r ray
of incidence or i. ray normal
i mirror
incident normal reflected
plane
ray
incident i r ray plane
normal mirror
ray mirror
i
incident reflected plane
ray i r ray mirror
plane
normal
mirror
5 Measure an angle equal to the angle of incidence on ray i r ray mirror
normal
the other side of the normal. This angle is called the
angle of reflection or r. Draw a reflected light ray coming ray ray mirror
i r
away from the mirror at this angle. Remember to put an
arrowhead on the reflected ray. plane
mirror
192
6.1 Reflection
Questions
1 Which of the angles in this diagram is the angle of reflection?
A
Write the letter.
B
plane
mirror
C
D
2 Copy this ray diagram. You do not have to measure incident

angles for making your copy. ray
a Extend the incident ray to meet the mirror.

b Draw a normal where the incident ray meets the mirror.
plane
c Measure and write down the angle of incidence. mirror
d Draw a reflected ray in the correct place.
3 Sofia looks at a candle in the mirror. plane mirror
Copy and complete the diagram to show how light from

the candle reflects from the mirror to Sofia.
You do not have to measure the angles.
Draw and label:
• the incident ray candle
• the normal Sofia
• the reflected ray

• the angle of incidence
• the angle of reflection.
4 Marcus drops a pencil. The pencil rolls under his bed. Marcus
Marcus cannot see the pencil.
The diagram shows a light ray coming from the pencil.
wall
Marcus can use a mirror to see the pencil.
bed
Copy and complete the diagram by adding a mirror and a
reflected light ray to show how Marcus can see the pencil.
pencil
You do not have to measure the angles.
floor
193
6 Light
Activity 6.1.1
Mirrors and reflections
Work in pairs.
Make a list of places where mirrors are used.
In each of your examples, describe why a mirror is used.
Reflections can also be seen from some surfaces that are
not mirrors.
Make a list of some of these surfaces.
What do these surfaces have in common?

Measuring angles of incidence and reflection
In this investigation, you will investigate the law of reflection.
Work in pairs or groups of three.
Make the room as dark as possible for this activity.
You will need:

• equipment shown in the diagram
Method
1 Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram.
mirror
modelling clay
ray box white paper

pencil
protractor
to power 70
80 90 100 110
120
ruler
90 80
60 110
100 70 130
60
50 0 120 50
13
14
40
0 30 20
supply
0
40
14
1
30
50
5 0
01
160
20
180 170 16
170 180
0 10
10 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
2 Place the plane mirror vertically at one side of the white paper.
Mark the position of the front of the mirror on the paper using
a pencil.
194
6.1 Reflection
Continued
3 Use the protractor to draw a
normal line at the surface of
the mirror.
4 Use the ray box to direct a ray of
light onto the mirror where the
normal meets the mirror surface.
5 Use a pencil to make marks on
the paper for the positions of the
incident and reflected rays, as
shown in the diagram.
6 Turn the ray box off, remove the
mirror and use the pencil marks
to construct a ray diagram.
7 Measure and record the angle of incidence, i and the angle of reflection,
r from your diagram.
8 Repeat this for at least four more different angles of incidence. Use a new
piece of paper or a new area on the same piece of paper each time.
Questions
1 Record your results in a table with two columns: angle of incidence and
angle of reflection. Remember to include the unit.
2 State:
a the independent variable
b the dependent variable
in this experiment.
3 Draw a graph of your results. Put the independent variable on the horizontal axis.
Complete your graph with a straight line of best fit.
4 Describe the pattern in your results.
5 a Describe some of the things that were difficult to do accurately in this experiment.
b Suggest some ways to improve the accuracy of this experiment.
195
6 Light
Continued
Self-assessment
For each of these statements, decide on how well you agree.
Give yourself five if you agree very much and one if you do not agree at all.
• I can recall the law of reflection.
• I can draw ray diagrams to show reflection.
• The experiment on reflection helped my understanding.
Summary checklist
I can understand and describe how light is reflected from a plane mirror.
I can recall the law of reflection.
I can draw ray diagrams to show reflection of light from a plane mirror.
196
6.2 Refraction
6.2 Refraction
• describe how light is refracted at the boundary between air
and glass or air and water
• describe how light changes speed when it passes between
different substances
• draw ray diagrams to show how light is refracted.
Work in groups to discuss answers to these questions. Be ready angle of refraction

to share your ideas with the rest of the class. away from the
1 List as many transparent materials as you can. Try to include normal
solids, liquids and gases. bent
2 Why do you think you cannot see clearly when looking distorted
through a glass of water? lenses
medium
refraction
towards the
normal
197
6 Light
Refraction
When you look through a glass of water or through a wet window, you
cannot see clearly.
Look carefully at the picture, which shows a glass of water on a
table. The background, through the glass of water, appears distorted.
Distorted means changed in some way from the original.
The background appears distorted because of refraction.
The material that light passes through is called a medium. Air, glass and
water are each examples of a medium for light to pass through.
Light travels very fast. The speed of light in air is 300 000 kilometres per
second (km/s). When light passes from air into water or glass, the light
travels more slowly. The table shows how the speed of light changes
according to the medium. This glass of water is
refracting the light passing
Medium Speed of light in km/s through it
air 300 000

water 225 000
glass 200 000
The change of speed can cause the light to change direction.

Imagine you are on roller skates. You are moving at a constant speed
on a hard surface. The roller skate on one foot goes onto grass. What
happens? You will change direction because one roller skate is moving
slower than the other.
This is what happens when a ray of light passes from air into glass or
water. One side of the ray of light slows down first, causing it to change
direction.
Refraction of light is defined as the change in direction of light on
passing from one medium to another because of change in speed.
198
6.2 Refraction
Light passing from air into water or glass

This ray diagram shows what happens when light passes incident ray
from air into glass or water. normal
The light slows down when it passes from air into glass
or water. This causes it to change direction. angle of incidence
air
The light passing from air into glass or water is bent glass or water angle of refraction
towards the normal. That means the refracted ray is
closer to the normal than it would be if the incident ray
just carried on in a straight line.
refracted ray
Notice also from the ray diagram that, when light passes
from air into glass or water, the angle of incidence is Light passing from air into glass or water is bent
greater than the angle of refraction. Both of these angles towards the normal
are measured from the normal.
Light passing from water or glass into air

This ray diagram shows what happens when a ray of refracted ray
light passes from water or glass into air. normal
The light speeds up when it passes from glass or water

into air. This causes it to change direction.
air angle of refraction
The light passing from glass or water into air is bent away glass or water
from the normal. That means the refracted ray is further angle of incidence
away from the normal than it would be if the incident ray
just carried on in a straight line.
incident ray
Notice also from the ray diagram that, when light passes
from glass or water into air, the angle of refraction is Light passing from glass or water into air is bent
greater than the angle of incidence. away from the normal
Both of these angles are measured from the normal.
Refraction in everyday life

Refraction can be a nuisance. It can stop you from
seeing clearly through wet windows.
Each individual drop of water on the window refracts
light in a different direction, making it very difficult to
see. This is why many vehicles have windscreen wipers.
The windscreen wipers remove the water drops. It is
then easier to see clearly as all the refraction from the
glass is in the same direction.
Drops of water on glass make it difficult to see
because of refraction
199
6 Light
Refraction can also be useful. Lenses are used in our eyes, in cameras
and in glasses that people wear, to cause refraction of light.
A lens is a curved piece of glass that is designed to refract light in a
known way.
This phone has a lens to refract light for a photograph Different glasses refract light in different ways to help
people to see more clearly
Questions
1 Copy and complete the sentences, using ‘faster’ or ‘slower’.
a Light travels … in water than it does in air.
b Light travels … in air than it does in glass.
2 Copy and complete the sentence to describe refraction correctly.
Refraction of light happens when light … direction because of a
change in … .
3 This ray diagram shows a ray of light in air. ray of light
Copy and complete the ray diagram to show what happens

when the ray of light enters the glass.
Include on your diagram:
• the normal air
glass
• the refracted ray
• the angle of refraction.
4 This diagram shows a ray of light in water.
Copy and complete the ray diagram to show what air
happens when the ray of light enters the air.
water
Include on your diagram:
• the normal
• the angle of refraction. ray of light
200
6.2 Refraction
Activity 6.2.1
Refraction effects
This activity shows three effects of refraction.
Effect 1: The appearing coin
Place a coin or small piece of metal at the bottom of an view from here
opaque container, such as a cup.
Position yourself so that the coin is just out of view
behind the edge of the container, as shown in the
diagram. cup
Now pour water into the cup until it is almost full.
Pour the water in carefully so the coin does not coin
move. The coin comes into view.
Can you use a ray diagram to explain why? You need to think about how a light
ray travels from the coin, up through the water and out into the air.
Effect 2: Broken pencil in water
Pour water into a transparent drinking glass until it is
about three-quarters full.
Place a pencil into the glass so it is resting at an angle.
View the glass and pencil from the side.
glass
The pencil appears to be broken at the surface of the water
water.
Can you use a ray diagram to explain why? You need to
think about how light travels from the pencil, through
the water and out through the side of the glass.
Effect 3: Broken pencil in water and oil
Repeat the demonstration in Effect 2, but this time put water into the glass until
it is only half full. Now, gently pour cooking oil on top of the water until the
glass is about three-quarters full.
View the glass and the pencil from the side again.
How does the pencil appear this time?
What can you conclude about the speed of light in water and in cooking oil?
201
6 Light
Drawing accurate ray diagrams

In this investigation, you will make accurate ray diagrams from rays of light.
Work in groups of three or four. Make the room as dark as possible for this activity.
You will need:

• equipment shown in the diagram
Method
1 Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram. The diagram shows the equipment
viewed from above.
2 Use the pencil to draw around the glass block.

3 Switch on the ray box and position it so the light ray makes an angle with
the glass surface.
4 Use the pencil to mark the position of the incident ray in two places:
about 5 cm away from the glass block and where it meets the glass block.
5 Do the same for the ray that emerges from the glass block on the other side.
6 Switch off the ray box and lift the glass block off the paper.
7 Use the ruler to join up the light rays.
8 Use the protractor to draw a normal at both surfaces of the glass block.
9 Measure the angle of incidence and angle of reflection at both surfaces.
10 Repeat steps 2–9, using different angles and a new piece of paper each time.
Make sure to include an angle of incidence of zero.
202
6.2 Refraction
Continued
Questions
1 What did you notice about the pairs of angles at each surface each time?
2 Plot a graph of your results for the glass surface where the light ray
goes into the glass.
Put angle of incidence on the horizontal axis and angle of refraction on the
vertical axis.
Join your points with a line that passes through all of the points.
3 Describe the trend shown in the graph.
4 What do you observe when the angle of incidence is zero?
Self-assessment
• What did you do in your group?
• Did you make sure everyone in your group had a role?
• Would you feel confident to lead a group activity next time?
Summary checklist
I can describe how light changes speed between air and either water or glass.
I can recall that a change in speed can make a light ray change direction.
I can recall which way light changes direction when it passes from air into glass or water.
I can recall which way light changes direction when it passes from glass or water into air.
203
6 Light
6.3 Making rainbows

• learn how white light is made from many colours
• discover how dispersion of white light can be done with
a prism
• be able to recall the colours of white light in the correct order.
Work in groups to discuss the answer to these questions. dispersion

1 Do you ever see a rainbow at night? prism
spectrum
2 Does the Sun have to be shining to enable you to see
a rainbow? triangular
3 Does there have to be rain or recent rain to enable you

to see a rainbow?
4 What colours can you see in a rainbow?
204
6.3 Making rainbows
Newton’s discovery
about light
The name Newton is often associated with forces, but
Isaac Newton made many important discoveries.
In the year 1666, Newton showed that white light
could be split into different colours. The picture
shows Newton using light from the Sun, coming
through a hole. Newton is using a glass block in the
shape of a triangle to split the light into its colours.
He is shining the colours onto a screen.
The next picture shows what the colours look
like when seen on a screen. These are the colours
that make up white light.
The spectrum
The range of colours that can be seen in white light is called a spectrum.
In the spectrum, the colours are not separate but they merge from one
to another.
Some people think Newton originally saw five or six colours, but most
people now agree that there are seven. In the order that they appear in
the spectrum, these seven colours are:
red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
You can remember the order of the colours using a made-up person’s
name: ‘ROY G BIV’.
Dispersion
Dispersion means splitting light into different colours.
Dispersion happens because light is refracted. Each of
the different colours of light that make up white light
is refracted through a slightly different angle. This can
be shown by using a triangular prism. Triangular
means in the shape of a triangle. A prism is a solid
shape such as the one that Newton used.
When a ray of white light passes through the prism,
the ray is refracted. Violet light is refracted through
the largest angle and red light is refracted through
the smallest angle. You can see this in the picture.
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Rainbows
A rainbow is formed when drops of water in the air cause
dispersion of light. The light is also reflected from inside the
drops of water. That means that, for you to see a rainbow:
• the Sun must be shining, to provide bright light
• there must be rain or small drops of water in the air,
to cause dispersion of light
• the Sun must be behind you, because the water drops
reflect the light inside them.
The drops of water from the hosepipe in the photograph
are making a rainbow. The Sun is shining and the Sun is
behind the camera.
Questions
1 What name is given to white light being split into
different colours?
refraction dispersion reflection conduction
2 The diagram shows a glass block used to separate white light.

What name describes this piece of equipment?
Write one letter.
A round glass cylinder
B square glass prism
C triangular glass prism
D hexagonal glass prism
3 The diagram shows white light being

separated into different colours. The colours
are seen on a white screen. white light
A
a Which letter shows the position of red
light on the screen?
glass prism B
b Which letter shows the colour of light that is
refracted through the smallest angle?
C
c What word describes the range of colours seen on the screen? screen
refraction reflected separated spectrum
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6.3 Making rainbows
4 Explain why drops of water are needed for a rainbow to be seen.

5 When looking at a rainbow, some people see indigo and violet as the
same colour.
How many colours will these people say they can see in the rainbow?

Making a rainbow
In this activity, you will change variables and describe how observations change.
You will need:

• ray box and suitable power supply • triangular glass prism
• piece of white paper or card to use as a screen
Safety
Do not put your eye closer to the prism
than about one metre. The light will incident ray
become very bright and could cause glass prism
damage to your eye. ray box
Make the room as dark as possible for screen

this activity.
Method: Part 1
1 Adjust the positions of the ray box and the screen until you see the colours
of the rainbow on the screen.
2 Move the screen closer to the prism.
3 Move the screen further away from the screen.
Questions
1 a How many colours can you see on the screen?
b List the colours in order, starting from red.
2 Name the colour that is refracted:
a through the smallest angle
b through the largest angle.
3 Describe two things that happened to the colours when:
a the screen was moved closer to the prism
b the screen was moved further away from the prism.
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Continued
Method: Part 2
1 Remove the screen and stand about 1 metre from the prism, in the same
direction as the screen had been.
2 Move so that you are looking into the refracted rays with one eye.
You may find it easier to cover the other eye.
3 Move from side to side so that you can see the different colours.
4 Increase the distance between your eye and the prism to about 2 metres.
5 Again, move from side to side so that you can see the different colours.
Questions
4 Describe two differences in the observations when you moved further away.
5 Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of Method: Part 1 for observing
the colours.
6 This activity is an analogy for how rainbows form. Describe one strength
and one limitation of this analogy.
Self-assessment
Different people see different numbers of colours in this activity.
The numbers of colours usually vary from 5 to 7.
Did you see the same number as everyone else in the class?
Suggest reasons why people see different numbers of colours.
Summary checklist
I can recall that white light is made from different colours of light.
I can describe how to use a prism to produce dispersion of white light.
I can list the seven colours in order, starting from red.
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6.4 Colours of light

• discover what happens when colours of light are added
• discover what happens when colours of light are subtracted
• discover why we see different colours.
Work in pairs. absorbed

Make a list of all the colours you can see in this picture of flowers. coloured filters
cyan
How many did you get? How does this number compare with
other groups? magenta
non-luminous
primary colours
subtraction
transmit
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Primary colours
In Topic 3.3 you learned that there are seven colours in white light.
These are the colours that can be seen in the rainbow.
However, there are three colours of light from which all other colours
of light can be made. These are called the primary colours. The primary
colours cannot be made by mixing any other colours of light.
The primary colours of light are:
Red Green Blue
The primary colours of light are different from the primary colours in
paints. The colours in light mix differently from the colours in paint.
Adding colours of light

The diagram shows what happens when three beams of light, each red
of a different primary colour, overlap.
You can see the effect of adding the primary colours: magenta yellow
white
• red + green = yellow
• red + blue = magenta blue
cyan
green
• blue + green = cyan

• red + green + blue = white
The different colours that you see on a mobile phone, computer or
television are all produced from combinations of the three primary
colours of light.
When you look very closely at some types of computer monitor,
television or phone screen, you can see the individual sources of red,
green and blue light.
The colours on this phone display are made by adding the Close-up of a television screen showing the sources of the
three primary colours of light primary colours of light
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When you look at a television or phone screen, you see far more colours
than just red, green, blue, cyan, magenta, yellow and white. Most screens
can display 256 different colours. Changing the brightness of the primary
colours makes all these different colours. For example, orange is made by
adding red and green, but with the red brighter than the green.
Research has shown that 256 is the maximum number of colours that
most people can see.
Subtracting colours of light

