LIGHT

 Light has no mass

 not really considered matter.
So does it even exist? Of course it does!
 light is a form of energy made of photons.
 Light is unique in that it behaves like both a particle and a wave.

Why does light go through some things and not others?

 Materials have been classified according to the amount of light that can pass
through them.
 Light helps us to survive

 Without sunlight our world would be a dead dark place.

 Sunlight does more than just help us see.
1) Sunlight keeps the Earth warm, so it's not just a frozen ball in outer space.
2) It also is a major component in photosynthesis which is how most of the plant life
on Earth grows and gets nutrients.
3) Sunlight is a source of energy as well as a source of vitamin D for humans.
The speed of light
 Light moves at the fastest known speed in the universe.
 In a vacuum, where there is nothing to slow it down, light travels 3 x 108 meters per
second
 When light travels through matter, like air or water, it slows down some, but it's still
pretty fast.
 The Sun is almost 93 million miles from the Earth. It takes around 8 minutes for light
to get from the Sun to the Earth.
 It takes around 1.3 seconds for light to go from the moon to the Earth.
Refraction

 When passing through transparent materials, like water or glass, light bends or turns.
 This is because different materials or mediums have different qualities.
 In each type of medium, whether it is air or water or glass, the wavelength of the light
will change, but not the frequency.
 Wavelength is given by λ(lambda)
 Frequency by f
 Direct proportion means both the quantities will increase or decrease together.
Example: If “A” and “B” are in direct proportion-
A ∝ B (if A increase, B will also increase or if A decreases B will also decrease)
 Inverse Proportion
Example: If “A” and “B” are in inverse proportion-
A ∝ 1/B (if A increase, B will decrease or if A decreases B will increase)
1) As a result, the direction and speed of the traveling light wave will change and the
light will appear to bend or change directions.
One example of refraction is a prism.
2) Lenses use refraction to help us see things.
3) Telescopes help us to see things far away and microscopes enable us to see very small
things.
4) Even glasses use refraction so that we can see everyday things more clearly.

PRISM

RAINBOW

1. Sunlight is White light, which splits into 7 Different colours (VIBGYOR).

2. A rainbow is an optical illusion—it does not actually exist in a specific spot in the sky.
The appearance of a rainbow depends on where you're standing and where the sun
(or other source of light) is shining.
3. Rainbows are actually full circles.

When light moves from one medium (like air) to another medium (like water) it will change
directions.
This is a "wave-like" behavior and is called refraction.
In this way light behaves like other waves such as sound waves. The speed of the light
wave also changes when it moves from medium to medium.

You can see an example of refraction of light in water if you put a straw in a glass of
water. You will see how the straw seems to move to the side. This is the light wave
bending as it enters the water.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Ra_umhcu7I

Frequency and Wavelength

Light behaves like a wave.

Light can be defined by its wavelength and frequency.
The frequency = how fast the wave vibrates or goes up and down.
The wavelength = distance between two peaks of the wave. Or
The wavelength = Distance between two consecutive troughs
The wavelength = Distance between two consecutive Crest

Hertz is a SI unit

It is the SI unit of Frequency

SI unit of wavelength is meter

wavelength is a measure of distance.

 Frequency and wavelength are inversely related
Low Frequency means higher wavelength and vice versa

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

NON-VISIBLE types of waves are radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, and X-rays.

 visible spectrum of light, the colour of the light depends on the frequency. The visible
spectrum is always the same for a rainbow or the separated light from a prism.
 The order of colours is ROYGBIV

Colors of light
Color is reflected light
Light is the stimulus for color perception. We can perceive the color of an object through the
reflection of light.

When light hits an object, some of the light is absorbed while some is reflected.
When we see a red apple, for example, the apple is reflecting red.
Since we are seeing red light reflected from the apple, the light source itself must contain red
wavelength light. Without any red light wavelengths in the light source, the apple would not look
red.

There are 3 elements required for color perception:

 a light source
 an object
 an observer

Light of different wavelengths looks like different colors to us. When we see an object of a certain
color that means that light of that color's wavelength is being reflected off the object.
For example, when you see a red shirt, the shirt is absorbing all the colors of light except for the
red color.
The frequency of light that we see as red is being reflected and we see that shirt as red.

Black and white are a bit different from other colors.

White is a combination of all colors, so when we see white, the object is reflecting all the colors
of light the same.
Black is the opposite. When we see a black object that means almost all the colors of light are
being absorbed.
Additive colors

Additive color mixing involves adding light to create

new colors.

These three colors are red, blue, and green

Subtractive colors

 Subtractive color mixing involves subtracting

light by using pigments or dyes.
 The primary subtractive colors are cyan,
magenta, and yellow.

