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General Introduction on
offshore structures
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Objective:
Objective: The majority of offshore structures support the exploration
and production of oil and gas industry
Drilling ship
jacket
Semi-
Semi-submersible TLP
jack-
jack-up
jacket
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Methods of Installation
Step2
Step2: Barge install the platform deck
Step1
Step1: Barge install the jacket
Step3
Step3: Mating of platform deck with jacket
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Nevertheless, the real reason for using gravity platforms is the nature of the
soil, when it is of solid rock, it is impossible to drive piles into it.
An important feature of all the gravity platforms is that they can be removed
for demobilization or re-use.
Normally, the structure has a certain number of large tanks, flooded by water
or by crude oil, to ballast the platform and provide the necessary weight to
counter overturning lateral forces.
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Compliant Platforms:
Platforms: Free Standing Towers
classical towers but so slender that their structural behavior is that of a
compliant structure: large sway displacements and high oscillating period.
system is strong enough to with stand hurricane conditions.
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Mini TLP
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Wave Theories
the wave theory describes the properties of one cycle of the regular waves
and these properties are invariant from cycle to cycle.
Small amplitude wave theories,
Finite amplitude wave theories.
The assumptions made in formulating the wave models:
ideal fluid (i.e. inviscid incompressible fluid); irrotational motion;
bi-dimensional flow; horizontal plane sea bottom.
The model scheme is in the figure:
L: the wave length;
d: the water depth;
η: the wave surface position
above the still water level(SWL);
a: the wave amplitude;
H=2
H= 2a: the wave height;
ω=2π/T: the wave frequency;
ω=2
T: the wave period;
k=2
k= 2π/L: the wave number.
Wave Forces
In offshore engineering,. So, only three
forces due to the water are considered:
The Archimedes' force (static);
The inertial force (dynamic), due to waves;
The drag force (dynamic), due to waves and currents.
In computing wave forces on a structure, the structure is considered fixed
in its equilibrium position. A distinction is made regarding small vs. large
structures.
For small structures, The Morison equation is used for the wave force
computation.
For large structures, The linear diffraction/radiation theory is used for the
wave force computation.
Morison's Equation
It is an empirical formula to compute inertia and drag forces on a small
structural member.
The forces depend on the inertia and the drag coefficients. These
coefficients are determined experimentally either in the laboratory or from
the field measurements.
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The force per unit length acting upon a vertical cylinder is:
API norms suggest the values CD = 0.6 to 1.2 and CM = 1.3 to 2.0.
Wind Force
The general form of the wind drag force (pressure drag) is:
F d = 1/2 Cd ρa AU 2
ρ: fluid density (air: 1,225 kg/m3);
A: area of the projection of the body on a plane orthogonal to the flow;
U: wind speed;
Cd : drag coefficient.
Velocity profile:
profile: concerning the wind
speed U, depends upon place and time:
U= U(x, y, z, t)
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Current Forces
A typical vertical profile of the current speed is decreasing with
deepness.
Marine Growth
Marine growth is accumulated on submerged members. increase the
wave forces on the members by increasing exposed areas and volumes,
and the drag coefficient due to higher surface roughness.
Depending upon geographic location, the thickness of marine growth
can reach 0.3 m or more.
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Before After
Methodology:
Methodology: A nonlinear response analysis of a fixed offshore platform
under wave loading is presented
The structure is discretized using the finite element method, wave force
is determined according to linearized Morison equation.
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Model Description
Platform was originally designed as a 4 Leg platform installed in 110 feet
water depth (jacket levels by feet and sections dimension by inch);
The platform divide into Top side structure consists of Helideck (50 ft x
50 ft) at EL. (+ 54 ft) & Production deck (50 ft x 50 ft) at EL. (+26 ft) and
jacket which top of jacket at level (+12.5 ft).
In the splash zone area that is assumed to
extend from EL. (-6 ft) to EL. (+6 ft) LAT. (Lowest
Astronomical Tide).
The jacket legs are horizontally braced with
tubular members; In the vertical direction, the
jacket is X-braced with tubular members
The platform is supported by 4 piles (30" O.D.
X 1.25" W.T.).
All structural steel shapes, plates and tubular
are normal mild steel in accordance with ASTM -
A36 with minimum yield stress of 36 ksi.
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Environmental Forces
The design water depth at platform location shall be taken as actual
water depth (-110 ft).The highest astronomical tide shall be taken as:
3 feet for the 1 year return period & 5 feet for the 100 years return.
The platform in concern shall be checked and evaluated for the both:
100 year extreme storm design criteria &1 year operation storm design.
Wind Force
The 100 and 1 year return period sustained wind at 30 feet above LAT
(lowest astronomical tide) shall be 70, 60 mph (mile per hour) respectively
and the wind may act in any direction.
The wind loads on the topsides and exposed part of the jacket shall be
calculated based on the topsides layout configurations to determine the
shape coefficients for both the 100 year storm and the 1 year storm.
Wave Force
The Omni-directional wave shall be taken as:
For 100 year the Wave height = 26 feet, Wave period = 8 sec.