You have probably used a filter in your chemistry lessons. Filters
are used to remove something from a mixture.
You can also use coloured filters to remove colours from light.
If a transparent piece of coloured glass or plastic is placed in
front of a white light, then only light of that colour will be
transmitted (get through). All the other colours will be absorbed.
A common example of coloured filters is in traffic lights.
The traffic lights use three identical white lamps. In front of each
lamp is a coloured filter for red, yellow or green.
Take the red filter as the example to see how this works.
White light, from the lamp, is made from the seven colours of
light: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
When these seven colours arrive at the red filter, only red is
These traffic lights use coloured filters
transmitted. The other six are absorbed. This is shown in
the diagram.
This is an example of subtraction of light. White light has had six

colours subtracted to leave only red.
In the traffic lights, the yellow and green filters work in exactly the same
way. Each of them absorbs six colours and only transmits one colour.
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The blue stage light in the picture has a white lamp and a blue filter. If you
look carefully, you can see where the white lamp is inside the black case.
The colours of the filters in stage lights can be changed to produce
different colours.
Photographers sometimes use coloured filters on a camera to get
different effects.
This stage light is using a white lamp and a blue filter This is the effect of looking through a cyan cellophane filter
As with numbers, it is possible to subtract colours of light until the end

result is zero.
For example, if white light shines on a green filter, only green light will
get through. The other colours of the white light are absorbed.
If this green light then shines on a red filter, then no light will get through.
That is because green is one of the colours that a red filter absorbs.
white light only green no green light
light passes passes through
through
green filter red filter
The result of using two different coloured filters
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Seeing colours
When you look at a non-luminous object, you see the light that is
reflected from the object. Non-luminous means the object does not
emit its own light.
Look at the flower in the picture.
white light
yellow light
being reflected
yellow surface
The flower is seen in white light. The flower looks yellow because it
reflects only yellow light. The flower absorbs the other six colours in
white light. This is shown in the diagram.
A white object reflects all the colours in white light equally.
A black object absorbs all the colours in white light and does not
reflect any.
These three balls appear black, red or white, according which colours
of light they reflect and which they absorb.
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Look at the two cubes in the diagrams. A

blue and red
Red objects only reflect red light, and blue objects only cubes seen
reflect blue light. They absorb all other colours. in white light
So, in white light, the red cube appears red and the blue
cube appears blue. B
blue and red
In blue light, the red cube appears black: there is no cubes seen
red light for it to reflect, and the blue light is absorbed. in blue light
In red light, the blue cube appears black for the same
reason – it absorbs the red light and does not reflect
C
any light. blue and red
cubes seen
in red light
Questions
1 List the three primary colours of light.
2 Name the colour produced when
a red light and blue light are added together
b red light and green light are added together
c red, green and blue lights are added together.
3 A stage light uses a white lamp.
What colour of light will be seen when:
a a yellow filter is used
b an orange filter is used.
4 a A green ball appears green. What two colours of light could
each be shining on the green ball?
blue green red white magenta
b A blue ball appears black. What two colours of light could each
be shining on the blue ball?
blue green red white
5 A T-shirt looks red. What could explain this?
Write three letters.
A The T-shirt is red and is seen in white light.
B The T-shirt is red and is seen in red light.
C The T-shirt is blue and is seen in green light.
D The T-shirt is white and is seen in red light.
E The T-shirt is yellow and is seen in blue light.
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Activity 6.4.1
Making colours on the screen
Many computer applications, such as those for word-processing
and slide-making, have colour options. In the ‘more colours’
options of these there are RGB tools to customise colours.
The letters RGB stand for ‘red’, ‘green’ and ‘blue’, the primary
colours of light. You can adjust these to make whatever colour
you want. For example, bright red has:
• R at maximum
• G at zero
• B at zero.
Bright yellow has:
• R at maximum
• G at maximum
• B at zero.
Try making:
• magenta
• cyan
• white
• black.
Now make some other colours of your choice.
In each case, write down the RGB settings for each colour.
Identify the colour

In this investigation, you will make predictions about colours and light.
You will need:

• white paper and coloured paper • coloured pens • flashlights • coloured filters
• a room that can be darkened
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Continued
Method 1
1 Write the names of some colours on a piece of coloured paper.
Use different coloured pens to write each word. The colours do not
have to match correctly.
For example, on yellow paper, write:
• ‘blue’ with blue pen
• ‘red’ with green pen
• ‘green’ with blue pen.
2 Use the flashlight and a red filter to illuminate the paper.
3 Ask someone from a different group to identify:
• the colour of the paper
• the words that are written in the correct colours
• the colours of pen used to write the other words.
4 Vary the words, the colours of the pens, the colours of the paper and the
colours of the filters, and repeat steps 1–3.
Questions
1 Which colour combinations were easiest to get correct?
2 Which colour combinations were most difficult to get correct?
Self-assessment
1 What parts of this topic are easiest to understand?
2 What parts of this topic are most difficult to understand?
3 What part of this topic could you teach to someone else?
Summary checklist
I can recall the three primary colours of light.
I can recall the colours that are made when these primary colours are added together.
I understand that filters work by subtracting light.
I can predict what will happen when light of different colours shines on filters of different
colours.
I understand why coloured objects appear coloured when seen in white light.
I can predict the colours that objects will appear to be, when seen in light of different colours.
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6.5 Galaxies
6.5 Galaxies
• discover that galaxies contain dust, gas, stars and other solar
systems.
Work in pairs. elliptical

Arrange these objects in order, from smallest to largest. galaxy
irregular
star solar system planet galaxy moon spiral
stellar dust
Universe
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The Milky Way

If you look at the sky on a clear night, far away from any lights, you can
see a milky band across the sky. This milky band is part of the galaxy
where we live, called the Milky Way. The photograph shows what this
looks like through a camera set for very low light conditions.
Part of our own galaxy, the Milky Way
The word ‘galaxy’ comes from a Greek word for ‘milky’.
Shapes of galaxies
The reason why our own galaxy looks like a
band across the sky is because of the shape
of the galaxy. The Milky Way is a spiral
galaxy. If you were to look at the Milky Way
from far away, it would appear as a spiral.
Because we live in a spiral galaxy, we can
only see one ‘arm’ of the spiral, which is
that band across the sky. In fact, most of
the stars we see at night are in our own
galaxy. There are an estimated 250 000 000
This is what the Milky Way would look like from far away
stars in the Milky Way, including our Sun.
There are other galaxies in the Universe besides our own. The word
Universe is used to describe all of space and everything in it.
These other galaxies have different shapes, and they are classified
according to shape. They are called elliptical galaxies or irregular galaxies.
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6.5 Galaxies
The closest known galaxy to the Milky Way is called the Canis Major a
Dwarf Galaxy. It is elliptical in shape and a distance of
240 000 million million km away from us.
What are galaxies made of?

Galaxies are made from stellar dust, gas, stars and solar systems held
together by gravity. Stellar dust is the dust found in space. The Earth
is travelling through a cloud of stellar dust that is estimated to contain b
one dust particle in every one million m3 of space!
The gravity holding a galaxy together is strong because galaxies have very
large mass. Even if you could travel at the speed of light (300 000 km/s),
it would take you more than 100 000 years to cross from one side of the
Milky Way to the other! Scientists estimate the mass of the Milky Way to
be 1 500 000 000 000 times the mass of the Sun.
c
How many galaxies are there?
Scientists have counted the galaxies in one part of space. The scientists
then multiplied this number up to estimate the number of galaxies in the
Universe. The answer they got was 100 000 000 000 galaxies!
Estimates such as this may not be accurate. There could be more or
fewer galaxies in the part of space that the scientists counted compared
with the rest of the Universe. Also, the scientists may not know the total The three different shapes
volume of the Universe accurately. of galaxy: a Spiral,
b Elliptical, c Irregular
Questions
1 List the three different shapes of galaxies.
2 Which of these are found in galaxies?
Choose all that are correct from the list.
planet star Universe stellar gas

3 Name the force that holds the parts of a galaxy together.
4 Explain why most of the stars we see in the night sky are from our
own galaxy and not from other galaxies.
5 Suggest why scientists can only estimate the number of stars in the
Milky Way and not know the number accurately.
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Estimating large numbers

In this investigation, you will use an analogy for estimating the number of
stars in a galaxy.
You will need:

• one large cup or other container filled with coarse sand or fine gravel, for the
whole class • hand lens (magnifying glass) for each group • piece of white paper
for each group • small container for the whole class • access to laboratory
equipment for measuring masses and volumes • calculator for each group
Scientists cannot count the number of stars in a galaxy because there are too
many. However, scientists can estimate the number of stars in a galaxy.
You are going to estimate the number of grains of sand in your container.
There are too many to count them all, so this activity is an analogy for how
scientists estimate numbers of stars.
Method
1 Put a small quantity of sand from the large container onto the white paper and
separate the grains. You should only put out the quantity you can count easily.
2 Count the grains, record the number, and put the grains into the small container.
3 Do the same again: count some grains from the large container and then add
them to the small container.
4 Write down the total number of grains your group put in the small container.
5 Decide, as a class, whether you want to work in mass or in volume for the
last two steps.
6 Measure the total mass or volume of the grains in the small container. A sensitive
balance can be used to measure the mass, or a small syringe without a plunger
can be used to measure the volume.
7 Put the grains from the small container back into the large container. Measure
the total mass or volume of sand in the large container.
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6.5 Galaxies
Continued
Questions
1 What was the total number of grains the class put in the small container?
Call this value G for grains.
2 What was the total volume or mass of the grains in the small container?
Call this value S for small.
3 What was the total volume or mass of the grains in the large container?
Call this value L for large.
4   L
Calculate the value of G × __
S
5 This number is an estimate of the total number of grains in the large container.
a Explain the advantage of this method compared to counting all the grains
in the large container.
b Give reasons why the estimate may not be accurate.
c Suggest some ways that the estimate could be made more accurate.
6 Suggest how working as a whole class is an analogy for how scientists who study
the Milky Way work together.
7 Knowing roughly how long it took you to count your grains in step 2, estimate
how long it would take you to count all the grains in the large container.
8 Suggest how you could estimate the number of grains of sand on a beach.
Self-assessment
Decide how confident you are about:
• understanding how this method of estimating works
• whether you could apply this method to estimating some other large quantity.
Summary checklist
I understand what galaxies are.
I can recall the three shapes of galaxies.
I can recall that galaxies contain stellar dust and gas, stars and solar systems.
I understand that gravity holds all the parts of a galaxy together in space.
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6.6 Rocks in space

• discover that asteroids are rocks that are smaller than planets
• know that scientists believe asteroids to be rocks left over
from the formation of the Solar System.
Work in groups. asteroid belt

Make a list of different types of objects in the Solar System. asteroids
craters
impacts
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6.6 Rocks in space
Asteroids
Asteroids are objects made from rock that orbit the Sun.
Asteroids range in size up to 975 km across. The smallest asteroid that
has been studied is 2 m across.
Most asteroids are not regular shapes, just as rocks on Earth are not
regular shapes.
Scientists describe the shape of most asteroids as being similar to the
shape of potatoes.
Most of the asteroids in the Solar System orbit the Sun between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This part of the Solar System is called the
asteroid belt.
There are millions of asteroids. Some have been studied and have been
given names.
The largest asteroid is called Ceres and was discovered in the year 1801.
When Ceres was discovered, scientists thought it was a new planet. As
Ceres looked much smaller than a planet, the term asteroid was introduced.
This photograph of Ceres, was taken by a spacecraft in 2015.
Ceres
Ceres looks like a small planet. It is round, with a diameter of 975 km,
and covered with craters.
Ceres also has a core, a mantle and a crust like some planets.
Scientists think that Ceres would have become a planet if it had
continued to grow during the formation of the Solar System.
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The asteroid Itokawa is one of the smallest asteroids to be visited by

a spacecraft.
Asteroid Itokawa is about 530 m long and about 250 m wide. In the
year 2005, a spacecraft collected samples from the surface of Itokawa.
Study of the samples has given scientists more evidence about how
the Solar System formed.
Itokawa appears to be made from lumps of rock. These lumps of
rock appear to have come from other small planets or moons which
have been broken by impacts. The force of gravity holding the lumps
of rock together is weak because the asteroid is a relatively small Itokawa
object. When an asteroid such as Itokawa passes a large object such
as a planet, tidal forces can change the shape of the asteroid.
Some asteroids are made from a single piece of rock. Scientists know
this because these asteroids are small and spin quickly. The force of
gravity in these asteroids would be too weak to hold separate pieces
of rock together.
Asteroids and Earth

Scientists think that a large asteroid impacts
the Earth on average every 130 000 years.
Smaller asteroids impact the Earth
very frequently.
This map shows where asteroids impacted
Earth between the years 1994 and 2013. Many
small asteroids break up in the Earth’s
atmosphere and never reach the surface.
There are two reasons why asteroids impact Asteroid impacts on Earth between 1994 and 2013
with Earth.
• The Earth exerts a strong force of gravity on passing objects such
as asteroids.
• Many asteroids have orbits that pass relatively close to Earth.
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6.6 Rocks in space
Questions
1 Describe what is meant by the term ‘asteroid’.
2 Some asteroids have diameters between 300 and 500 m.
Explain why these asteroids are classed as small objects in the
Solar System.
3 The asteroid Ceres is covered with craters.
Suggest how these craters were formed.
4 Describe where the rocks came from to form asteroids.
Activity 6.6.1
Making a model asteroid
In this activity, you will make a model of an asteroid.
You will need:

• a selection of small rocks • some coarse sand • glue suitable for stone
• black acrylic paint (or any paint which can be applied safely to rock)
• white acrylic paint • trays for mixing paint • paint brushes
Method
1 Use the internet or the pictures in this topic to plan what your model will look like.
2 Choose a small rock and, if necessary, attach sand onto the surface with glue to give
a rough texture.
3 When the glue has dried, you can paint your asteroid.
4 Mix the black and white paints to achieve the colours of grey that you want.
5 Together with the other models in your class, you could make a model of part of
the asteroid belt.
Questions
1 Describe one way that your model shows that asteroids are different from planets.
2 Some large asteroids that your model could represent have a diameter of 200 km.
The planet Jupiter has a diameter of 140 000 km. Calculate how many times larger
Jupiter is than these asteroids.
3 a Use a ruler to measure the length of your model asteroid.
b Use your answer to question 2 to calculate the size of model you would need
to make for the planet Jupiter on the same scale.
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What happened at Tunguska?

In this investigation, you will look at evidence that supports or contradicts hypotheses.
Method
1 Read these facts.
• Tunguska is in northern Russia, far from any towns or cities.
There is forest there, with many trees.
• In the morning of 30 June 1908 there was a very large explosion at Tunguska,
between 5 km and 10 km above the ground.
• People living over 800 km away could see and hear the explosion.
• Vibrations from the explosion were recorded almost 5000 km away.
• The explosion flattened trees over an area of 2000 km2.
2 Read these five hypotheses of what caused the explosion.
1 A comet impacting the Earth.
2 A type of volcano erupting.
3 Testing of a new type of bomb.
4 An alien spacecraft crashing.
5 An asteroid impacting the Earth.
3 Consider the evidence.
• All the trees that fell are pointing outwards from a central position.
• People discovered how to make very powerful bombs in 1945.
• No bomb this powerful has ever been made.
• Tunguska is very far from tectonic plate boundaries.
• Most comets break up higher than 10 km in the atmosphere.
• A small part of a comet is made from rock.
• Small rocky fragments have been found that show the signs of falling
through the atmosphere at very high speed.
• No metal parts have been found at Tunguska.
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6.6 Rocks in space
Continued
Questions
1 Use the evidence to decide whether each of the five hypotheses can
be supported or contradicted.
You can also use facts given in this topic as evidence.
Write about each hypothesis in turn.
2 Decide, using this evidence:
a which of the hypotheses are most likely
b which of the hypotheses are most unlikely.
3 Explain some of the limitations of the conclusions you have made.
Peer-assessment
Find another group whose answers to question 2 are different from yours.
1 Are you convinced by their conclusions?
2 If not, can you understand why they made these conclusions?
Summary checklist
I can describe what is meant by the term asteroid.
I can recall where most asteroids in the Solar System are found.
I know that asteroids are formed from rocks left over from the
formation of the Solar System.
I know that some asteroids pass close by Earth and can,
from time to time, impact Earth.
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Project: Investigating refraction

Background
Dissolve some white sugar or salt in water. Make sure it is all dissolved so you have
a transparent solution.
Now take a transparent container holding some water. Look at the water from the
side and slowly pour your sugar or salt solution into the water.
Describe what you see.
How can you see both liquids if they are both transparent? We can see them because
of refraction.
Your task
You will do experiments that will help you explain what you see when you pour the
sugar or salt solution into water.
Work in groups.
You can use equipment such as:
• a ray box and power supply
• glass or plastic containers with smooth, flat sides
• water
• other transparent liquids
• sugar and salt to dissolve in water.
Safety
Remember to keep liquids away from the power supply and the ray box.
Carry out experiments using the method in Think like a scientist: Drawing accurate ray
diagrams in Topic 6.2.
Investigate how each substance refracts light.
• When you dissolve sugar or salt in water, does it change how the light is refracted?
• Which substance refracts the light through the largest angle?
• Which substance refracts the light through the smallest angle?
• Does the concentration of the sugar or salt affect the refraction?
Record all your results and present them in the most effective way.
Can you now explain what you see when you pour the sugar or salt solution into water?
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Check your progress

6.1 A plane mirror is a type of mirror.
Write the word from the list that describes the meaning of plane. [1]
flat irregular round smooth
6.2 Copy and complete the sentence that describes how light is reflected
from a plane mirror.
The angle of reflection is … to the angle of … . [2]
6.3 Copy and complete the diagram to show how light is reflected from the
plane mirror.
You do not have to measure angles.
Label the reflected ray and the angles of incidence and reflection. [3]
normal
plane mirror
6.4 The motorcycle in the picture

is fitted with mirrors.
The motorcycle rider can
see objects that are behind
the motorcycle by using
these mirrors.
Draw a ray diagram to show
how the rider can see a ray
of light that is coming
from behind. [4]
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6.5 State the name given to light changing direction when the light passes
from air into water. [1]
6.6 Copy and complete each of these sentences with either the words ‘speeds up’
or the words ‘slows down’.
• When light passes from air into glass, the light … .
• When light passes from air into water, the light … .
• When light passes from glass into air, the light … . [1]
6.7 Copy these sentences.
Write T or F after each one to show if it is true or false.
• In a ray diagram, the angle of incidence is measured between the light ray
and the surface.
• In a ray diagram, the angle of refraction is measured between the light ray
and the normal.
• In a ray diagram, the normal is a line at 90° to the surface. [2]
6.8 Copy these ray diagrams to show what happens to the light rays.
On each diagram, draw and label:
• the normal
• the angles of incidence and refraction.
You do not have to measure any angles.
a [4] b air [4]
water
air glass
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6.9 Complete the sentences by using words from the list.

Each word can be used once, more than once or not at all. [5]
dispersion prism colours spectrum
orange violet blue reflection
White light can be split into its component … .

This is called … and can be done with a … .
The range of colours is called a … .
The range starts with red and ends with … .
6.10 Describe the light that will emerge at points A, B and C when white light
shines on each of these filters.
• If coloured light will emerge, write the colour.
• If white light will emerge, write ‘no change’.
• If no light will emerge, write ‘no light’.
a [1]
white light
A
red filter
b [1]
white light
B
green filter
c [1]
white light
C
blue filter red filter
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6.11 A theatre uses coloured lights to make objects appear different.

Write the colour that each of these objects will appear.
a A red book in white light. [1]
b A green door in green light. [1]
c A white T-shirt in blue light. [1]
d A blue ball in green light. [1]
6.12 Two different coloured lights of the same brightness shine onto a white wall.
The two colours of light overlap.
Write the colours that will be seen at the points X, Y and Z.
a white wall b white wall c white wall
red X blue green Y blue red Z green

light light light light light light
[1]
d State the colour that would be seen if red, green and blue lights
of the same brightness all overlapped on the white wall. [1]
6.13 a List the four things that make up a galaxy. [2]
b Name the galaxy that contains the Earth. [1]
6.14 Asteroids are different from planets. State two features of asteroids
that make them different from planets. [2]
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7 Diet and growth
7.1 Nutrients
• learn about the six types of nutrient that everyone needs
to eat
• find out why we need these nutrients
• learn about some good sources of these nutrients.
Everyone needs energy to stay alive and to do things. anaemia

They get their energy from the food that they eat. carbohydrate
Think about the answers to these two questions on your own. fat
Then turn to your partner and discuss your answers. minerals
nutrients
Be ready to share your ideas with the rest of the class.
oil
• Which kinds of food are best for giving you energy? protein
• What happens to your food after you have swallowed it, starch
before it gives you energy? vitamin A
vitamin C
vitamin D
vitamins
233
7 Diet and growth
Carbohydrates, fats and proteins

The photograph shows a plate of food.
There are several different kinds of food on the plate. How does each of
these foods help the body to stay healthy, and to have energy?
The rice contains a lot of starch. Starch is a type of carbohydrate.