If you have white light and want to subtract colors to get any other color, you would use the
primary subtractive colors to filter or remove light of certain colors.
 Reflection

Wave-like behaviours of light is reflection. It is reflected light that we see with our eyes.
When light is reflected it obeys the law of reflection that is followed by waves.

1. Angle of incidence = angle of

reflection
∠i = ∠r
2. Incident ray, normal and reflected
ray all lie in same plane
3. Incident and reflected ray are on
opposite side of normal.

Types of Reflection

 Specular reflection - A specular reflection is when rays of light are reflected off a surface
in a single outgoing direction.

An example of this type of reflection is a mirror. Specular reflections occur on surfaces

that are flat at the microscopic level such as polished silver or a smooth body of water.

 Diffuse reflection - A diffuse reflection is when a surface reflects rays of light in a broad
range of directions. Diffuse reflections occur when a surface is rough at the microscopic
level.
 The surface may appear or feel smooth, like a piece of paper, but it is actually rough at
the microscopic level. This causes the beams of light to reflect at different angles.

Refraction

Index of Refraction

In order to measure how light will behave in different substances----- use the index of
refraction.
 This gives a ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum over the speed of light in the
substance. The equation for the index of refraction is:

n = c/v

where n = index of refraction

c = speed of light in a vacuum
v = speed of light in the substance.

As an example, take the index of refraction for water which is 1.33. This means that the
speed of light in a vacuum is 1.33 times faster than the speed of light in water.

Diffraction

Another wave-like property of light is

diffraction.
When light waves encounter an obstacle or
pass through an opening they will bend.
The diffraction of light can be seen in the
silver lining around clouds as well as the
patterns of light from the surface of a compact
disc.

What is a photon?

Photon is a bundle of electromagnetic energy.

It is the basic unit that makes up all light.
The photon is sometimes referred to as a "quantum" of electromagnetic energy.

Photons are not thought to be made up of smaller particles. They are a basic unit of
nature called an elementary particle.

Properties of a Photon

Photons have some basic properties that help define what they are and how they behave.
These properties include:

 They have zero mass.

 They have no electric charge.
 They are stable.
 They carry energy and momentum which are dependent on the frequency.
 They can have interactions with other particles such as electrons.
 They can be destroyed or created by many natural processes.
 When in empty space, they travel at the speed of light.

Photons Interact with Matter

Photons behave like particles in that they can interact with matter. In some cases the
energy of the photon is absorbed by the matter. In this case the extra energy may be
emitted as heat. One example of this is the blacktop of the road getting hot in the sun.
 Our eyes also interact with photons. When a photon strikes the eye it is turned into
electrical energy that is then transmitted to brain to form an image.

When the energy from photons is absorbed by matter, the matter can emit electrons. This
process is called the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect is a property of light that
is not explained by the theory that light is a wave. This is one of the main reasons that
scientists chose to treat light as both a wave and a stream of particles.

Planck's Constant

The relationship between the energy of a photon and its frequency can be described by
the following equation:

E = hv

where E is energy, v is frequency, and h is Planck's constant. Planck's constant is always

the same (i.e. the "constant") and equals 6.62606957 * 10-34 m2 kg / s.

Fun Facts about Photons

 Not only is light made up of photons, but all electromagnetic energy (i.e. microwaves,
radio waves, X-rays) is made up of photons.
 The original concept of the photon was developed by Albert Einstein. However, it was
scientist Gilbert N. Lewis who first used the word "photon" to describe it.
 The theory that states that light behaves both like a wave and a particle is called the
wave-particle duality theory.
 Photons are always electrically neutral. They have no electrical charge.
 Photons do not decay on their own.

 Types of Electromagnetic Waves

 Electromagnetic waves are a form of energy waves that have both an electric and
magnetic field. Electromagnetic waves are different from mechanical waves in that they
can transmit energy and travel through a vacuum.

Electromagnetic waves are classified according to their frequency. The different types of
waves have different uses and functions in our everyday lives. The most important of
these is visible light, which enables us to see.
 
Click on the picture for a larger view

Radio Waves

Radio waves have the longest wavelengths of all the electromagnetic waves. They range
from around a foot long to several miles long. Radio waves are often used to transmit
data and have been used for all sorts of applications including radio, satellites, radar, and
computer networks.

Microwaves

Microwaves are shorter than radio waves with wavelengths measured in centimeters. We
use microwaves to cook food, transmit information, and in radar that helps to predict the
weather. Microwaves are useful in communication because they can penetrate clouds,
smoke, and light rain. The universe is filled with cosmic microwave background radiation
that scientists believe are clues to the origin of the universe they call the Big Bang.