After you have eaten starch, the body breaks it down to make a sugar
called glucose. You may remember that glucose is the fuel that your
cells use for respiration, to release energy. So, starch, sugar and other
carbohydrates are needed to give you energy.
The chicken and beans

contain a lot of protein.
Protein is important
for making new cells in
the body. So, you need
protein to help the body
to grow, or to repair
itself if it gets damaged.
Protein is also needed to
make haemoglobin and
antibodies.
The avocado contains fats

and oils. Fats and oils are
very similar but, at normal
temperatures, fats are solid
and oils are liquid. Fats
and oils give you energy.
They are also needed to
make cell membranes.
234
7.1 Nutrients
Protein, carbohydrate and fat are nutrients. Nutrients are substances

found in food, that you need to stay healthy. These three photographs
show some of the kinds of food that you can eat to get these nutrients.
These foods are good sources of protein These foods are good sources of starch These foods contain a lot of fat
(a type of carbohydrate)
Energy stores
You do not eat all the time, but you need energy all the time. You get
almost all of your energy from the carbohydrates and fats that you eat.
You can also get energy from protein if you run out of carbohydrates
and fats.
You store a little bit of carbohydrate, and quite a lot
of fat, in your body. These energy stores provide you
with energy whenever you need it.
You store a small amount of carbohydrate in your
cells, especially in the liver and muscles. These are
short-term energy stores.
For long-term stores, your body stores fat in special
cells underneath the skin and around some of the
body organs.
Fat stores in the body also provide heat insulation.
Animals that live in cold places, like this seal, have
a lot of fat stores underneath their skin, to help to
stop them losing heat from their body.
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7 Diet and growth
Activity 7.1.1
Protein and carbohydrate in food
Work with a partner for this activity.
Think about what both of you have eaten so far today. Make a list.
Which foods do you think contain a lot of protein?
In your list, draw a green circle around each one.
Which foods do you think contain a lot of carbohydrate?
In your list, draw a blue circle around each one.
Use the internet or a reference book to see if you are right.
Make changes to your list if you were not correct.

Testing foods for starch
This is an extension activity.
You are going to try to find out which types of food contain starch.
You can use iodine solution to find out if a food contains starch.
Iodine solution is orange-brown. When it mixes with starch, it becomes very dark blue-black.
You will need:

• at least six different kinds of food • some paper plates or other plates to put the
pieces of food on, keeping them separate • white tile • bottle of iodine solution
with a dropper
Method
1 Collect six different kinds of food. Try to include some foods that come from plants,
and some that come from animals. Make sure you keep them completely separate
from one another.
2 Draw a results table like this:
Food Colour of iodine solution Does the food

after adding to the food contain starch?
236
7.1 Nutrients
Continued
3 Take a small piece of the first food. Put it onto a white tile.
4 Add a few drops of iodine solution. Record the colour that you see in your results table.
5 Clean the white tile. Now repeat steps 3 and 4 for the other foods, making sure to
clean the tile each time.
6 Complete the last column in your results table.
Questions
1 Explain why it was important to keep all the foods separate from one another.
2 Suggest why it is a good idea to use a white tile for this experiment.
3 In your results table, which column shows your results?
Which column shows your conclusions?
4 Did any of the foods that came from plants contain starch?
5 Did any of the foods that came from animals contain starch?
Questions
Nutrient Examples of foods that Why the body needs this nutrient
contain a lot of this nutrient
Protein
Carbohydrate
Fat
2 Explain the difference between the meanings of the words ‘food’

and ‘nutrient’.
237
7 Diet and growth
Vitamins
Vitamins are nutrients that are needed in only small amounts, but if you
don’t eat them you can get ill.
There are lots of different kinds of vitamin. Each kind is given a letter.
Vitamin A
Vitamin A is needed to help your eyes to work well, so
that your vision is good. It is particularly important for
helping us to see when it is quite dark. People who don’t
have enough vitamin A in their diet may not be able to see
anything at night. It also helps your white blood cells to
fight pathogens.
You get vitamin A by eating green vegetables, carrots and
squash (such as pumpkin), fruit, foods made from milk
(such as cheese) and some kinds of fish.
Vitamin C
Vitamin C helps the skin to stay strong and to heal quickly
if it is damaged. It keeps blood vessels and bones healthy.
People who don’t eat enough vitamin C can get an illness
called scurvy. A person with scurvy feels weak and may
have swollen, bleeding gums.
You get vitamin C by eating fresh fruit and vegetables.
Citrus fruits are particularly rich in vitamin C. Potatoes and
colourful berries are also good sources of vitamin C.
In the past, before anyone knew about vitamin C, sailors
on long sea voyages often got scurvy. This was because they
had no fresh fruit or vegetables to eat.
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is needed for strong bones and teeth. It helps the
body to absorb calcium from the food that you eat.
There are not many kinds of food that contain vitamin D.
Oily fish is probably the best source. But for most people,
most vitamin D does not come from the food that you eat.
Instead, vitamin D is made in the skin when sunlight falls
onto it.
People who never go outdoors, or who never get any
sunlight on their skin, may not get enough vitamin D.
This is most likely to happen if you live in a country far
from the equator, or where there is not much sunshine.
In children, lack of vitamin D can stop their bones growing
normally. This illness is called rickets.
238
7.1 Nutrients
Activity 7.1.2
Vitamins poster
Work in a group of three for this activity.
You will need a big piece of paper, and some coloured pens or pencils.
Divide the sheet of paper into three equal areas labelled Vitamin A,
Vitamin C and Vitamin D.
Use the information in this book, the internet and/or the library to find out which
foods contain a lot of each vitamin.
Draw pictures of the foods in each space. If you like, you could also cut out
some pictures of foods from packaging or magazines, and stick the pictures
onto your poster.
Minerals
There are several different kinds of mineral that you need to eat.
Two of the most important ones are calcium and iron.
Calcium
Bones and teeth contain calcium, so you need to eat plenty
of calcium to make them strong. Foods made from milk
are excellent sources of calcium. Seeds and some types of
nut (such as almonds) also contain a lot of calcium.
Iron
Iron is needed to make haemoglobin. If you don’t eat
enough iron, you don’t make enough haemoglobin, so
not enough oxygen is transported around the body. This
causes an illness called anaemia, which makes a person feel
very tired. Good sources of iron include meat (especially
red meat), dark green vegetables, many kinds of fish and
shellfish and some nuts and seeds.
239
7 Diet and growth
Questions
3 Look back at question 1. Draw a similar
table, but include vitamin A, vitamin C,
vitamin D, calcium and iron instead of
protein, carbohydrate and fats.
Then complete your table.
4 Use your knowledge about respiration to
explain why a person with anaemia does
not have much energy.
5 These bell peppers are stuffed with lentils
and vegetables, and topped with cheese.
They contain a lot of iron and calcium.
What other nutrients do you think this
meal contains? Explain your answer.
Water
There is one more nutrient to add to the list of what you need to take
into your body each day. This is water.
Water is needed for many different purposes in the body. Cells and
blood contain a lot of water. Almost 60% of a person’s body weight
is made up of water. Water in cells allows all the different chemicals
inside them to dissolve, so that they can react together. These reactions
keep us alive. Water in blood allows it to flow easily, transporting
substances all over the body.
Summary checklist
I can list the six types of nutrient that I
need in my diet.
I can explain why I need each of these
nutrients.
I can list some foods that contain each
of these nutrients.
240
7.2 A balanced diet
7.2 A balanced diet

• find out what is meant by a balanced diet
• think about the nutrients you should try to eat each day
• learn why you should try not to eat too much of some nutrients.
Try to answer these questions on your own. balanced diet

• Can you name the six nutrients that you need to eat? constipation
fibre
• Which three nutrients can give you energy?
• Which two groups of nutrients are needed in only small amounts?
241
7 Diet and growth
Diet
Your diet is the food that you eat each day. Your diet should provide you
with some of all the different kinds of nutrients. It should also give you
the right amount of energy.
A diet that provides all the different kinds of nutrients, and the right
amount of energy, is called a balanced diet.
How much energy?

Each day, the energy in the food you eat should be approximately equal
to the energy that you use up. Most of your energy comes from the
carbohydrates and fat that you eat.
Different people use different amounts of energy. For example:
• if you do a lot of sport, or walk or run a lot each day, you use
more energy
• if you don’t move around much, you use less energy
• some people’s genes mean that their body uses up energy more
quickly than other people doing the same thing
• if you are growing fast, you need extra energy to help
your cells to divide
• tall people use more energy to move their body
around than small people
242
7.2 A balanced diet
Different diets
Everyone is different. Different people need different diets. Everyone
needs plenty of minerals and vitamins, but people vary in how much
protein and carbohydrate they need. Here are some examples.
Young people who are still growing need a
lot of protein to make new cells. If they use
a lot of energy, then they need to eat enough
carbohydrate to give them plenty of energy.
They need to eat a little bit of fat for energy
and making the membranes on the new cells.
People who have to sit down for a lot of the

day don’t use up as much energy as people
who are very active. So they don’t need to eat
as much carbohydrate or fat as someone who
has a job that involves moving around, or who
does a lot of sport.
A pregnant woman needs to eat plenty of

protein to help to build her growing baby’s
new cells. She also needs lots of iron in her
diet, to make haemoglobin in her own blood
and her baby’s blood. She should
eat plenty of calcium, for building her baby’s
bones.
Questions
The bar chart shows some examples of the energy that different people
need each day. A megajoule (MJ) is one million joules.
12
10
8
Number of
megajoules of 6
energy needed
each day
4
0
baby aged child aged boy aged girl aged man aged woman aged
3 months 8 years 15 years 15 years 50 years 50 years
Person
243
7 Diet and growth
1 How many MJ of energy does an 8-year-old child need, on average?

2 Explain why some 8-year-old children might need more energy
than this.
3 Explain why some 8-year-old children might need less energy
than this.
4 Suggest why a man aged 50 years needs to take in less energy in his
diet than a boy aged 15 years.
5 Suggest why most 15-year-old girls need less energy in their diet than
most 15-year-old boys.
Fibre
As well as the six nutrients you need in your diet, you
also need to eat plenty of fibre.
Fibre is not actually a nutrient. This is because, when
you eat it, you cannot digest it. So it does not go into
the blood or to your cells. Instead, it just travels all
the way through the digestive system. It leaves the
body as faeces.
You might think this means that it is no use to
you, but in fact fibre is very important to keep
the digestive system healthy. It helps to prevent
constipation, when the digestive system slows
down and faeces collect inside it, instead of
being passed out.
Fibre is mostly cellulose. Remember that plant
cell walls are made of cellulose, so foods made
from plants are a good source of fibre. Cereal
grains, seeds and fresh fruit and vegetables are
all excellent sources of fibre. And the good thing
about this is that these foods usually contain lots
of different minerals and vitamins, too.
Question
6 Copy and complete each of these sentences.
Choose the correct words.
a I need protein for growth / energy.
b There is a lot of protein in sugar / fish.
c Starch and sugar / fat are carbohydrates.
d I get energy from carbohydrate and calcium / fat.
244
7.2 A balanced diet
Food groups
It can be quite difficult to think about which nutrients are in each kind
of food that you eat. To make it easier, it sometimes helps to think about
food groups.
The picture shows some different kinds of food arranged in a triangle.
The bigger the area in the triangle, the greater the proportion of your
diet that kind of food should make up.
Not too many sweets or

fried foods.
Quite a lot of meat, fish,

eggs, pulses or dairy
products, for, protein.
Lots of fresh fruit and

vegetables, for minerals,
vitamins and fibre.
Plenty of rice, bread,

pasta – preferably
whole grain – for starch
and fibre.
Not too much

Although you should try to include every different kind of nutrient in
your diet, there are some things that you should not eat too much of.
• Too much sugar (a kind of carbohydrate) can make your teeth decay.
It also increases the risk of developing an illness called diabetes.
• Too much fat, oil or carbohydrate can make you put on weight.
This can put a strain on your joints, heart and other body organs.
• Eating too many fats that come from animals can increase the risk
of developing heart disease.
245
7 Diet and growth
Activity 7.2.1
Advice on a healthy diet
Work with a partner for this activity.
These five learners are all giving good advice about eating a balanced diet.
Make sure you eat

enough food to keep
you strong and fit.
Don't eat
too much
fast food.
Eat plenty of fresh fruit

and vegetables.
Eat a wide variety of foods,

including something from each of
the food groups in the food
group triangle, each day.
Don't eat too much

food containing a
lot of fat and sugar.
Think about what each person is saying.

Match each of the pieces of advice with one of these reasons.
1 This means that you will get some of each kind of nutrient, including all the
different vitamins and minerals.
2 These contain fibre and lots of vitamins.
3 This often contains a lot of fat from animals, and very few vitamins or minerals.
4 Not eating enough food will prevent the cells, tissues and organs in your body
having enough energy to keep healthy.
5 It can increase the risk of getting heart disease when you get older.
246
7.2 A balanced diet
Questions
7 Look at the picture of the food triangle.
a Explain why sweets and fried foods are at the top of the triangle.
b Explain why it is better to eat whole-grain bread or brown rice
rather than white bread or white rice.
c Suggest how you can make sure you get enough protein
in your diet, if you don’t like eating meat or fish.
8 Your little brother’s favourite meal is a lamb burger and
fries, with a sweet milky drink.
a What nutrients does he get from this meal?
b What else should he include in his diet?
c Explain to him why he should not eat his favourite
meal too often.
Summary checklist
I can explain what is meant by a balanced diet.
I can explain why different people need different diets.
I can explain why no one should eat too much sugar or fat.
247
7 Diet and growth
7.3 Growth, development

and health
• learn how growth takes place
• find out about the difference between growth and
development
• think about how your diet and the amount of exercise you
take affects your growth, development and health
• learn how smoking affects health.
Most people know that doing plenty of exercise and not smoking carbon monoxide
help you to stay healthy. development
With a partner, think about these questions. embryo
1 How does doing plenty of exercise help to keep you healthy? nicotine
particulates
2 How does not smoking help to keep you healthy?
tar
248
7.3 Growth, development and health
Growth
Every person on Earth began their life as a single cell. This cell divided
to produce two cells. Each of these cells got bigger, then divided again.
A single cell Each cell The cells Each cell

divides into two. grows. divide again. grows.
To begin with, the cells are all the same. They produce a little ball of
cells called an embryo, and eventually a baby.
This all happens inside the mother’s body. By the time the baby is born,
it is a miniature human being. It continues to grow until it is about
18–20 years old.
Cells contain a lot of protein. Energy is needed to make cells divide.
A pregnant woman and a growing child need plenty of protein in their
diet, as well as enough energy to help cells to divide.
Development
The change from a single cell to an adult human involves more than just
growth. As the tiny embryo grows into a baby, all its different tissues
and organs are formed. As the baby grows into a child, its leg muscles
and bones become stronger, so that it can walk and then run. Its brain
develops, as it learns to talk and to play with toys.
These changes are called development.
Each person is an individual, and everyone grows and develops at
different rates, and in slightly different ways. But everyone goes through
the same stages in development. These are shown in this chart. Notice
that each stage blends gradually into the next one – there are no sharp
divisions between them.
baby toddler child adolescent adult
age in
years 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Questions
1 Growth means getting bigger. Explain what happens as a person
grows, to make their body get bigger.
2 Some young children do not get enough protein or energy in their
diet. Explain why they may not grow very tall.
249
7 Diet and growth
Exercise and health

Topic 7.2 described some of the ways in which your diet can affect your
health. There are other ways in which the decisions you make about
your lifestyles can affect how healthy you are.
Taking regular exercise is a really good thing to do. This uses some of
energy in the food you eat each day, stopping you from storing too
much as fat. It also makes the heart and muscles work hard, so that
they become strong. Exercise can also make people feel more cheerful
and positive about life.
Smoking
Smoking cigarettes damages the smoker’s health. It also damages the health of people around them,
who accidentally breathe in cigarette smoke.
Tobacco contains many different harmful substances.
Nicotine
Tobacco smoke contains nicotine. Nicotine can help someone to stay alert. Nicotine is addictive. This
means that it is difficult to manage without it, once you are used to smoking. This is why smokers
find it so difficult to stop smoking.
Nicotine damages the blood vessels in a smoker’s body. It makes them get narrower, so it is harder for
blood to get through them. Smokers are more likely than non-smokers to develop heart disease.
Tar
Tobacco smoke contains a mixture of dark, sticky substances called tar. Some of the chemicals in tar
cause cancer. Cancer happens when cells start dividing out of control and spread to other parts of
the body. Smoking increases the risk of getting many different kinds of cancer, including lung cancer.
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. When it gets into the body, it combines with haemoglobin
inside red blood cells. This stops haemoglobin doing its normal job, which is to combine with oxygen
and transport it to all the body cells that need it. So a smoker’s cells don’t get enough oxygen. They
cannot carry out enough respiration, so don’t have enough energy.
Particulates
Tobacco smoke contains tiny particles of carbon and other materials, called particulates. They
get trapped inside the smoker’s lungs. This makes the walls of the alveoli break down. Instead
of having millions of tiny alveoli in the lungs, the smoker has a lot of big spaces. This is makes it
difficult for them to get enough oxygen into their blood.
250
7.3 Growth, development and health
Activity 7.3.1
Why do people smoke?
Work in a group of three for this activity, and be ready to share your ideas at the end.
Until the 1960s, no one realised that smoking was bad for your health. Today, everyone
knows how harmful it is.
In your group, discuss these questions. You might need to do some research to find
the answers to some of them.
• Why do people choose to smoke? Do you think the reasons are different for older
people and younger people?
• Why is it difficult to give up smoking, once you have started?
• In the 1940s and 1950s some cigarettes were advertised as being medically
approved and good for you. Find some data about smoking from the 1950s.
Where did the data come from? Was some of it biased? Why might tobacco
companies have tried to hide the dangers? Why did it take so long for people to
realise that smoking was harmful?
• Is the government in your country trying to reduce the number of people smoking?
If so, what are they doing?
Questions
10
This bar chart shows the percentages of babies
with a birthweight lower than normal, born to
8
mothers who smoked different numbers of
cigarettes per day while they were pregnant. Percentage of 6
Use the information in the bar chart to answer babies born
these questions. with low
birthweight 4
3 What percentage of babies born to mothers
who do not smoke have a low birthweight? 2
4 Calculate the percentage of babies born to
non-smoking mothers that do not have a 0
none less than 15 15 or more
low birthweight.
Number of cigarettes per day smoked
5 Describe how smoking during pregnancy affects the by mother during pregnancy
chance of having a baby with a low birthweight.
Summary checklist
I can describe how organisms grow.
I can explain what is meant by development.
I can explain why exercise is good for a person’s health.
I can explain how smoking damages health.
251
7 Diet and growth
7.4 Moving the body