Infrared

Between microwaves and visible light are infrared waves. Infrared waves are sometimes
classified as "near" infrared and "far" infrared. Near infrared waves are the waves that are
closer to visible light in wavelength. These are the infrared waves that are used in your TV
remote to change channels. Far infrared waves are further away from visible light in
wavelength. Far infrared waves are thermal and give off heat. Anything that gives off heat
radiates infrared waves. This includes the human body!

 Visible light

The visible light spectrum covers the wavelengths that can be seen by the human eye.
This is the range of wavelengths from 390 to 700 nm which corresponds to the
frequencies 430-790 THz. You can go here to learn more about the visible spectrum.

Ultraviolet

Ultraviolet waves have the next shortest wavelength after visible light. It is ultraviolet rays
from the Sun that cause sunburns. We are protected from the Sun's ultraviolet rays by
the ozone layer. Some insects, such as bumblebees, can see ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet
light is used by powerful telescopes like the Hubble Space Telescope to see far away
 stars.

X-rays

X-rays have even shorter wavelengths than ultraviolet rays. At this point in the
electromagnetic spectrum, scientists begin to think of these rays more as particles than
waves. X-rays were discovered by German scientist Wilhelm Roentgen. They can
penetrate soft tissue like skin and muscle and are used to take X-ray pictures of bones in
medicine.

Gamma rays

As the wavelengths of electromagnetic waves get shorter, their energy increases. Gamma
rays are the shortest waves in the spectrum and, as a result, have the most energy.
Gamma rays are sometimes used in treating cancer and in taking detailed images for
diagnostic medicine. Gamma rays are produced in high energy nuclear explosions and
supernovas.

Telescopes
A telescope is an instrument used to see objects that are far away. Telescopes are often
used to view the planets and stars. Some of the same optical technology that is used in
telescopes is also used to make binoculars and cameras.

Important properties of Telescopes

The two most important properties of a telescope are:

1. Light gathering ability - The better a telescope can gather light, the better you will be able
to see far away stars and faint objects in the night sky. This feature is usually determined
by the size of the aperture of the telescope. The larger the aperture, the more light the
telescope can gather.
2. Magnification - The magnification of a telescope describes how much larger the telescope
can make objects appear.

Lenses and Mirrors

There are two main types of telescopes. One type uses lenses to magnify the image.
Telescopes that use lenses are called refracting telescopes. The other type uses mirrors
to focus the light of the image. These telescopes are called reflecting telescopes.

Refracting Telescopes

Refracting telescopes use lenses to bend the light to a specific focal point such that the
object will be magnified to the viewer. You can go here to learn more about the refraction
of light using lenses.

The basic refracting telescope has two lenses. The first lens is called the objective lens.
This lens is a convex lens that bends the incoming light rays to a focal point within the
telescope. The second lens is called the eyepiece. This lens takes the light from the focal
point and spreads it out across the retina of your eye. This makes the object seem much
closer than it really is.

Reflecting Telescopes

Reflecting telescopes use mirrors instead of lenses to focus the light. A concave mirror is
used to gather light and reflect it back to a focal point. In order to get the light out of the
telescope, another mirror is used to direct the light to an eyepiece. There are various
designs of reflecting telescopes, but the original design by Isaac Newton is still popular
today.

Example of a Newtonian reflecting telescope

History of the Telescope

The first telescope invented was a refractor invented by Dutch lensmaker Hans
Lippershey in 1608. Galileo made some improvements and first used the telescope
for astronomy. The refractor was further improved by astronomer Johannes Kepler
around 1611. Kepler used a convex lens for the eyepiece. Although this made the image
appear upside down, it improved the usability of the telescope.

In the late 1600s, Isaac Newton developed the reflecting telescope. By using mirrors
instead of lenses, Newton was able to make an improved telescope that did not suffer
from some of the issues with the refractor such as chromatic aberration.

The Hubble Space Telescope

One of the most famous telescopes in the world today is the Hubble Space Telescope.
This telescope was put into orbit around the Earth in 1990 by the Space Shuttle. Being
outside the Earth's atmosphere allows the Hubble to view outer space without background
light. This has enabled it to take some amazing pictures of far away stars and galaxies.
 Hubble Space Telescope
was the first space-based telescope.
Source: NASA.

Fun Facts about Telescopes

 The successor to the Hubble Telescope is the James Webb Space Telescope. It is
planned to be launched in 2021.
 The first telescopes were used by sea merchants and the military.
 Most observatories are built on mountaintops where the air is thinner and cleaner.
 A lot of astronomers today work remotely from the actual telescope. They control the
telescope using computers over the internet.
 The largest refracting telescope in the world is located at Yerkes Observatory in
Wisconsin.

Lenses and Light

A lens is a curved piece of glass or plastic designed to refract light in a specific way.
Lenses are used in glasses and contacts to help correct vision. They are used in
telescopes to help view items that are far away and are used in microscopes to help view
very small items.