• learn about hinge joints and ball-and-socket joints
• find out how a pair of muscles moves the arm at the elbow.
1 Some bones protect parts of the body. Look at the diagram antagonistic
of the skeleton on the next page. Which bones do you think muscles
are important for protection? What do they protect? ball-and-socket
2 Some bones are important in movement. Which bones do joints
you think are important for movement? biceps
contraction
exoskeleton
hinge joints
joints
muscles
skeleton
tendons
triceps
252
7.4 Moving the body
The skeleton cranium

vertebral column
Animals’ bodies are supported by a skeleton.
Insects and other arthropods have a skeleton clavicle
scapula
on the outside of their body.
sternum
This is called an exoskeleton. rib
humerus
Your skeleton is inside your body. It is made
of bones. You do not need to remember the
names of all of these bones, but you may know
some of them already. ulna pelvic girdle
Bones are hard and strong. They contain a lot radius
of calcium. If you do not have enough calcium carpals

in your diet, your bones may not grow properly.
Bones contain living cells, so you also need
protein in your diet to build strong bones. femur
Joints
Bones cannot bend. Movement in the skeleton tibia
can only take place where two bones meet one fibula
another. These places are called joints.
Some joints work like the hinges on a door.
They let the bones move back and forth in
one direction, in the same way that a door
The human skeleton
opens and closes. These are called hinge joints.
Some joints let the bones move in a complete circle. At these joints, one
of the bones has an end shaped like a ball. The other bone has a cup, or
socket, that the ball fits into. These are called ball-and-socket joints.
Activity 7.4.1
Identifying different kinds of joint
Look at the diagram of the skeleton. If you have a model of a skeleton, you could look
at that as well.
Can you find at least two different hinge joints on the skeleton? (You may be able to
find many more than two.) Try moving your own joints at these places. Which bones
meet at the hinge joints?
Now try to find two different ball-and-socket joints on the skeleton. Try moving your
own joints at these places. Which bones meet at the ball-and-socket joints?
Write down your ideas, and be ready to share them with the rest of the class.
253
7 Diet and growth
Questions
1 Explain what a joint is.
2 These pictures show a man hitting a golf shot.
a Which hinge joints is he moving?
b Which ball-and-socket joints is he moving?
Joints in the arm

You have several different joints in your arms. These include the shoulder
joint, the elbow joint, the wrist joint and all the joints in the fingers.
The photo is an X-ray of someone’s arm. Can you pick out the
humerus, radius and ulna? You should also be able to find the
hinge joint at the elbow, and the ball-and-socket joint at
the shoulder.
scapula (shoulder blade)
ball-and-socket joint
humerus
wrist bones, with many
joints between them
radius hinge joints in fingers
hinge joint
at elbow
ulna
finger bones
hand bones
254
7.4 Moving the body
Muscles
Bones and joints cannot move themselves. You use muscles to move
bones at joints.
Muscles are made of specialised cells. These cells are able to make
themselves shorter. This is called contraction.
Muscles use energy to contract. Like all cells, they get this energy from
nutrients, especially glucose. The energy is released from glucose by
respiration. The more you ask your muscles to contract, the more energy
they use, and therefore the more glucose they use.
Muscles can produce a strong pulling force when they
two tendons
contract. Many of your muscles are attached to bones,
by tough cords called tendons. When the muscle
contracts, it pulls on the tendon, which pulls on the
bone. This makes the bone move at a joint. scapula biceps muscle
This diagram shows the muscles that move the arm
bones at the elbow joint.
three tendons
First, look at the biggest muscle in the diagram. radius
This is the biceps. (Biceps is an unusual word, triceps muscle
because it ends in an s even though it is singular.
One biceps, two biceps.) ‘Bi-‘ means two. This humerus
muscle is called the biceps because it has two tendons ulna
that attach it to the scapula.
The longer, thinner muscle in the diagram is the triceps.
Questions
3 The biceps is attached to the scapula at one end.
Which bone is the other end attached to?
4 Which bones is the triceps attached to?
5 Tri- means three. Suggest why the triceps has this name.
6 Tendons do not stretch. Suggest why not.
255
7 Diet and growth
Bending the elbow joint

Think about what happens when you bend your To bend the arm,
arm at the elbow. the biceps contracts
(gets shorter) and
When you decide to bend your arm, your brain the triceps relaxes.
sends an electrical impulse along a neurone, to
your biceps muscle.
The cells in the biceps muscle respond to this electrical The contracting
impulse by contracting. This makes the whole muscle biceps pulls on
pulling the tendon, so
get shorter. force the radius moves
The biceps muscle is firmly fixed to the scapula at upwards.
one end and the radius at the other end. So, when
it gets shorter, these bones are pulled closer together.
The elbow bends, as shown in the diagram.
Activity 7.4.2
Feeling your muscles
You can do this activity on your own.
Rest your arm on the table in front of you, keeping it straight.
Put the fingers of your other hand on your upper arm, where
your biceps muscle is.
Slowly and steadily, bend your arm upwards.
Do this several times.
What can you feel happening in your upper arm, when you
do this?
Straightening the elbow joint

Now think about how you straighten your arm at the elbow joint.
It’s important to remember that muscles can only pull. They
cannot push. Muscles can generate a force by getting shorter, or
To straighten the arm,
contracting. But they cannot generate a force by getting longer. the triceps contracts
So, the biceps cannot push the arm straight again. You need and the biceps relaxes.
another muscle to pull the arm straight.
The contracting
The muscle that does this is the triceps muscle. This diagram triceps pulls on the
shows how it does this. tendon, so the ulna
moves downwards.
When a muscle is not contracting, it relaxes. This is all that
muscles can do – they can either contract or relax.
256
7.4 Moving the body
Antagonistic muscles
You can see that the biceps muscle and the triceps muscle work as a team.
• To bend the arm, the biceps contracts and the triceps relaxes.
• To straighten the arm, the triceps contracts and the biceps relaxes.
Two muscles that work together like this are called antagonistic muscles.
When one of them contracts, it moves the bones at a joint in one
direction. When the other muscle contracts, it moves the bones in the
other direction.

Using a model arm to investigate how the biceps muscle works
You are going to investigate how the size of the force produced by the biceps
muscle differs, if it is attached at different positions on the radius.
You will need:

• model arm, like the one in the diagram • some masses on a hanger • forcemeter
Topic 3.4 showed that the arm acts like a lever. In this investigation, you are
going to try attaching the ‘biceps muscle’ at different points along the ‘radius’,
to find out the force needed to lift a weight.
Set up your model arm like this.
support ‘humerus’ firmly

attached to support
piece of wood or strong

card to represent the
0
10
humerus bone
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
forcemeter
4 3 2 1
‘radius’ attached to
‘humerus’ with freely
moving pivot
masses
hooks at 10 cm piece of wood or strong card to
intervals represent the radius bone
257
7 Diet and growth
Continued
Method
1 Read through the instructions given in the method. Then construct a chart to fill in
your results.
2 Put some masses on the hanger. Start with just one or two masses. (Make sure you
record these masses in your results chart.)
3 Attach the forcemeter to hook 1. Pull gently and steadily vertically upwards until the
‘radius’ makes a right angle with the ‘humerus’. Record the reading on the forcemeter
as you keep the radius in this position.
4 Now attach the forcemeter to hook 2, and repeat.
5 Repeat again, with the forcemeter attached to hook 3 and then hook 4.
6 Put some more masses on the hanger. Repeat steps 3 to 5.
Questions
1 What does the forcemeter represent in this model?
2 What happened to the force needed to keep the radius horizontal, as you moved the
forcemeter further away from the elbow joint?
3 Use what you have learnt about turning forces (moments) in your physics lessons to
explain your answer to question 2.
4 What happened to the force needed to move the radius, when you added extra
masses to the hanger?
5 Use what you have learnt about turning forces (moments) in your physics lessons to
explain your answer to question 4.
6 Which position – 1, 2, 3 or 4 – matches the position where the real biceps is attached
to the real radius?
7 Muscles can produce very strong forces when they contract. But they cannot make
themselves very much shorter. Suggest why the real biceps is attached in this position.
Summary checklist
I can name the bones in the arm.
I can identify some hinge joints and ball-and-socket joints in the body.
I can describe how muscles produce a force when they contract.
I can explain how the biceps and triceps work as antagonistic muscles to move the arm
at the elbow.
258
7.4 Moving the body
Project: A diet for Mars explorers

In this project, you will evaluate issues that require scientific understanding.
Your task
You are going to work with everyone else in your class to produce a display about
feeding astronauts as they travel to Mars and back.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is hoping to send people
to Mars by the 2030s. They have many problems to solve if they are going to achieve this.
One problem is how to feed the astronauts so that they stay healthy and strong during
the long trip. It would take up to three years to go to Mars and back.
Here are some problems and suggestions that are being discussed by scientists
and others.
• NASA could send a spaceship loaded with five years’-worth of food to arrive on
Mars before the astronauts arrive. Would that work better than the astronauts
taking all their food with them?
• It would take up less space if the food could just be pills, instead of ‘real’ food.
Would that work?
• The bones and muscles of astronauts get smaller and weaker when they are in space
for a long time. Are there any kinds of food that might help to reduce this problem?
• To get fresh vitamins, astronauts need to eat fresh plant-based
foods. Could they grow plants on their spaceship? Could they
grow plants on Mars?
Work in a group of four or five. Choose one or two of these
problems – it would be good if different groups choose different
ones. Use the internet to find other people’s ideas for solving
the problems. You might also have your own ideas.
Work with the other groups in your class to produce a
display about how to feed the Martian astronauts.
259
7 Diet and growth
Check your progress

7.1 A weightlifter asks their trainer for advice on his diet.
The trainer gives this advice.
• Eat some protein with every meal.
• Eat plenty of starch or other carbohydrates.
a Copy and complete the sentences. Choose words from the list.
constriction contract fat relax glucose respiration
The weightlifter uses their muscles to lift weights.
The muscles ………………… to make the weights move.
This uses energy.
The muscles get the energy by breaking down ………………… in a reaction
called ………………… . [3]

b Explain why the weightlifter needs to eat plenty of protein. [2]
c Explain why the weightlifter needs to eat plenty of carbohydrate. [2]
d List four other nutrients the weightlifter should include in their diet
as well as protein and carbohydrate. [2]
260
7.47 Moving
Diet and
the
growth
body
7.2 The graph shows the mean mass of girls at different ages.
60
50
40
Mean mass in kg
30
20
10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Age in years
a What is the mean mass of girls when they are two years old? [1]
b By how much does the mean mass increase between two years and
10 years old? [1]
c Between which ages does growth happen most rapidly? [1]
d Does the graph show that most girls have stopped growing by the age of 20?
Explain your answer. [1]
261
7 Diet and growth
7.3 The diagram shows the skeleton of a cat. Cats have the same bones as humans,
but their sizes are different.
D A
S
R B
P
C
a Which joints, A, B, C or D, are hinge joints and which are

ball-and-socket joints? [1]
b Where should the two ends of a muscle be attached to move the
cat’s front leg as shown by the arrow?
Choose from P, Q, R and S. [1]
c Where should the two ends of a muscle be attached to move the
cat’s front leg back to its original position?
Choose from P, Q, R and S. [1]
d What name is given to two muscles like the ones you have described
in parts b and c? [1]
e Explain why two muscles are needed to move a bone in one direction
and then back again. [2]
f Name one mineral needed for the cat to form strong bones. [1]
g Cats are predators. They eat other animals. Suggest where cats get
this mineral from, in their diet. [1]
262
8 Chemical reactions
8.1 Exothermic reactions
• learn about chemical reactions that give out energy
• plan and carry out an investigation.
This word equation shows the reaction between carbon and combustion
oxygen that takes place when carbon burns: dissipate
exothermic reaction
fuel
carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide
oxidation reaction
Answer these questions and then compare answers with a
preliminary work
partner. Be prepared to share your answers with the class.
• Name a reactant.
• Name a product.
• How many atoms make up a particle of carbon dioxide?
• How many of these atoms are carbon?
• How do you know that burning releases energy
to the environment?
263
Burning
When something burns, a chemical reaction takes place. Burning
is a chemical reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen.
en
In a burning reaction, there are energy changes. The substance that
he
yg
reacts with oxygen is called a fuel.
at
ox
Fuels have a store of chemical energy. Charcoal, wood, coal,
natural gas and oil are examples of fuels.
fuel
When the fuel burns, the chemical energy is changed to thermal,
light and sound energy. The thermal, light and sound energy Burning requires oxygen, fuel and
dissipate (spread out) into the surroundings. heat (thermal energy)
Combustion is another term for burning.

Look back at the equation in Getting started. You can see that, during
the reaction, the atoms of carbon and oxygen join together in new ways.
When this happens, chemical energy is changed to thermal energy and
the temperature rises.
A chemical reaction in which thermal energy is given out is called an
exothermic reaction.
Questions
1 What is needed for combustion to take place?
2 What is an exothermic reaction?
3 How can you tell that burning is an exothermic reaction?
264
Burning other substances

Hydrogen can be used as a fuel in a model rocket. The combustion
of hydrogen is an exothermic reaction. The hydrogen and the oxygen
combine to form water.
hydrogen + oxygen water
When the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen rearrange themselves and

combine together, energy is given out. This chemical energy is changed
into kinetic, thermal, sound and light energy.
bent paperclips string
stopper
to spark generator plastic bottle mixture of

hydrogen and air
Burning hydrogen can propel a plastic bottle like a rocket
In this experiment, a large plastic soda bottle filled with hydrogen and
air is attached to a string across the room. The stopper in the bottle has
wires that allow a spark to be generated. The hot spark provides the
energy to start the reaction. The hydrogen and oxygen react together.
The reaction gives out a lot of energy and the stopper is pushed out.
This energy makes the bottle shoot (move very quickly) along the string.
265
The reactions of other substances burning in air are also exothermic

reactions. An example is burning magnesium, which produces magnesium
oxide. Energy is given out as heat and light as the magnesium and oxygen
atoms rearrange themselves.
Mg O
Mg Mg O O
Mg O
magnesium oxygen + magnesium oxide
When a substance burns, it combines with oxygen and a new substance

called an oxide is formed. Any reaction in which a substance combines
with oxygen is an oxidation reaction.
Burning magnesium ribbon
Other exothermic reactions

With water
This is the equation for the reaction between potassium and water.
K H O H K O H
K H O H K O H H H
potassium + water potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
Water is made up of particles containing atoms of hydrogen and oxygen.

In the potassium and water reaction, the bonds between the atoms of
oxygen and hydrogen in the water break. The atoms rearrange to form
the products potassium hydroxide and hydrogen. Stored chemical energy
is changed to thermal energy, which dissipates into the environment.
With acid
If you add magnesium to dilute hydrochloric acid, the test tube gets hot.
This reaction is an exothermic one.
H Cl
Mg H Cl Cl Mg Cl H H
magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
266
Measuring temperature rise during

a reaction
Sofia and Marcus each measured 10 cm3 of dilute
hydrochloric acid into a test tube and measured the
temperature. Then they each added an identical piece
of magnesium ribbon to their test tube of acid.
When the reaction stopped,
they each measured the
temperature again.
Measuring the rise in temperature when magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid
Sofia’s results Marcus’s results

Start temperature End temperature Start temperature End temperature
in °C in °C in °C in °C
18 42 21 45
Questions
4 What are the products when magnesium and hydrochloric acid react?
5 How did Sofia and Marcus know when the reaction had finished?
6 Marcus thought that more chemical energy had been changed to
thermal energy by his reaction because, in his experiment, the end
temperature was higher. Sofia thought that both reactions changed
the same quantity of chemical energy to thermal energy. Whose idea
is correct? Explain why?
7 Explain why it is a good idea to wear safety glasses whilst carrying
out this investigation.
8 Sofia and Marcus wondered how they could produce a higher
temperature change. Their ideas included adding more magnesium,
using a different metal and using a different acid.
Write each of these three ideas as a scientific question to be investigated.
267

Planning and carrying out an investigation into the reaction between acid
and magnesium
Method
1 Choose one of the scientific questions to be investigated from question 8
(or write one of your own) and write a plan for your investigation.
• Before you write your plan, try out the reaction between magnesium
and an acid. In this preliminary work you should practise measuring the
temperature change.
• Decide what equipment you will need and make a list.
• You also need to find out how big a change in the variable (for example,
the length of the magnesium ribbon) is needed to make a change in the
temperature that you can measure.
• When the reaction takes place and chemical energy is changed to thermal
energy, the thermal energy dissipates (spreads out) into the environment.
• Are you sure that you are measuring the temperature change accurately?
• What could you do to reduce this heat loss?
• Decide how you will record and present your results.
• Carry out a risk assessment.
2 Ask your teacher to check your plan.
3 Carry out your plan. You may find that you want to make changes to it once you
begin doing the investigation. If so, write down the changes that you have made
and explain why you made them.
Questions
1 What can you conclude from your results?
2 Compare your results with others from the class. Are your results in agreement
with others who carried out the same investigation?
3 How could you improve your investigation?
How can preliminary work help me to improve my investigation?
Summary checklist
I can describe what happens in an exothermic reaction.
268
8.2 Endothermic reactions

• learn about chemical reactions that absorb energy
• distinguish between exothermic and endothermic reactions
and processes
• learn about the use of exothermic and endothermic reactions
and processes.
When you make any scientific measurements, you are told that endothermic
you need to be accurate and precise. process
• What do you think this means? Discuss it with your partner. endothermic
Look at these three archery targets. reaction
A B C
• If you are being accurate, where should your arrows hit

the target?
• If you are being precise, should all your arrows be near
to one another or spread out?
• Which archer, A, B or C, has been precise but not accurate?
• Which archer, A, B or C, has been neither precise
nor accurate?
• Which archer, A, B or C, has been both accurate
and precise?
Share your answers and ideas with the class.
269
Endothermic reactions
Some chemical reactions absorb thermal energy from their surroundings
and change it to chemical energy stored in the chemical bonds. These are
called endothermic reactions. When an endothermic reaction takes place,
the temperature at the end of the reaction is lower than that at the start
of the reaction.
Carrying out an endothermic reaction
You will need:

• test tube • test tube rack • stirring rod • thermometer • spatula
• lemon juice or citric acid • sodium hydrogencarbonate • safety glasses
°C
Method
1 Place some citric acid or lemon juice in a test tube so that it is about 100
half full. 90
80
2 Measure and record the temperature.
70
3 Add three spatulas of sodium hydrogencarbonate and stir. 60
Do not use the thermometer to do this. 50
4 Measure and record the temperature. 40
Questions
30
20
1 What was the difference between the temperature at the start and the 10
end of the experiment? 0
2 Is thermal energy given out to the surroundings or taken in from the

surroundings during this reaction?
Looking at endothermic reactions

This is the word equation for the reaction between sodium hydrogencarbonate
and citric acid:
sodium hydrogencarbonate + citric acid sodium citrate + water + carbon dioxide
During this reaction, thermal energy is absorbed from the surroundings
and stored in the form of chemical bonds. So, if this reaction was carried
out in a test tube, the surroundings will have a lower temperature and
the test tube will feel cooler.
270
If you eat sherbet sweets, this reaction takes place in your mouth. The
sherbet is a mixture of dry citric acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate.
When you eat the sweets, these substances dissolve in your saliva, and
react together. This gives a cool, ‘fizzy’ feeling in your mouth (the
surroundings), which is refreshing.
Questions
1 Look at the word equation again:
sodium hydrogencarbonate + citric acid sodium citrate + water + carbon dioxide
a What are the reactants?
b Which are the products?
2 What is an endothermic reaction?
3 Explain why eating sherbet sweets makes your mouth
feel cooler.
4 You may also get a ‘fizzy’ feeling in your mouth when you
eat sherbet. Why is this?
Endothermic processes °C
If you place about 25 cm of water in a beaker and then stir in three

3 100
spatulas of potassium chloride, you will find that the beaker gets 90
cold. In this case, no chemical reaction has taken place. No new

80
potassium 70
products are formed. The potassium chloride has just dissolved. chloride 60
A solution of potassium chloride has been formed. Potassium 50
chloride is the solute and water is the solvent. thermometer

30
40
When potassium chloride dissolves in water, thermal energy glass rod

20
is absorbed from the surroundings. This is why the beaker 0

10
feels cold. This is an endothermic process. water
271
Ice melting is another endothermic process. Thermal energy

is absorbed from the surroundings as the solid ice changes
energy
to liquid water. Think about what happens to the particles taken in
when water changes state. The particles in the ice are lined
up in rows and can only vibrate about fixed positions – they
cannot move around inside the ice. The forces between the
particles are strong. ice water
As the particles absorb thermal energy from the surroundings, they

vibrate more and more. The ice begins to melt. When the particles have
enough energy, they can move and overcome the forces holding them in
place. The particles can now slide past one another. The water is now in
a liquid state.
Questions
5 Why is ice melting called an endothermic process and not an
endothermic reaction?
6 Suggest a change of state, other than ice melting, that is an
endothermic process.
7 When you have been swimming and you come out of the pool, you
may feel cold. Use your understanding of endothermic processes to
explain why.
8 Suggest whether water freezing is an endothermic or exothermic
process. Can you explain your suggestion?
Endothermic or exothermic?
In exothermic reactions and processes, thermal energy is given out.
In endothermic reactions and processes, thermal energy is taken in.
°C °C
100 100
90 90
°C
80 80
100
70 70
90
60 80 60
heat given out heat taken in

70
50 50
60
40 40
50
30 30
40
20 30 20
boiling water 10 ice melting 20

10
cooling
10
0 0
0
Exothermic process Endothermic process
272

Endothermic or exothermic?
In this series of experiments, you will try some of these reactions and processes and
decide if the reaction or process gives out energy to the surroundings or absorbs
energy from the surroundings.
You will need:

• beakers or polystyrene cups or other insulated containers • stirring rod
• thermometer (do not use the thermometer for stirring the solutions)
• chemicals as listed below • safety glasses
Here are some reactions and processes you could try.

• Sodium hydroxide and dilute hydrochloric acid.
• Potassium chloride and water.
• Melting ice cubes.
• Copper sulfate solution and magnesium powder.
• Ammonium nitrate and water.
• Boiling water until steam comes off.
• Steam from a kettle directed at a cold surface.
• Dilute hydrochloric acid and magnesium ribbon.
• Sodium hydrogencarbonate and citric acid.
Method
Carry out some or all of the reactions or processes suggested.
Make sure you do a risk assessment for each test that you do.
You will need to adapt this method for processes that do not
involve using two substances.
1 Construct a results table.
2 Place one of the solutions in the beaker or polystyrene cup.
4 Add the other substance. Stir with the stirring rod.
5 Allow the substances to react, dissolve or change.
7 Clean the thermometer and the stirring rod before using them for the next test.
8 For each test you did, say if it is endothermic or exothermic and if it is a reaction
or process.
273
Continued
Questions
1 What advantage is there if a polystyrene cup is used rather than a glass beaker?
2 Which reaction gave out the most energy to the surroundings?
3 Which reaction absorbed the most energy from the surroundings?
4 Did you have difficulty measuring the temperature with any of these reactions
or processes? Explain how you could decide if the reaction or process was
exothermic or endothermic if you could not measure the temperature.
Using exothermic reactions

Some exothermic reactions are used to produce self-heating
cans of food or drink. For example, a can of self-heating
coffee contains a small compartment at the bottom. The
compartment is in two parts, separated by foil: one contains
calcium oxide, the other contains water. Pressing a button
breaks the foil seal, and the two parts are mixed.
When the water and calcium oxide are mixed together
they react, and heat (thermal energy) is given off. The
thermal energy is transferred to the coffee.
calcium oxide + water calcium hydroxide
These cans can be useful if you are in a remote area, A self-heating can
in an emergency when there is no power, or when you
are camping.
The cans are expensive to produce because the compartments must be
sealed from one another and from the food, so that it does not become
contaminated. There have also been problems with the food not being
heated evenly.
274
Using endothermic reactions

People sometimes use ice packs when they injure
themselves. The ice packs are stored in a fridge or freezer
until they are needed. When the ice pack is placed on
the injured area, heat is transferred to the ice pack and
the ice melts. (This is an endothermic process, not an
endothermic reaction as no new substances are formed.)
The injured area is cooled which prevents it from
swelling. After it has been used, the ice pack can go back
into the freezer to be used again.
A chemical ice pack being used to treat an injury
Some ‘ice’ packs are made from substances that undergo
an endothermic process when they mix together.
These packs can be used even when you don’t have fridge or freezer.
The pack has two compartments inside, each with a different substance.
These are usually ammonium nitrate and water. When you push on the
pack and break the compartment containing ammonium nitrate, the
water mixes with it and the ammonium nitrate begins to dissolve.
This is an endothermic process, so the temperature drops.
Questions
9 Explain why self-heating cans are very expensive.
10 Explain why a self-heating food container can only be used once.
11 Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of each of the two
types of icepack described above.
What exothermic and endothermic reactions do I use in my

everyday life?
Summary checklist
I can list some chemical reactions that are endothermic.
I can explain the difference between an endothermic reaction and
an endothermic process.
I can carry out an investigation to distinguish between exothermic
and endothermic reactions and processes.
I can describe some uses of exothermic and endothermic reactions
and processes.
275
8.3 Reactions of metals

with oxygen
• describe the reactions of some metals with oxygen
• carry out an investigation
• compare how reactive some metals are with oxygen.
In one minute, write down all the properties of metals that you collapses
can remember. Compare your list with a partner and add any inert
new ones to your list. Then compare your new list with another prevent
pair and add any more properties. Be prepared to share your reactive
list with the class.
rusts
276
8.3 Reactions of metals with oxygen
Metals and oxygen

In Stage 7 you learned about the properties of metals. Now you are
going to investigate how different metals react with oxygen.

Heating metals in air
In this activity, you will heat several different metals in air. Air contains oxygen,
and some metals will react with it.
Read though the instructions and decide on the safety precautions you will need
to take. Discuss these in your group and then with the class before you carry out
your investigation.
You will need:

• safety glasses • Bunsen burner • heatproof mat • tongs
• small pieces of metal such as magnesium, zinc, iron and copper
Method
1 Take a small piece of one of the metals.
2 Place it in the tongs and heat it in a Bunsen flame.
3 Record your observations in a table. Explain what
happened.
4 Repeat steps 1–3 for each of the other metals.
Questions
1 Which was the most reactive metal that you used? What evidence do you
have for this?
2 What safety precautions did you take?
3 Suggest why you were not given metals such as sodium or potassium to heat.
4 Suggest why you were not given metals such as gold or silver to heat.
277
Looking at the reactions of metals

with oxygen
Many metals react with oxygen if they get hot enough. When you look
carefully at the reactions of metals with oxygen, it is possible to identify
which metals are more reactive. For example, magnesium is more
reactive than iron because magnesium reacts more quickly than iron.
This reaction between metals and oxygen is an oxidation reaction.
Some metals react very quickly with oxygen without even being heated.
When pieces of sodium, potassium or calcium are taken from their
containers, they appear dull. When the pieces are cut, the surface is
shiny. The shiny surface soon becomes dull because the metal reacts with
the oxygen in the air. The surface becomes covered with a new substance
– the oxide of the metal. These metals are so reactive that they have to
be stored under oil to prevent them reacting with the water vapour in
the air. The layer of metal oxide on the surface prevents any more of the
metal from reacting with the air or water vapour.
A scientist cuts a piece of sodium metal with a scalpel
The general word equation for this reaction is:

metal + oxygen metal oxide
Some metals, such as gold, do not react with oxygen. They are generally
unreactive. They are described as inert.
Silver reacts slowly with the air. If a silver object is not cleaned it goes
black over time, as silver oxide is formed.
278
Questions
1 Which property of sodium and potassium is not typical of a metal?
2 Why is the scientist in the photograph wearing gloves to cut the
piece of sodium?
3 Write a word equation for the reaction between sodium and oxygen.
The reaction between iron and oxygen

When iron is left in damp air it rusts. The iron reacts with oxygen to
form an orange-brown solid, called iron oxide. This is known as rust.
iron + oxygen iron oxide
This is not a very useful reaction because it means that the iron changes
and no longer has the same properties. A strong iron girder can become
rusted and fall apart. This could mean that a building collapses.
The reaction between iron and oxygen only takes place when both water
and oxygen are present. The water is not part of the equation, but it is
needed for the reaction to happen. The reaction takes a long time to
happen – iron is not very reactive with oxygen.
This new, shiny spanner, nuts, bolts and washers are made The iron sheets in this old barn have rusted
mostly of iron
279
What causes iron to rust?

A new iron nail is placed in each of four test tubes, as in the diagram.
After a few weeks

the experiment
looks like this.
tube 1 tube 2 tube 3 tube 4 tube 1 tube 2 tube 3 tube 4
Test tube 1 contains nothing, apart from the nail, and is open to the air.
Test tube 2 contains water and the nail is half in the water. The tube is
open to the air. So, this tube has air and water.
Test tube 3 has calcium chloride in the bottom. The calcium chloride
absorbs water so the air inside the tube is dry. The tube is stoppered.
Test tube 4 has water that has been boiled to remove as much dissolved
gas as possible. On top of the boiled water is a layer of oil. This stops
any air entering the water. The tube is stoppered.
Tube number Contains Result

1 moist air nail is rusted
2 water and air nail is very rusty
3 dry air no rust
4 boiled water covered with oil, no air small amount of rust
Questions
4 What conditions are needed to prevent iron from rusting?
5 Which test tube and which conditions caused the iron to rust
most quickly?
6 Why is the same type of nail used in all test tubes?
7 How is the air in test tube 3 dried?
8 How is the air in test tube 4 kept out of contact with the nail?
280
How can iron be protected?

There are ways that iron can be protected so that it does not rust.
Iron can be painted; this stops the oxygen in the air Iron can be galvanised; this means covering the iron
reaching the iron with a layer of zinc which prevents the oxygen reaching
the iron
Why do we need to reduce the rusting of iron?
Summary checklist
I can describe the reactions of some metals with oxygen.
I can compare how reactive some metals are with oxygen.
281

with water
• describe the reactions of some metals with water
• carry out an investigation
• compare how reactive some metals are with water.
Think back to the reactions of metals with oxygen that you reactivity
studied in Topic 8.3. Write down the name of the most reactive sandpaper
metal you learnt about and try to make a list of the other metals
in order of how reactive they are. Compare your list with a
partner and make one list to share with the class.
282
8.4 Reactions of metals with water
Metals and water

In Topic 8.3 you learned about the reactions of metals with oxygen.
Now you are going to investigate how different metals react with water.

Reactions of metals with water
It can be difficult to see how some metals react with water. This is because they may
be covered in a surface layer of metal oxide if they have reacted with the oxygen in
the air. In the investigations, you may need to use sandpaper to clean the surface
of the metals so that the metal can come in direct contact with the water.
You will need:

• test tubes • test tube rack • sandpaper • forceps
• small pieces of metals such as magnesium, zinc, iron and copper
Method
1 Take a small piece of one of the metals you have been given.
Use sandpaper to clean the surface of the metal.
2 Place the metal into a test tube of water.
3 Record your observations in a table and explain what
happened. You may need to leave the metal to react
for some time. If nothing happens, you could try
testing the metal again, this time using hot water.
4 Repeat steps 1–3 for each of the other metals you
have been given.
Questions
1 Which was the most reactive of the metals you were given?
What evidence do you have for this?
2 Use the results of your experiment to arrange the metals in order of
their reactivity, starting with the most reactive.
3 Suggest why some metals will react with hot water but not with cold water.
283
Reactions of sodium and

potassium with water
Some metals are too reactive for you to test in water. Sodium and
potassium react very vigorously. They have to be stored under oil
to prevent them from reacting with the water vapour in the air.
Sodium reacts vigorously with water
In these two reactions, the metal reacted with water to produce
hydrogen and the metal hydroxide.
metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen
Questions
1 Write the word equation for the reaction between sodium
and water.
2 What safety precautions must be taken when these reactions
take place?
When potassium reacts with water, so
3 Explain why these metals are stored under oil. much thermal energy is generated that
the hydrogen produced catches fire
Reactions of other metals

with water
Some other metals react less vigorously with water – for example, bubbles of gas
calcium and magnesium. In the experiment shown in the diagram,
a piece of calcium has been placed at the bottom of a beaker and
covered with water. A filter funnel has been placed upside down
over the metal. The gas given off is collected in a test tube by the water
displacement of water.
Questions
metal (calcium)
4 What is the gas that is given off ? How would you test for it?
5 How could you tell if calcium or magnesium is more reactive?
6 What factors should you take into account to
make this a fair test?
7 Write the word equation for the reaction
between calcium and water.
284
8.4 Reactions of metals with water
Some of the metals that do not react with water may react with steam.
Even magnesium will react more rapidly with steam than with water.
In the reaction shown here, magnesium is heated. hydrogen magnesium ceramic
From time to time, the heat is directed at the gas burning ribbon wool
ceramic wool. The ceramic wool has been soaked
in water, which when heated produces steam. In
this reaction the magnesium reacts with water,
which is in the form of a gas. Magnesium oxide
and hydrogen are formed. The hydrogen gas that heat
is given off can be burnt.
Heating magnesium
The word equation for this reaction is:
magnesium + water (g) magnesium oxide + hydrogen
The (g) after water indicates it is water in the form of a gas, in this case
steam. Steam is formed by boiling water and is very hot, whereas water
vapour is made up of water particles in the air at lower temperatures.
Some metals, such as gold, do not react with water at all.
Questions
8 Explain, using particle theory, why the reaction between steam and
magnesium is more vigorous than between water and magnesium.
9 Name three metals that do not react with water.
10 If an element is said to be inert, what does it mean?
Summary checklist
I can describe the reactions of some metals with water.
I can compare how reactive some metals are with water.
285

with dilute acids
• describe the reactions of some metals with dilute acid
• plan an investigation
• carry out an investigation safely
• compare how reactive some metals are with dilute acid.
You have 2 minutes to write down and complete as many of reagents

these word equations as you can. salt
• oxygen + sodium
• oxygen + magnesium
• oxygen + iron
• water + potassium
• water + calcium
• magnesium + steam
Check your partner’s work. Be prepared to share your answers
with the class.
286
8.5 Reactions of metals with dilute acids
A familiar reaction
You will probably remember the reaction of magnesium with dilute
hydrochloric acid. This is the word equation for this reaction:
magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
Magnesium chloride is an example of a salt. When a metal reacts with
an acid, the products are a salt and hydrogen.
The general equation for this reaction is:
metal + acid salt + hydrogen
Questions
1 Write the word equation for the reaction between magnesium and
sulfuric acid.
2 What is the salt produced in the reaction in question 1?
3 Describe what you would observe if this reaction took place in
a test tube.
4 Write the word equation for the reaction between zinc and nitric acid.