Refraction

When a light wave moves from one medium (like air) to another medium (like glass) the
light rays are bent. This is called refraction. By using refraction, lenses can bend multiple
light rays. Most of the lenses we use in everyday life are designed to bend light rays to a
specific focal point where items will be in focus (clear).

You can go here to learn more about the refraction of light.

Types of Lenses

There are different ways to classify lenses. One way to classify lenses is by how they
bend light.
 Converging

A converging lens will cause the light rays to bend to a specific focal point. Another name
for this type of lens is a positive lens.

Diverging

A diverging lens will cause light rays from a specific focal point to be spread out. Another
name for this type of lens is a negative lens.

Other Types of Lenses

Another way to classify lenses is by the curve of the glass on each side of the lens. There
are terms used to describe each side. Then the two sides are combined to come up with
the name of the lens.

 Convex - A convex lens is one where the center of the lens is thicker than the edges.
 Concave - A concave lens is one where the center of the lens is thinner than the edges.
One way to remember the difference between the two lenses is to think of "caving in" with
the concave lens.
 Plano - A plano lens is a flat lens. This is used when one side is flat and the other side is
concave or convex. You can think of flat as a "plain."
 Meniscus - A meniscus lens is one where one side is concave and one side is convex.

Putting the Names Together

 Biconvex - A lens in which both sides are convex is biconvex. Biconvex lenses are
converging lenses.
 Plano-convex - A lens in which one side is convex and the other is plano. Plano-convex
lenses are converging lenses.
 Biconcave - A lens in which both sides are concave is biconcave. Biconcave lenses are
diverging lenses.
 Plano-concave - A lens in which one side is concave and the other is plano. Plano-
concave lenses are diverging lenses.
 Positive meniscus - A converging lens where one side is concave and the other convex.
 Negative meniscus - A diverging lens where one side is concave and the other convex.

Focal Point

The focal point of a lens is generally noted by the capital letter "F." This is the point in
space where the light rays will converge to after passing through a converging lens. A
diverging lens will have a negative focal point where the rays originate from before
diverging through the lens.

Focal Length

The focal length is the distance from the center of the lens to the focal point.

Principal Axis

The principal axis is a horizontal imaginary line drawn through the center of the lens. In a
perfect lens the focal point will reside on the principal axis at a distance of the focal length
from the center of the lens.

Sight and the Eye

Sight is one of the five senses that help us to get information about what is going on in the
world around us. We see through our eyes, which are organs that take in light and images
and turn them into electrical impulses that our brain can understand.

How do we see?

When we see something, what we are seeing is actually reflected light. Light rays bounce
off of objects and into our eyes.
Our Amazing Eyeballs

Pupil and Iris:

Eyes are amazing and complex organs. In order for us to see, light enters our eyes
through the black spot in the middle which is really a hole in the eye called the pupil.
The pupil can change sizes with the help of the colored part around it, a muscle called the
iris. By opening and closing the pupil, the iris can control the amount of light that enters
the eye. If the light is too bright, the pupil will shrink to let in less light and protect the eye.
If it's dark, the iris will open the pupil up so more light can get into the eye.

Retina:

Once the light is in our eye it passes through fluids and lands on the retina at the back of
the eye. The retina turns the light rays into signals that our brain can understand. The
retina uses light sensitive cells called rods and cones to see. The rods are extra sensitive
to light and help us to see when it's dark. The cones help us to see color. There are three
types of cones each helping us to see a different color of light: red, green, and blue.

Focus:

In order for the light to be focused on the retina, our eyes have a lens. The brain sends
feedback signals to the muscles around the lens to tell it how to focus the light. Just like
 the way a camera or microscope works, when we adjust the lens we can bring the image
into focus. When the lens and muscles can't quite focus the light just right, we end up
needing glasses or contacts to help our eyes out.

Off to the Brain:

The rods and cones of the retina change light into electrical signals for our brain. The
optic nerve takes these signals to the brain. The brain also helps to control the eye to help
it focus and to control where you are looking. Both eyes move together with speed and
precision to allow us to see with the help of the brain.

Why two eyeballs?

With two eyeballs our brain gets two slightly different pictures from different angles.
Although we only "see" one image, the brain uses these two images to give us information
on how far away something is. This is called depth perception.

Fun facts about the eye

 The image at the retina is actually upside down from the actual image. Our brain figures
this out for us and switches it around, or we would get really confused!
 The cornea is a clear layer at the front of the eye that helps protect it.
 We have a blind spot where the optical nerve connects to the retina.
 Tears help keep the eye clean, but scientist don't really understand why we cry when we
are sad or upset.
 The average person blinks 15 times per minute.
 Around eight percent of men are color blind, but less than one percent of women.

Cones- 3 types

Short wavelength- Blue

Medium wavelength-Green

Long wavelength-Red