An investigation into the reaction of metals in acid
°C °C
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287
Continued
Part 1: Planning the investigation

Plan the investigation for Sofia and Marcus. Choose which of the items in the diagrams
they need to use. Some of the items are not appropriate to use.
Discuss in your small group how you will answer these questions.
• What will they change?
• What will they keep the same?
• How will they measure the reactivity and decide which is the most or least
reactive metal?
• How will they keep safe?
• What equipment will they use?
Remember to include a results table and an idea of what they should be looking
for in order to identify which are the most reactive metals.
Write your plan and show it to your teacher.
Questions
1 Which of the metals shown should Sofia and Marcus not use? Explain why.
2 Explain which measuring cylinder they should use to measure out enough acid
to use in this investigation.
Part 2: Carrying out the investigation
Your task is to find the order of reactivity of the metals you are given. Remember to
work in a methodical way and keep an accurate record of your results.
Method
1 Follow the plan you have written, once you have A B C D E
had it checked by your teacher.
2 Select the appropriate equipment.
Questions
3 Which metal was the most reactive in dilute acid?
4 Which metal was the least reactive in dilute acid?
288
8.5 Reactions of metals with dilute acids
Activity 8.5.1
Reactivity order
On seperate sticky notes, write the name of each of the metals
you used when carrying out the investigation into the reaction
of metals in acid.
Stick these on to the table in the order of reactivity, with the
most reactive at the top. Use the information from the
investigation above.
Compare your order with other groups. Are they the same
or similar?
Use the class results to make an order you all agree on.
Does this order match the results from the investigations of the
reactions of metals with oxygen and water?
Now write sticky notes for the metals you could not use (sodium,
gold, silver, calcium and potassium) and fit those into your list.
When you are happy with your order, make a poster to show your
list and illustrate it with diagrams to show the various reactions
with oxygen, water and/or dilute acids.
Questions
1 Which was the most reactive of the metals you used?
2 How did you decide which of the metals in the list was the
least reactive?
How did the three investigations help me to decide in which

order to put the metals?
Summary checklist
I can describe the reactions of some metals with dilute acid.
I can compare how reactive some metals are with dilute acid.
289
Project: Working with chemicals safely
Background
Each day you make decisions about how to keep safe and minimise the risks that you
take. It might be when you cross a street, when you make a hot drink, head a football,
cook a meal or use a knife to cut vegetables. You probably don’t even realise you are
doing it, but you are carrying out a risk assessment for most tasks.
In the laboratory there are a number of hazardous situations. There are rules about how
you should behave and what you should do to stay safe. In the picture above there
are lots of things happening that are unsafe. People should never behave like that in a
laboratory.
Your task
Work in a group of three or four. Start by looking carefully at the picture and identify as
many things that are unsafe as you can. Make a list, with reasons, to explain why each
thing is unsafe.
Next, you need to provide guidance to learners starting the secondary science course,
to help them keep safe. You could:
• write a poem or a song
• write a guide book
• write and perform a short play
• make a poster.
You should try to come up with some original way of getting the safety message across.
Your work will be shared with the whole class.
290
Check your progress

8.1 Match these words or phrases to the descriptions, a, b, c, d and e.
Each word or phrase may be used once, more than once or not at all.
burning decreases endothermic increases exothermic
evaporation melting ice magnesium ribbon placed in hydrochloric acid
sodium hydrogencarbonate added to citric acid
a An example of a chemical reaction where thermal energy is given out

to the surroundings. [1]
b An example of an endothermic reaction. [1]
c The temperature in an endothermic reaction. [1]
d An example of an endothermic process. [1]
e The type of reaction between calcium and water. [1]
8.2 Burning is a chemical reaction where thermal energy is

given out to the surroundings. Marcus has four fuels to
investigate to find out which gives out the most thermal
energy to the surroundings. He uses apparatus like this:
a Which variable will Marcus change? [1]
b Name two variables Marcus must keep
the same. [2]
c Explain what he must do in order to be
able to identify which fuel gave out the
most thermal energy to the surroundings. [2]
d Name one safety precaution he should take
whilst carrying out this investigation. [1]
8.3 Copy and complete the following word equations.

a carbon + … carbon dioxide [1]
b sodium hydroxide + … sodium chloride + … [2]
c … + oxygen magnesium oxide [1]
d potassium + water …+… [2]
291
8.4 Zara and Arun are carrying out an investigation into the heat given off
when they add pieces of calcium to water. They both use 10 cm3 water and
add pieces of calcium.
These are Zara’s results.
Mass of calcium Start temperature Final temperature Temperature

added in g in °C in °C change in °C
1 19 20
2 19 21
3 19 22
4 19 23
These are Arun’s results.
Mass of calcium Start temperature Final temperature Temperature

added in g in °C in °C change in °C
1 21 22
2 21 22
3 21 24
4 21 25
a What trend is shown by both sets of results? [1]
b Predict what would happen if 5 g of calcium was added. [1]
c Complete the table for both of the student’s results. [2]
d Construct a summary table to show the mean temperature change for
each mass of calcium used. (Your table does not need to show the
start and final temperatures). [2]
e Zara and Arun plot a graph of their results.
i Which variable and unit should they put along the horizontal axis? [1]
ii Which variable and unit should they put on the vertical axis? [1]
f Zara and Arun carried out a third set of experiments, using 20 cm3 water
instead of 10 cm3. Could they use these results to add to the first two sets,
to calculate the mean temperature change? Explain your answer. [2]
292
9 Magnetism
9.1 Magnetic fields
• describe a magnetic field
• understand that magnetic fields surround magnets
• understand how magnetic fields interact.
Work in pairs. Make a list of places where magnets are used. compass
like poles
magnet
magnetic
magnetic field
magnetic field
lines
293
9 Magnetism
The magnetic field

A magnet is something that will attract magnetic
materials. Magnetic materials include the metals iron,
steel, nickel and cobalt. You will probably have used a
magnet to attract paperclips. The paperclips are made from steel, which is a
magnetic material
Magnets have two poles, north and south. They are
shown with the letters N and S on diagrams.
When a paperclip is close to one of the poles of a magnet, the paperclip
will be attracted to the magnet. As you move the paperclip further away,
it stops being attracted.
The paperclip is attracted to a magnet when it is in the magnetic field of
that magnet.
A magnetic field is the area around a magnet where the effects of the
magnet can be detected.
A magnetic field surrounds all magnets. The magnetic field of a magnet
is strongest at the poles.
magnet paperclip
The paperclip is outside the magnetic field of this magnet, so will not be attracted
You can detect a magnetic field in two ways. You can:

• see whether a magnetic object moves because of attraction
• use a compass.
A compass contains a magnetised needle that is free
to turn. The needle will turn and point in the direction of a
magnetic field. The picture shows a compass. Some mobile
devices such as phones have compass apps.
Magnetic field lines

You can draw magnetic field lines around a magnet to represent
the magnetic field.
The rules are that magnetic field lines:
• join opposite poles A compass can be used to detect a
• have arrows that point N  S magnetic field
• must not touch each other

• must not cross each other.
294
9.1 Magnetic fields
Following these rules, the magnetic field lines around a bar magnet look
like this:
and the magnetic field lines around a horseshoe magnet look like this:
You can tell by looking at magnetic field lines where the magnetic
field is strongest. The magnetic field is strongest where the lines
are closest together.
If one magnet is stronger than another, the magnetic field of the
stronger magnet will be different in two ways.
• All the field lines will be closer together.
• The field lines will extend further away from the magnet.
You can also tell, by looking at magnetic field lines, in what The five small compasses are pointing
direction a compass will point. When it is in a magnetic field, a in the direction of the magnetic field
compass will point in the direction of the lines. lines
295
9 Magnetism
Magnetic fields interacting

You probably already know about the forces between two magnets.
• Two north poles repel.
• Two south poles repel.
• A north and a south pole attract.
These forces are due to the magnetic fields from
each magnet.
Look at the field lines between two magnets when their
opposite poles are together.
The magnetic field lines between the two magnets are all pointing in the
same direction. This means there will be a force of attraction between
the magnets.
Now look at the field lines between two magnets
when their like poles are together.
The magnetic field lines in the space directly between
these two magnets are all pointing in opposite
directions. This means the magnets will repel, or try
to move away from each other.
Questions
1 Describe what is meant by the term ‘magnetic field’.
2 The magnetic field of magnet A extends further than the
magnetic field of magnet B.
State what can be concluded about the strengths of these
two magnets.
3 Copy this diagram of a bar magnet.
S N
Draw magnetic field lines around your diagram.

Put arrows on each line.
4 a Draw magnetic field lines to show how a north and a
south pole attract.
b Draw magnetic field lines to show how two south poles repel.
296
9.1 Magnetic fields
Activity 9.1.1
Showing a magnetic field pattern
Work in pairs.
You will need:

• bar magnet • horseshoe magnet (optional) • piece of A4 size paper
• piece of thick card, not thicker than the thickness of the magnet
• iron filings
Safety
Be careful not to get the iron filings on your skin. They can be sharp and get stuck
in your skin.
Be careful not to get the iron filings on the magnet. They are very difficult to remove
and other people will get the iron filings on their skin.
Method
1 Cut a hole in the middle of the thick card, just
large enough to put the bar magnet in.
2 Put the bar magnet into the hole so it lies flat
in the card. The card is to support the paper
and keep the paper level.
3 Put the paper on top of the card so the
magnet is under the middle of the paper.
4 Gently and evenly sprinkle the iron filings
over the paper. Tap the paper gently to allow
the iron filings to move into position.
You should see a pattern like the one in the picture.
Questions
1 a Where is the magnetic field strongest?
b How can you tell this from the pattern of iron filings?
2 a Can you tell, by looking at the pattern of iron filings, which is the north or
south pole?
b Explain your answer.
3 Look closely at the iron filings that are on top of the poles of the magnet.
What do you observe?
When you have finished, carefully lift the paper vertically away from the magnet.
Bend the paper to form a slight ‘U’ shape and use this as a channel to pour the
iron filings back into the container.
297
9 Magnetism
Continued
Extension
If you have time, you could use two magnets, first arranged with like poles
facing and then with opposite poles facing. In each case, try to explain the
pattern of iron filings.
Detecting a magnetic field

In this investigation, you will investigate ways of detecting a magnetic field.
Work in pairs or groups of three.
You will need:

See the diagram. You could also choose some other different types of magnets
to investigate.
Method
1 Set the magnet, ruler and paperclip on a smooth surface as shown in the diagram.
bar magnet ruler paperclip
cm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
2 Record whether the north or south pole of the magnet is facing the paperclip.
3 Slowly move the paperclip toward the pole of the magnet. If your bar magnet is not
marked, can you devise a method to tell which pole is which?
4 Record the distance from the pole of the magnet when the paperclip becomes attracted
to the magnet. Call this value d for distance.
5 Repeat another two times and record all your measurements of d.
6 Turn the magnet around so the other pole is facing the paperclip.
7 Repeat steps 3–5 for this pole.
8 If you have time, repeat the investigation with other, different, magnets.
298
9.1 Magnetic fields
Continued
Questions
1 Calculate the average of your d values for each pole of each magnet you tested.
2 Explain how the value of d is related to the strength of the magnetic field.
3 Explain what your results show about the strength of the magnetic field from
the north and south poles of the same magnet.
4 Explain why:
a the surface needs to be as smooth as possible
b the paperclip needs to be as small as possible.
5 Suggest how you could improve this investigation to get more accurate values of d.
Self-assessment
Decide how much you agree with each of these statements. Give yourself 5 if you
agree very much and 1 if you do not agree at all.
• I understand what is meant by a magnetic field.
• I can draw the magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.
• I can draw the magnetic field lines between two opposite poles of different
bar magnets.
• I can draw the magnetic field lines between two like poles of different bar magnets.
Summary checklist
I can describe what is meant by the term magnetic field.
I can explain how to detect a magnetic field.
I can draw magnetic field lines around a magnet.
I can draw magnetic field lines between two magnets.
299
9 Magnetism
9.2 The Earth as a giant magnet

• discover that the Earth has a magnetic field
• learn that the core of the Earth acts as a magnet.
Work in groups to discuss the answers to these questions. geographic north

• The terms ‘north pole’ and ‘south pole’ are used when we magnetic north
discuss magnets. Where else are they used? naturally occurring
• What is a magnetic compass used for, apart from science navigate
experiments in school?
300
The Earth’s magnetic field

Around 4000 years ago, a Greek shepherd called Magnes was looking after
his sheep. The story of Magnes says that iron nails in his shoes stuck to
one particular type of rock. The rock was called lodestone and contained
a substance that was later named magnetite, which is a naturally occurring
magnet. Naturally occurring means it is not made by people.
Both the Greeks and the Chinese started to investigate magnetic properties.
The Chinese discovered that a small needle of lodestone,
split off the rock, could be made to float on water. When
allowed to float, the needle of lodestone always turned
to point in the same direction.
One end of the needle pointed toward the north
and the other end pointed toward the south.
This was the invention of the magnetic
compass.
It was soon discovered that the compass
needle pointed to a position close to the
Earth’s north pole, but not exactly to the
geographic north pole. This point is now
called magnetic north. Magnetic north
moves very slowly, and is currently in the
Arctic Ocean, north of Alaska. The first compasses, in 200 BCE, looked like this
The invention of the compass was very

important because it allowed people to
navigate in places such as oceans and
deserts, with less chance of getting lost.
With a compass, you will always know
what direction you are facing.
Even today with satellite navigation (satnav),
ships and aeroplanes still use magnetic
compasses.
Satnav systems do not use the Earth’s
magnetic field.
The compass on this modern ship is the bowl-shaped object near

the centre of the picture
301
9 Magnetism
Some animals use the Earth’s magnetic field to navigate over long distances.
The diagram shows what the Earth’s magnetic field lines look like compared
with a bar magnet.
spin axis
These birds are using the Earth’s magnetic field to navigate The Earth’s magnetic field is similar to that of a
bar magnet
Notice, in the diagram, that the magnetic field lines around the Earth
point towards the Earth’s north pole. You will remember from Topic 9.1
that magnetic field lines point from north to south.
This means that the north pole of Earth is actually a magnetic south pole.
The term magnetic north, when used in context of the Earth and navigation,
means the magnetic pole that is close to the geographic north pole.
In the same way, magnetic south is the magnetic pole that is close to the
geographic south pole.
The geographic north and south poles are the parts of the Earth
through which the spin axis passes. The axis is the imaginary line around
which the Earth spins.
The Earth’s magnetic field causes the natural appearance of lights visible
in the night sky close to the north and south poles. These are caused by
particles coming from the Sun arriving into the stronger parts of the
Earth’s magnetic field.
The needle on this magnetic compass is pointing This natural light display is caused by the Earth’s magnetic field
towards the Earth’s magnetic north
302
Origin of the Earth’s magnetic field

People once thought that the Earth was made almost entirely from
magnetic rocks. However, it is now known that the high temperatures deep
inside the Earth would cause rocks to lose any magnetism that they had.
Scientists also know that the Earth’s magnetic field has reversed in the
past. The last change was around 500 000 years ago, when north really
was north!
It is now known that the Earth’s core is the origin of the magnetic field,
but scientists have still to discover the exact reason for this. They think
the heat generated in the core, which is mostly made from iron, causes it
to continually create a magnetic field. The core also contains some nickel,
which is another magnetic metal. The movement in the liquid outer core
would explain why the magnetic poles move slowly, and have occasionally
reversed. Magnetic north moves at a speed of about 60 km per year.
Airport runways are numbered according to their direction from magnetic north (23 is
short for 230, which means 230° away from the direction of magnetic north); the numbers
sometimes have to be changed due to movement of magnetic north
Questions
1 Name the piece of equipment that is used for navigation using the
Earth’s magnetic field.
2 A bar magnet is allowed to rotate freely. Explain which pole of the
bar magnet will point towards geographic north.
3 The position of magnetic north on Earth moves at a speed of about
60 km per year. Explain why the position of magnetic north can still
be used for navigation on a 12-hour journey.
4 a
What part of the Earth’s structure causes the Earth’s magnetic field?
b Name the magnetic metal that makes up most of this part.
5 a
Draw a circle to represent the Earth. With the top of your circle
representing geographic north, draw the magnetic field lines
around the Earth. Add arrows to show the direction of the field.
b State the relationship between the direction of the magnetic field
lines and the direction that a magnetic compass will point.
303
9 Magnetism

Detecting the Earth’s magnetic field
In this activity, you will change variables and describe how observations change.
You will need:

• needle or thin iron nail • bar magnet • light string or thread
• paper and scissors • adhesive tape • non-magnetic bowl of water
• wooden clamp stand or non-magnetic support
• piece of cork or polystyrene on which the needle or nail will float
Method: Part 1
1 Make a paper support for the bar magnet so that the magnet will
hang horizontally, as shown in the diagram.
2 Use the light string to hang the magnet, in the paper support, from
the wooden clamp stand as shown in the diagram. Make sure there
are no other magnets or large magnetic objects close by.
3 Allow the magnet to come to rest. Record the direction the magnet
is pointing.
4 Move the equipment to another part of the room. Again record the
direction the magnet is pointing.
Method: Part 2
5 Hold the needle or nail and gently stroke the bar magnet
along it several times. as shown in the diagram.
6 Record:
• which pole of the magnet was in contact with the needle
• which direction the magnet moved along the needle.
7 Move the magnet away from where you are working.
8 Cut a disc from the cork or a circle from the polystyrene.
Set the needle on the disc and float the disc in the water,
in a non-magnetic bowl, as shown.
9 As in Method: Part 1, make sure there are no other magnets or
large magnetic objects close by.
10 Allow the needle to come to rest and record the direction it is pointing.
11 Carefully move the equipment to another part of the room and record
the direction the needle is pointing.
Continued
304
Continued
Questions
1 In both methods, the investigation is carried out in two
different parts of the room. Explain the reason for this.
2 a In Method: Part 1, which pole of the magnet pointed north?
b Explain what this shows about the poles of the Earth’s magnetic field.
3 a In Method: Part 2, state which end of the needle pointed north.
b Use your answers to question 2 to help you to state which pole of the
magnetised needle was pointing north.
4 a Which pole of the magnet was used to stroke the needle or nail?
b Which end of the needle was the magnet removed from after each
stroking action?
c What is the relationship between your answers to questions 4a and 4b?
5 In both methods, you made magnetic compasses.
Explain why these compasses would not be practical for navigation
on a journey.
Self-assessment
Answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to each of these questions.
• I understand that the Earth has a magnetic field.
• I can explain why the north pole of a magnetic compass points north,
even though like poles repel.
• I can describe an experiment to show that the Earth has a magnetic field.
Summary checklist
I know that the Earth has a magnetic field.
I can draw a diagram to show the Earth’s magnetic field lines.
I can understand why the north pole of a freely rotating magnet points north.
I know that the core of the Earth is the origin of the Earth’s magnetic field.
305
9 Magnetism
9.3 Electromagnets
• describe how to make an electromagnet
• recall some applications of electromagnets.
Work in groups to consider applications where it would be useful coil

to have a magnet that could be switched on and off. core
electromagnet
magnetised
permanent
magnet
306
9.3 Electromagnets
Properties of magnetic materials

A material is described as magnetic if it is attracted to a magnet.
Magnetic materials include the metals iron, nickel and cobalt.
Steel is another common magnetic metal. Steel is a mixture that
contains a large proportion of iron.
Magnetic materials can be magnetised. Magnetised means turned into
a magnet. The magnets you have used were all made by magnetising
magnetic materials.
The magnets you have used are called permanent magnets because
they have a magnetic field that is always there. You cannot switch the
magnetic field off and on again.
One way to magnetise a magnetic material is by using electricity.
When this method is used, the magnet is called an electromagnet.
Electromagnets
An electromagnet is made by wrapping a wire around a iron nail
(core)
magnetic material, such as iron. The wire that is wrapped
around is a called a coil. The material in the middle of the
wire coil
coil is called the core.
cell wire
When current passes through the coil, the magnetic material
becomes magnetised.
When the current is switched off, the magnetic material loses – +
most of its magnetism.
The diagram shows the simplest type of electromagnet.
Poles of an electromagnet
An electromagnet has two poles, similar to a bar magnet.
You can find out which pole is which in two simple ways.
• Use a magnetic compass. A magnetic compass points along
magnetic field lines, so will point towards the south pole.
• Use a bar magnet with known poles. Opposite poles attract
and like poles repel so, by bringing the bar magnet close to the
electromagnet, you can detect which pole is which.
You can reverse the poles of an electromagnet in one of two ways.
• Wrap the coil around in the opposite direction.
• Reverse the connections on the cell or power supply.
307
9 Magnetism
Applications of electromagnets
Electromagnets are used in many applications where a permanent
magnet would not be useful.
The fire door in the picture is held open with an electromagnet.

The electromagnet is connected to the fire alarm. When the
fire alarm is switched on, the magnet is switched off and the
door closes.
Some types of scanners in hospitals use powerful electromagnets.

An MRI scanner is used to produce images from inside the
human body. MRI stands for magnetic resonance imaging.
Electromagnets can be used for sorting scrap metal.

The electromagnet will attract iron and steel, leaving other
non-magnetic metals behind. Common non-magnetic metals
include copper, aluminium and zinc. When the magnetic metals
have been lifted, they can be moved away and then dropped by
switching off the magnet.
In a toaster, when the handle is pushed down, an electromagnet

holds down a metal basket with bread in it. A timer turns the
electromagnet off and the metal basket pops up with toast.
An electric bell uses an electromagnet to make the hammer move.

When the electromagnet is on, the hammer is pulled onto the
bell. The movement breaks the circuit and the hammer moves
away from the bell. The circuit becomes complete again and the
hammer is pulled back to the bell. This continues until the power
supply is turned off. Electric bells are used in schools, as fire
alarms and as door bells.
Electric motors use electromagnets to change electrical energy

into kinetic energy.
308
9.3 Electromagnets
Questions
1 Which two of these metals can be magnetised?
copper iron aluminium steel silver tin
2 Explain the difference between ‘magnetic’ and ‘magnetised’.
3 State one difference between an electromagnet and a
permanent magnet.
4 Draw a diagram to show how an electromagnet could be made from
a cell, a switch, a coil of wire and an iron nail.
Use circuit symbols for the cell and the switch.
5 a List three applications of electromagnets.
b For one of your applications, explain why a permanent magnet
would not be suitable.
Activity 9.3.1
Making an electromagnet
You will need:

• cell • cell holder or adhesive tape
• about 1 m of plastic-coated wire with about 1 cm of insulation removed at each end
• leads for use in circuits • switch • large iron nail • paperclips
Method
1 Wrap the insulated wire around the iron nail to form a coil, as
shown in the picture. Wrap the turns tightly around the nail and
use as much of the length of the nail as you can.
Leave enough wire at each end to connect to the cell. Make sure
only the plastic coating of the wire is in contact with the nail.
2 Connect the coil into a circuit as shown in the diagram. iron nail
3 Test your electromagnet to see if the end of the
nail will pick up paperclips. Use the pointed end
cell
of the nail. coil of
Only switch on your electromagnet for the insulated wire
shortest possible time, otherwise the cell will
not last long.
switch
309
9 Magnetism
Continued
Questions
1 Suggest why it is important that only the plastic coating of the
wire makes contact with the nail.
2 In this activity, the whole length of the nail becomes magnetised.
Suggest why you test the electromagnet by attaching paperclips
to the end of the nail and not the middle of the nail.
3 a Describe how you could find out whether the pointed end of
the nail was the north pole or south pole of the electromagnet.
b State what would happen to this pole if the cell in the circuit
were reversed so current flowed in the opposite direction.
Self-assessment
Answer these questions after completing the activity.
• Could you make an electromagnet by yourself?
• If not, what would you need help with?
Summary checklist
I can understand the difference between an electromagnet and a permanent magnet.
I know how to make an electromagnet.
I know some applications of electromagnets.
310
9.4 Investigating electromagnets

• discover which factors (or variables) affect the strength of an
electromagnet
• investigate how these variables affect the strength of an
electromagnet.
Work in groups to discuss these questions. demagnetised

What are some differences between the electromagnets used for: factors
soft iron
• sorting scrap metal and for working a toaster
• keeping a fire door open and for working an electric bell.
311
9 Magnetism
Strength of electromagnets
Topic 9.3 listed the three things that are needed to make an electromagnet:
• a coil of wire
• a magnetic core inside the coil
• an electric current flowing in the coil.
These three things give the factors that will affect the strength of an
electromagnet. A factor is another word for a variable that will affect
something.
• The number of turns in the coil. The more turns in the coil, the
stronger the electromagnet.
• The material of the core. Iron and some types of steel in the core
make the strongest electromagnets.
• The current in the coil. The greater the current, the stronger the
electromagnet.
The diagrams show the three ways to increase the strength of an
electromagnet:
1 Increase the number of turns on the coil. Keep the current and
core the same.
15 turns
15 turns of
of wire
wire 20 turns
20 turns of
of wire
wire
2 Use more cells to increase the current. Keep the number of turns
on the coil and the core the same.
15 turns
15 turns of
of wire
wire 15 turns
15 turns of
of wire
wire
3 Use a soft iron core in place of a steel core. Keep the number of
turns on the coil and the current the same.
15 turns
15 turns of
of wire
wire 15 turns
15 turns of
of wire
wire
steel core
steel core soft iron
soft iron core
core
312
Soft iron is not soft in the same way as modelling clay is soft.
Soft iron is the term used for iron that is easily magnetised and also easily
demagnetised. Demagnetised means it has lost its magnetism.
In 2019, scientists broke the world record for the strongest electromagnet.
They made an electromagnet 4500 times stronger than a school bar
magnet. It uses more electricity than three million electric lamps!
The strength of an electromagnet can be measured by the force that the
electromagnet exerts on a magnetic material. The easiest way to do this is
to see how many magnetic objects that the electromagnet can lift and hold.
Questions
1 Explain why an electromagnet for sorting scrap metal needs to
be stronger than the electromagnet that holds the handle of a
toaster down.
2 State the three factors that affect the strength of an electromagnet.
3 The diagrams show circuit diagrams for four electromagnets.
Each has the same current and the same number of turns in the
coils. The material of the core is shown on each diagram.
rubber wood
A B
nickel aluminium
C D
Which of the circuit diagrams will make the strongest electromagnet?

Write one letter.
4 A science laboratory called CERN in Switzerland uses lots of very
strong electromagnets. The electricity used by CERN is the same as
that of a small city. Suggest why CERN uses so much electricity.
313
9 Magnetism
Investigating electromagnet strength

In this activity, you will carry out investigations and plan further investigations
on the strength of electromagnets.
You will need:

• three 1.5 V cells or an adjustable d.c. power supply with safety cut-out (d.c. means
the current flows in the same way as from cells. A safety cut-out stops the current from
becoming too large.)
• leads and connectors • switch • ammeter • iron nail
• paperclips of different sizes • plastic-coated wire at least 1 m long with about 1 cm
of plastic removed from each end • selection of similar-sized cores to the iron nail,
such as a wooden pencil, roll of paper, plastic pen and at least one other metal
Safety
Only keep your electromagnet switched on for the shortest possible time,
otherwise your cells will not last long.
Check that the wire in the coil is not becoming hot. If the wire becomes hot,
switch off immediately and tell your teacher.
Method: Part 1 – changing the number of turns in the coil
1 Make an electromagnet. Use the number of cells or the power supply
setting that your teacher advises. (You should recall how to make an
electromagnet from Topic 9.3.)
Use the iron nail for the core.
Wrap the wire around the core to make five turns.
2 Switch on the electromagnet and see how many paperclips it will hold.
Record this result.
3 Switch the electromagnet off and increase the number of turns on the
coil by five.
Record this result.
5 Repeat steps 3–4 until you can’t fit any more turns on the core.
6 Repeat the entire investigation. If any of your results are different, you may
need to repeat them a third time.
314
Continued
Questions
2 Calculate the average number of paperclips for each number of turns
in the coil.
3 Draw a line graph of your results. Put number of turns in the coil on the
horizontal axis.
Method: Part 2 – changing material in the core
1 Make an electromagnet. Use the iron nail as the core. Wrap the maximum
number of turns in the coil that will fit on the core. Use the number of cells
or the power supply setting that your teacher advises.
3 Repeat this with other core materials. The other cores should be about the
same diameter, so you should not have to unwind the coil each time.
4 As in Method: Part 1, repeat each of your measurements.
Questions
6 For each core material, calculate the average number of paperclips
for each number of turns in the coil.
7 Draw a bar chart of your results. Put the materials of the core on the
horizontal axis.
8 Describe any trends in your results.
9 Explain why a line graph was used in Part 1 and why a line graph
would not be suitable in Part 2.
Method Part 3 – changing the current in the coil
In this part, you will plan the investigation yourself.
The aim of this part is to investigate how the current in the coil affects the
strength of the electromagnet.
1 Decide which variable to change and how you will change it. Your teacher can help
with this.
2 Decide which variables you will control.
3 Draw a circuit diagram for your electromagnet.
4 Make a prediction for your investigation.
5 Decide whether large or small paperclips will give better results.
Explain your choice.
315
9 Magnetism
Continued
6 If you have time, carry out your investigation and record your results in
a suitable table.
Questions
10 Explain whether a line graph or a bar chart is more suitable to display
your results.
11 Display your results in the type of graph you have chosen.
12 Explain whether your prediction was accurate.
Self-assessment
Rate your confidence in each of these statements.
• I can recall the three factors that affect electromagnet strength.
• I could plan an investigation to test the effect of changing one of
these factors.
• I can understand whether a line graph or bar chart is more suitable
for presenting results.
Summary checklist
I can recall the factors that affect the strength of an electromagnet.
I can predict how a change in any one of these factors will affect the strength
of the electromagnet.
316
Project: Investigating magnetism

Background
Magnetism is all around us in our daily lives. For example, fridge magnets,
computer hard disc drives, electric motors and headphones all use magnetism.
Topic 9.2 gave some information about the discovery of magnetism, and a little
information about how some animals use the Earth’s magnetic field.
Your task
Your group should find out about some of the following aspects of magnetism.
• Early discoveries in magnetism.
• How animals use magnetism.
• How the Earth’s magnetic field protects us.
• Magnetic fields around other planets in the Solar System.
• The strongest known natural magnets in the Universe.
• The many and varied uses of magnets.
You do not have to include all of these, or you could find out about other aspects
of magnetism.
Connect the information you find to tell a story.
Present this story in any way you choose, for example:
• a picture story board
• a poem
• a stage play
• a song.
All members of the group should have a role in presenting the story. You should also
add some information about the reliability of your sources of information. For example,
how did you decide whether an information source was reliable?
317
9 Magnetism
Check your progress

9.1 What is a magnetic field? [1]
Write one letter.
A An area where you can use a magnet.
B An area where magnetism can be detected.
C An area to store magnets.
D An area where no magnets are allowed.
9.2 What direction do magnetic field lines point? [1]
NS SN SS NN

9.3 a Copy the diagram of a horseshoe magnet.
N S
Draw the magnetic field pattern of the horseshoe magnet on

your diagram. [3]
b Copy the diagram of two south poles from different magnets.
Draw the magnetic field pattern between these two south poles
on your diagram. [3]
318
9 Magnetism
9.4 Copy this diagram of the Earth on its axis.

N
The letters N and S on the diagram show the geographic poles.

Draw the pattern of the Earth’s magnetic field on your diagram. [3]
9.5 A soft iron does not attract paperclips.
A coil of wire is wrapped around the soft iron cylinder.
Electric current is passed through the coil.
What change happens in the soft iron cylinder? [1]
Write one letter.
A It becomes magnetic.
B It becomes a permanent magnet.
C It becomes magnetised.
D It becomes demagnetised.
9.6 a State the name given to a magnet that can be switched on and off. [1]
b Draw a labelled diagram to show how this type of magnet could be made. [4]
9.7 Arun makes an electromagnet using:
• one 1.5 V cell
• an iron nail 15 cm in length
• 10 turns of wire around the nail.
a State the effect on the strength of this electromagnet if Arun increases
the number of turns of wire around the nail to 20. [1]
319
9 Magnetism
b Arun uses an ammeter to measure the current in the electromagnet circuit.

He then varies the current. For each current, Arun measures the number
of paperclips that the electromagnet will hold.
i State the independent variable in this investigation. [1]
ii State the dependent variable in this investigation. [1]
iii Copy these graph axes and sketch the shape of graph you would
predict for the results.
Assume both axes start at zero. [2]
Number of
paperclips held
Current in electromagnet
c Arun wants to investigate the effect of changing the material in the core
of his electromagnet.
i List two factors that Arun will need to keep constant when changing
the material in the core. [2]
ii Which of these materials in the core will make the strongest
electromagnet?
Write one letter. [1]
A paper
B copper
C plastic
D cobalt
320
Science Skills
Science Skills
Science Skills
Making more accurate measurements
Laboratory apparatus
In Science, we often take measurements. We do this to find out more about
what we are investigating.
Measurements are taken using measuring instruments. These include rulers,
balances, timers, and so on.
We want our measurements to be as accurate as possible. In other words,
we want them to be as close as possible to the true answer. Then we can be
more confident that our conclusions are correct.
Measuring instruments
How can we be sure that our measurements are as accurate as possible?
We need to think about the instruments and methods we use. Here are two examples:
• You want to measure a 50 cm3 volume of water. It is better to use a 100 cm3
measuring cylinder than a 50 cm3 beaker, even though the beaker may have
a line indicating the level which corresponds to 50 cm3. A 100 cm3 measuring
cylinder is better than one which measures 1000 cm3 because 50 cm3 is only
a small fraction of 1000 cm3.
• You want to time a toy car moving a distance of 1.0 m. You could use the clock
on the wall, but this is not a good choice as it is not accurate. You could use a
stopwatch, but it is tricky to start and stop the watch at the exact moments when
the car crosses the starting and finishing lines. You would have to take account of
your reaction time. It would be better to time the car over a distance of at least 2 m,
as then the time is longer, and your reaction time is a smaller proportion of the
time you measure.
We also need to think about how we use measuring instruments.
For example:
• When using a ruler to measure the length of an object, the ruler
needs to be placed directly alongside the object. Make sure that
one end of the object is exactly next to the zero of the ruler’s scale.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
cm
This diagram shows how not to do it; you might think the end of the leaf stalk is at 0.0 cm but it is actually at 0.2 cm
321
Science Skills
Science Skills
• When using a measuring cylinder, look horizontally at the surface
of the liquid and read the scale level with the bottom of the meniscus.
Laboratory apparatus meniscus
This diagram shows how not to do it; you might read this as 46, when it should be read as 45
• When using a balance to find the mass of an object, check that it reads zero
when there is nothing on it. Similarly, a forcemeter (or newton meter) should read zero
when no force is pulling on it. It may be possible to reset these
instruments if they are not correctly set to zero.
This diagram shows how not to do it. There is usually a ‘tare’ button on the balance, which you can press to make
sure it reads 0 before you put the object onto it
322
Science Skills
Science Skills
Anomalous results
Sofia did an experiment to find out how light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis
of a water plant. She placed a lamp at different distances from the plant, and counted the
number of bubbles it gave off in one minute.
Sofia made three counts for each distance of the lamp from the plant. This table shows
her results.
Distance of lamp Number of bubbles per minute

from plant in cm
1st try 2nd try 3rd try
20 28 29 27
40 19 33 18
60 12 14 13
80 8 10 10
Sofia thought that one of her results didn’t look right. Which one is it?
A result like this, that does not fit the pattern of all the other results, is called
an anomalous result.
If you get a result that looks anomalous, there are two things that you can do.
1 The best thing to do is to try to measure it again.
2 If you can’t do that, then you should ignore the result. So Sofia should not use this
result when she is calculating the mean. She should use only the other two results for
that distance from the lamp, add them up and divide them by two.
Questions
1 Which is the anomalous result in Sofia’s table?
2 Explain why you decided that this result is anomalous.
3 Calculate the mean number of bubbles per minute for each distance of the lamp.
Remember – don’t include the anomalous result in your calculation!
Finding an anomalous result in a results table can be quite difficult. It is often much easier
if you have drawn a graph.
Arun did an experiment to investigate how adding ice to water changed its temperature.
He added a cube of ice to 500 cm3 of water and stirred the water until the ice had completely
melted. Then he measured the temperature of the water before adding another ice cube.
The graph shows his results.
323
Science Skills
Science Skills
15
10
temperature in °C
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
number of ice cubes
It’s easy to see that the point at (3, 3) doesn’t fit the pattern of all the other results.
Something must have gone wrong when Arun was making that measurement.
When Arun draws the line on his graph, he should ignore this result. He should also
think about why it might have gone wrong. Perhaps he misread the thermometer –
was the correct reading 8 °C? Or perhaps he forgot to stir the water and measured the
temperature where the cold ice had just melted. If you think about why an anomalous
result has occurred, it can help you to improve your technique and avoid such problems
in the future.
15
10
temperature in °C
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
number of ice cubes
Ignore the anomalous result
when you draw the line.
324
Science Skills
Science Skills
Understanding equations
In Topic 3.2 Speed, you studied three equations that relate speed, distance
and time. Here are the three equations:
Laboratory
speed apparatus
distance
= _______
time
distance = speed × time
time distance
= _______
speed
How can you remember these three equations? It will help if you think about
the meaning of each quantity involved. It can also help to think about the units
of each quantity.
Speed is the distance travelled per second or per hour. The word ‘per’ means ‘in each’,
and this should remind you that the distance must be divided by the time.
Another way to think of this is to start with the units. Speed is measured in metres
per second, so you must take the number of metres (the distance) and divide by the
number of seconds (the time).
Distance is how far you travel. The faster you go (the greater your speed), and the
longer you go for (the greater the time), the greater the distance travelled. This tells
us that the two quantities must be multiplied together.
325
Glossary and index
absorbed
of light, cannot pass through an object or be reflected from it 211
accumulate gradually increase in quantity 145
adaptations
features of organisms that help them to live and reproduce
in their habitat 127
aerobic chemical reactions inside cells, where oxygen is used to
respiration break down glucose and release energy 9
air sac one of the tiny air-filled spaces inside lungs; also called
an alveolus 10
altitude height, usually measured vertically from sea level 109
alveoli air sacs in the lungs 13
anaemia
not having enough haemoglobin in the blood, so not
enough oxygen is delivered to respiring cells 239
analogy a comparison that helps to explain something 15
angle of the angle made by a light ray arriving at a surface, measured
incidence from the normal 192
angle of the angle made by a reflected light ray on leaving a surface,
reflection measured from the normal 192
angle of the angle made by a ray of light that has bent at a surface,
refraction measured from the normal 199
antagonistic a pair of muscles that work as a team; the contraction of
muscles one of the muscles causes bones at a joint to move in one
direction, and the contraction of the other muscle causes
movement in the opposite direction 257
antibodies chemicals produced by white blood cells, which kill pathogens 35
asteroid belt the ring that contains most asteroids in the Solar System,
located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter 223
asteroids rocky objects, smaller than planets, that orbit the Sun 223
at rest not moving 85
atmosphere
the layer of air that surrounds Earth or the layer of gas
that surrounds any other object in space 166
atmospheric the force exerted by the air around us on a 1 m area; 2
pressure atmospheric pressure varies slightly, but at sea level is

approximately 100 000 N/m2 109
atoms tiny particles of matter 153
average speed  distance travelled , usually having the unit m/s
calculated as _____________
   79
time taken
326
away from when a light ray bends so its angle measured from the
the normal normal increases 199
balanced
forces or moments are balanced if they are equal and
opposite, so their effects cancel out 69
balanced diet daily food intake that contains all the different types of
nutrient, and the right amount of energy 242
ball-and-socket
a type of joint where one bone has a ball-shaped end
that fits into a socket on the other bone; it allows a
circular movement 253
bent in refraction, the change in direction of a light ray 199
biceps
a muscle that is attached to the shoulder blade and the radius
bone; when it contracts, it makes the arm bend at the elbow 255
bioaccumulation
gradual increase of a substance in an organism’s body; it
happens when the substance cannot be broken down inside
the body cells 145
biodegradable
something that can be broken down naturally by bacteria
and fungi 147
biomagnification
increase of the concentration of a substance as you go up a
food chain 146
bioplastics
useful materials made from natural renewable sources and not
from oil 186
blood plasma the liquid part of blood 32
boulder large rock 174
breathing
using muscles to make movements that cause air to move in
and out of the lungs 21
bronchiole one of the small tubes leading into the lungs from a bronchus 10
bronchus
one of the two tubes that branch from the trachea, and which
carry air into the lungs 10
calculate work out a value using a mathematical method or equation 78
capillary the smallest type of blood vessel 13
carat a measurement of purity of gold 158
carbohydrate
one of the essential nutrients in the diet; it is broken down
to release energy by respiration inside body cells 234
carbon monoxide a gas formed from one atom of carbon and one atom of oxygen 250
cartilage
a tough but bendy material, which makes up the supporting
rings around the trachea 10
change direction a bend in the path taken by a moving object 71
chromatogram
the results which show the separation of substances
after carrying out chromatography 58
327
climate
the weather condition prevailing in an area over a long
period of time 169
climatology the study of climate 169
coil the shape made by a wire when it is wound around a cylinder 307
collapses gives way or falls down 279
collide to hit into something 108
coloured filters transparent pieces of glass or plastic that are coloured to
allow only some colours of light to pass through 211
combustion burning264
compass
a magnetic compass is used to show the direction of a
magnetic field; it contains a rotating needle that will
point away from a magnetic north pole and towards a
magnetic south pole 294
concentrated a solution in which a large mass of solute is dissolved 46
(solution)
concentration a measure of how many particles there are in a particular
space; more particles in a space is a higher concentration
than fewer particles in the same space 115
conserved stays the same 43
constant does not change 79
constipation
a condition where the digestive system works too slowly,
so that faeces are not passed out regularly 244
container a n item that is used to hold other things, such as a beaker
that contains water 108
contract of a muscle: get shorter 22
contraction the shortening of a muscle 255
control variables factors that are kept the same in an investigation so that
the test is fair 54
core
in magnetism, the object in the middle of the coil in
an electromagnet 307
craters
bowl-shaped dents in the surface of a planet or moon caused
by an object colliding with that surface 223
cyan a blue-green colour, made by adding blue light and green light 211
cycle
a regular changing pattern from one thing to another,
such as the water cycle 173
deflected the direction of an object was changed 155
deforestation cutting down large areas of trees 181
demagnetised having lost a magnetic field so no longer attracts magnetic objects 313
328
dependent the factor that changes in an investigation as a result of
variable changing the independent variable 54
depth the distance from the bottom of something to the top 107
development
of a human: the gradual changes in the body as the person
grows up 249
diffusion
the random movement of particles from an area where
they are in high concentration to an area where they are in
lower concentration 14
dilute (solution) a solution in which a small mass of solute is dissolved 46
direction
the path taken by a moving object, or the line along which
a force acts 69
dispersion separating white light into its component colours 205
dissipate spread out through the surroundings 264
dissolving/dissolve
the complete mixing of particles of a solid with a liquid to
form a solution 41
distance/time a way to represent the movement of an object with a line
graphs or curve, where distance travelled or distance from a starting
point is on the (vertical) y-axis and time is on the (horizontal)
x-axis85
distorted changed to become unclear 198
ecology the study of organisms in their natural environment 130
ecosystem
a network of interactions between all the living organisms
in a habitat, and the non-living things around them 130
electrical charge a property of an object which causes it to attract or repel
other objects with a positive or negative charge 153
electromagnet
made by winding a coil around a magnetic material and
passing a current through the wire; this results in the
magnetic material being magnetised as long as the current flows 307
electrons
negatively charged particles found surrounding the nucleus
of an atom 153
electrostatic the force that holds individual atoms together 153
attraction
elliptical oval-shaped218
embryo a young organism before it hatches or is born 249
emissions gases produced and given off 180
endothermic a process (such as change of state) in which energy is
process transferred from the surroundings 271
endothermic a chemical reaction in which energy is transferred from
reaction the surroundings 270
329
environment everything around an organism that affects it 129
eradicate get rid of; totally destroy 140
exoskeleton
a skeleton on the outside of the body; insects, for example,
have exoskeletons 253
exothermic a chemical reaction in which energy is transferred to
reaction the surroundings 264
expired air air that is breathed out 17
extinct no longer existing 140
factors in science, another word for variables 312
fat
one of the essential nutrients in the diet; it can be broken
down to release energy, or can be stored inside cells as an
energy reserve 234
fibre
a component of food that cannot be digested; it is mostly
made up of cellulose from plants, and helps to prevent
constipation244
food web a diagram showing many interconnected food chains 130
force
an interaction which, if unbalanced, will change the shape or
change the movement of an object 69
fossil fuels fuels such as oil, coal and gas, formed from the remains of
living organisms 179
fuel a store of chemical energy 264
galaxy a collection of stars with their planets, dust and gas 218
gas exchange the movement of gases into and out of organisms 14
geographic north one of the points where the Earth’s axis of rotation meets
the Earth’s surface; located in the Arctic Ocean and normally
shown at the top of a world map or globe 301
glacial period the coldest part of an ice age 173
glaciers
rivers of ice formed from snow that have become compressed
over a long time 174
global warming an increase in the overall temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere
over time 182
glucose a sugar that cells break down in respiration to release energy 26
greenhouse heat energy from the Sun is trapped in the atmosphere 182
effect
habitat the place where an organism lives 131
haemoglobin the red pigment in red blood cells 14
hinge joints joints where one bone moves in one plane in relation to the
other – like a door moving on its hinges 253
330
humidity a measure of how much water vapour is in the atmosphere 166
ice ages times when part of the Earth has permanent ice 173
impacts collisions224
incident ray a beam of light arriving at a surface 191
independent variable the factor that is changed by the experimenter in
an investigation 54
inert does not react 278
insecticide a chemical used to kill insects 143
insoluble a substance that will not dissolve 47
inspired air air that is breathed in 17
interact affect one another 128
interglacial a warmer part of an ice age 173
period
interval
the difference between two things; used here for the changes
in the independent variable. 55
invasive species a species that has been introduced into an ecosystem
where is does not belong 140
irregular of a galaxy, having no clearly defined shape 218
joints places where two bones meet 253
larynx
voicebox; it is found at the top of the trachea, and contains
strong cords that vibrate to make sounds when we speak 11
law of reflection the statement that the angle of reflection is equal to the
angle of incidence 191
lenses
pieces of glass or transparent plastic designed to refract
light in certain ways 200
lever a rigid length of material that can turn about a pivot 92
like poles magnetic poles that are the same: north and north, or south
and south 296
limewater
a solution of calcium hydroxide that goes cloudy when mixed
with carbon dioxide 16
locked up stored: for example, carbon is locked up in oil or coal until
it is burnt 179
magenta a pink colour, made by adding red light and blue light 211
magnet a metal object that will attract magnetic objects 294
magnetic attracted to a magnet 294
magnetic field an area where the effects of a magnet can be detected 294
magnetic lines drawn with arrows to show the shape and direction of
field lines a magnetic field; the arrows point from north to south 294
331
magnetic north the position of the Earth’s magnetic field towards which
a magnetic compass points; it is located close to the
geographic north pole and is actually equivalent to the
south pole of a magnet 301
magnetised has been given the properties of a magnet 307
medium
of light (or waves), the substance through which the light
(or waves) travel 198
meteorology the study of weather 169
metres
the standard scientific unit of distance, symbol m,
where 1 m = 100 cm 78
metres per the standard scientific unit of speed
second (m/s) 78
minerals
substances that we need in small quantities in the diet, such
as calcium and iron 239
mitochondria
tiny structures inside cells, where aerobic respiration happens,
releasing energy from glucose 26
moment
the turning effect of a force, calculated as force × distance
from a pivot 92
muscles organs that produce pulling forces when they contract 255
native species types of organism that are living in their natural habitat 140
naturally present without the need of any human activity 301
occurring
navigate work out the path of a journey 301
nectar
a sugary liquid made by flowers, to attract insects for
pollination128
neutrons
particles found in the nucleus of an atom that have no
electrical charge 153
newton metres the standard unit of moment, written as N m 93
newtons per the standard unit of pressure, written as N/m2 100
metre squared
nicotine the addictive substance in tobacco smoke 250
nocturnal active at night 129
non-luminous does not give out its own light 213
normal o
in a ray diagram, this is a line drawn at 90 to a surface from
which the angles of light rays are measured 191
nucleus
a dense area at the centre of an atom that contains protons
and neutrons 153
nutrients substances in food that are needed in the diet 235
oil liquid fat 234
332
opaque a substance that does not allow light to pass through 42
opposite acting against something 69
oxidation reaction a reaction where oxygen combines with another substance 266
oxyhaemoglobin haemoglobin that is combined with oxygten 34
paper a way of separating mixtures of dissolved chemicals using
chromatography special paper 58
particulates
tiny solid particles in air or smoke, that cause damage when
they get into the lungs 250
pathogens
microorganisms that cause disease; some bacteria and viruses
are pathogens 35
peat bog an area of wetland where dead plant material decays very slowly 175
per
in each, represented by the symbol / in units, so m/s is metres
per second: the number of metres travelled in each second 78
permanent something that remains and does not change 58
permanent magnetic objects that have a magnetic field around them
magnet all the time 307
perpendicular at 900191
persistent a persistent substance stays in the environment for a long time 143
photosynthesis c hemical reactions in which plants make carbohydrates, using
energy from light 179
pivot
the point about which a lever can turn and from which distance
of a force is measured when calculating a moment 92
plane mirror a flat, shiny surface designed to reflect light and produce
clear reflected images 191
point
a position, such as on a graph, or the sharp end of an object
such as a pin 101
pollen tiny grains made by flowers, which contain male gametes 128
pollinating moving pollen from an anther where it is made, to a stigma 128
preliminary practical work you do before an investigation to find out how
work you will carry it out; for example, you might find out the range
or interval you will use 268
pressure  force
the pushing effect of a force, calculated as ____
area 100
prevent to stop something happening 278
primary colours the colours of light that cannot be made by mixing any
other colours of light: red, green and blue 210
prism a three-dimensional shape with a constant cross-section 205
333
protein
one of the essential nutrients in the diet; protein is used
to make new cells, and also to make substances such as
haemoglobin and antibodies 234
protons positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom 153
protractor a tool for measuring angles 192
range the difference between the highest and lowest values 55
ray diagram a way of showing the path taken by light using straight lines 191
rays the paths of light 191
reactive how readily a substance takes part in a reaction 278
reactivity how reactive something is 283
reagents chemicals that are used in a reaction 287
recycled used again 179
red blood cells the most common cells in blood; they contain haemoglobin
which transports oxygen from the lungs to body cells 32
reflection
when light bounces off a surface without being absorbed 191
refraction
a change in the direction of light caused by a change in the
speed of the light when passing from one medium into another 198
relax of a muscle: stop contracting 22
renewable natural resources that do not run out and can be replaced
resources by normal processes within a human’s lifetime 184
respiration
a series of chemical reactions that takes place in all living cells,
in which energy is released from glucose 9
respiratory the lungs and other organs that help oxygen to enter the
system body and carbon dioxide to leave it 9
rust
a chemical reaction where iron combines with oxygen in the
presence of water to form iron oxide 279
safety actions taken to reduce the risk of accident or injury; they
precautions are specific to the experiment and more than just basic
laboratory rules 89
salt a compound formed when a metal reacts with an acid,
for example magnesium chloride 287
sandpaper
rough paper 283
saturated (solution) a solution in which no more solid will dissolve 47
sea level the position of the surface of the oceans, usually taken
mid-way between high tide and low tide 109
second
the standard scientific unit of time; there are 60 seconds
in 1 minute 78
set square a drawing tool in the shape of a right-angled triangle 192
334
sharp
having an edge or a point that can cut or push into
another object 100
skeleton a structure that supports an animal’s body 253
sketch
a sketch graph has only axis labels but no numbers or units
on the axes and shows the relationship between two variables 86
slow down decrease speed 70
soft iron iron that is easily magnetised and easily demagnetised 313
solubility how soluble a substance is 48
soluble a substance that will dissolve 47
solute a substance that is dissolved 41
solution a mixture formed when a solid dissolves in a liquid 41
solvent a liquid in which other substances will dissolve 41
solvent front used in chromatography and is the level the solvent has
reached as it travels up the paper 62
spectrum
the continuous range of colours in white light: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet 205
speed
distance travelled per unit time, usually the number of metres
travelled in one second; a measure of how fast something moves 78
spiral a shape with curved arms extending out from its centre 218
starch a type of carbohydrate, which is often stored inside plant cells 234
stationary not moving 85
statistics analysis of large quantities of numerical data 169
stellar dust small solid particles with masses of less than 0.1 g, found in space 219
sub-atomic particles atomic particles that are smaller than an atom 153
subtraction taking something away 211
suggest to give an idea 164
surface area all or part of the area of the surface of an object 100
tar
a mixture of chemicals found in tobacco smoke that increase
the risk of developing many different types of cancer 250
tendons strong, non-stretchy cords that attach muscles to bones 255
towards the when a light ray bends so its angle measured from the
normal normal decreases 199
toxic poisonous143
trachea
the tube that carries air from the back of the mouth, down
through the neck towards the lungs 10
translucent allows light to pass through it 159
transmit of a filter, to allow light to pass through 211
335
transparent something that allows light to pass through so that you can
see clearly 42
triangular describing a shape with three straight sides 205
triceps
a muscle attached to the scapula and ulna, which straightens
the elbow joint when it contracts 255
turn rotate about a point or change direction 92
unbalanced
forces or moments are unbalanced if their effects add together
or are opposite but do not completely cancel out 70
Universe all of space and everything contained within it 218
variables factors that can be changed in an investigation 54
visibility how far you can see 166
vitamin A a nutrient that we need for good eyesight 238
vitamin C a nutrient that we need to keep blood vessels and bones healthy 238
vitamin D a nutrient that we need for strong bones and a good immune
system; as well as getting vitamin D in food, the skin can make
it when exposed to sunlight 238
vitamins
substances made by plants and other living organisms, that are
required in the diet in small quantities 238
vocal cords bands of muscle that stretch across inside the larynx, which
we vibrate to make sounds 11
voicebox another name for the larynx 11
weather
the conditions in a particular place: sunny, rainy, frosty,
for example 166
white blood cells blood cells that help to protect against pathogens 32
windpipe another name for the trachea 10
336
Acknowledgements
The authors and publishers acknowledge the following sources of copyright material and are grateful
for the permissions granted. While every effort has been made, it has not always been possible to
identify the sources of all the material used, or to trace all copyright holders. If any omissions are
brought to our notice, we will be happy to include the appropriate acknowledgements on reprinting.
Thanks to the following for permission to reproduce images:
Cover Posteriori/GI; Inside Unit 1 Alfred Pasieka/SPL/GI; Sebastian Kaulitzki/SPL/GI; Dirk Bleyer/GI; Image
Source/GI; Keith Levit/Design Pics/GI; Jose Luis Pelaez Inc/GI; Johan Ordonez/GI; Mohammed Hamoud/
GI; Tridsanu Thophet/GI; Joseph Giacomin/GI; Lfpoint Images/GI; Leopatrizi/GI; Imgorthand/GI; Redmal/
GI; BSIP/GI; Extravagantni/GI; Scipro/GI; SPL-Eric Grave/GI; Stocktrek Images/GI; Roger Harris/SPL/GI;
Unit 2 Kobeza/GI; Photoalto/Eric Audras/GI; MIB Pictures/GI; Marc Schmerbeck/GI; Paul Steeger/GI; Judith
Haeusler/GI; Henry Donald/GI; Gianni Diliberto/GI; Gyro Photography/GI; Portra/GI; Science Source/SPL;
Andrew Lambert Photography/SPL; Martin Leigh/GI; Andrew Lambert Photography/SPL; Sciencephotos/
Alamy Stock Photo; Mgovantes/GI; Unit 3 Khanti Jantasao/GI; Westend61/GI; Lalocracio/GI; Danm/GI;
WachiraKhurimon/EyeEm/GI; Greg Bajor/GI; Cavan Images/GI; Patrik Giardino/GI; Michael Dunning/GI; JGI/
Tom Grill/GI; Elisabeth Schmitt/GI; Kritsada Seekham/GI; Luxy Images/GI; Rapideye/GI; Leonello Calvetti/
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GI; Atomic Imagery/GI; Douglas Sacha/GI; Chris Clor/GI; Jan-Stefan Knick/GI; Jgi/Jamie Grill/GI; Scott
Robertson/GI; Ballyscanlon/GI; Jamesbowyer/GI; Sciencephotos/Alamy Stock Photo; Sciencephotos/Alamy
Stock Photo; Paulvision/GI; Dana Neibert/GI; Matt Anderson Photography/GI; Mathias Genterczewsky/
GI; Chercvc/GI; Jonathan Knowles/GI; D-Base/GI; Jopstock/GI; Interfoto/Alamy Stock Photo; Unit : Michael
Lagrange/GI; Benedek/GI; Hal Beral/GI; S.J.Krasemann/GI; John Cancalosi/GI; Ron And Patty Thomas/GI;
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337
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338

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9781108742825 Jones, Fellowes-Freeman & Smyth Lower Secondary Science Learner’s Book 8 CVR C M Y K

Cambridge Lower Secondary

Packed with opportunities to plan experiments, make predictions and gather

This resource is endorsed by

✓ For Cambridge schools worldwide

Registered Cambridge International Schools benefit from high-quality programmes,

Visit www.cambridgeinternational.org/lowersecondary to find out more.

Second edition Digital access

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

NOTICE TO TEACHERS IN THE UK

Mary Jones, Diane Fellowes-Freeman, Michael Smyth

Page Unit Science Thinking and Working Science in Context

321 Science Skills

How to use this

Getting started Key words

in the Glossary and Index at the back of bronchiole

this book. bronchus

answering questions or completing tasks. Summary checklist

Think like a scientist

Why are air sacs so small? 11

This provides an opportunity You will need:

partner or in groups. Method

1.1 The human respiratory system

back at what you have covered and encourages Activity 1.1.1

carry out with other students. Background

Check your progress

Getting started Key words

Respiration is one of the characteristics of living things. aerobic respiration

Why we need oxygen

The structure of the human

The human respiratory system

Think like a scientist

You will need:

The diagram of the respiratory system includes a lot of new words.

1.2 Gas exchange

Getting started Key words

Part of the lungs, viewed through a powerful microscope

The structure of an air sac

air moving in air moving out

thin wall of air sac

An air sac in the lungs

Gas exchange in the air sacs

Think like a scientist

Why are air sacs so small?

You will need:

Think like a scientist

You will need:

I did OK, but I could probably do better.

I didn’t do this very well at all.

Getting started Key words

On your own, answer each of these questions. breathing

How much air can you breathe out?

You will need:

What happens when you breathe in?

When you breathe in, these things happen:

• The intercostal muscles between the ribs

• The intercostal muscles between the ribs relax

Think like a scientist

Using a model to represent breathing movements

You will need:

structures in the body? 40 plunger

2 Copy and complete these sentences.

Getting started Key words