For 1 year the Wave height = 17 feet, Wave period = 6.5 sec.
A wave spreading factor (kinematics factor) = 0.95.
Marine Growth
The increase in all members radius shall be taken as 2 inch for the highest
50 feet and 1 inch for the rest of water depth down to mud line elevation.
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Current Force
The current profile assumed to act with the wave shall be taken as:
For 100 year 4, 0 feet/second in accordance with the surface and mud
line profile respectively.
for 1 year 3, 0 feet/second in accordance with the surface and mud
line profile respectively.
Current blockage factors may be used as recommended by API (American
petroleum institute) for jacket structures with 4 legs are:
0.8 for orthogonal current;
0.85 for diagonal current.
Load Data
Dead Load; It automatically generates by the module of “SAP-2000”
computer program for all modeled members.
Live Load; It is assumed as uniformly distributed live load intensity of
50 psf " 0.245 t/m2 " applied for Helideck area
200 psf "0.978 t/m2 " applied for production deck and cellar deck area.
Buoyancy Loading
Buoyancy was generated for all modeled jacket members. Buoyancy was
generated by "sea state" module based on the marine method in which
buoyancy is generated as the weight of the displaced fluid and acting
vertically on the members.
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Analysis Procedure
The natural frequencies and vibration mode shapes are computed by
Eigen value analysis.
To provide a more accurate and effective design, a finite element model
is employed herein to determine the internal forces and displacements in
an offshore leg under combined structural and wave loadings.
The vertical structural load is essentially a static load, while the lateral
wave loading fluctuates in time domain and is directly affected by the
incident wave angle.
The following table lists the properties of sea state in this studied.
Water depth LAT HAT Tide H max. T
Definitions (ft)
(MSL) ft (MSL) ft (MSL) ft (ft) (sec)
1-year return period wave for
3' 17' 6.5
operating conditions
110' -6' 6'
100 year return period wave
5' 26' 8
for extreme conditions
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Numerical Results
Structural analysis has been performed to the platform under the platform
status of configuration and loadings combination.
In this study, the wave direction is taken as "positive X direction" and
discusses the straining action on two legs in the wave direction.
The computer analysis results which
discuss Bending Moment "M3-3, M2-2" and
Normal Force "N.F" and Displacement "U1,
U2",for jacket "leg A, leg B" as in the
following Figures.
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Displacement U1 for leg A&B with respect to jacket levels for 1-year.
Level, ft
20
0
10 8 6 4 2 0 -2
Displacem ent, mm
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U-1 A "DL"
-40
U-1 A " DL+LL"
U-1 A"COMB+W1+0CUR"
-60
U-1 A "COMB+W1+45CUR"
U-1 A " COMB+W1+90CUR"
U-1 A "COMB+W1+135CUR"
-80
U-1 A"COMB+W1+180CUR"
U-1 A "COMB+W1+225 CUR" -100
U-1 A"COMB+W1+270 CUR" Leg A
U-1 A"COMB+W1+315 CUR" -120
Level, ft
20
0
10 8 6 4 2 0 -2
Displaceme nt, mm
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Displacement U2 for leg A&B with respect to jacket levels for 1-year.
20
0
1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0 -0.4 -0.8 -1.2 -1.6
Displacement, mm -20
U-2 A" D.L"
U-2 A" D.L+L.L" -40
U-2 A"COMB+W1+0 CURR"
U-2 A"COMB+W1+45 CUR" -60
U-2 A"COMB+W1+90 CUR"
U-2 A"COMB+W1+135 CUR"
-80
U-2 A"COMB+W1+180 CUR"
Level, ft
U-2 A"COM+W1+225 CUR"
-100
U-2 A"COMB+W1+270 CUR"
U-2 A"COMB+W1+315 CUR"
-120 Leg A
20
0
1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0 -0.4 -0.8 -1.2 -1.6 -2
Displacement, mm -20
Displacement U1 for leg A&B with respect to jacket levels for 100-year.
Level, ft
20
0
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2
Displacement, mm -20
U-1 A "DL"
-40
U-1 A " DL+LL"
U-1 A "COMB+W100+0CUR"
U-1 A"COMB+W100+45CUR"
-60
U-1 A"COMB+W100+90CUR"
U-I A"COMB+W100+135CUR" -80
U-1 A"COMB+W100+180CUR"
U-1 A"COMB+W100+225 CUR" -100
U-1 A"COMB+W100+270 CUR"
U-1 A"COMB+W100+315 CUR" Leg A -120
Level, ft
20
0
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2
-20
Dispalcement, mm
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Displacement U2 for leg A&B with respect to jacket levels for 100-year.
20
0
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 -2.5 -3
Displacement, mm -20
Level, ft
U-2 A"COM+W100+225 CUR" -100
U-2 A"COMB+W100+270 CUR" Leg A
U-2 A"COMB+W100+315 CUR" -120
20
0
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 -2.5 -3
Displaceme nt, mm -20
From analysis results, it can be observed that the critical nodes for
displacement responses are at jacket - deck connection and at jacket
level (+10 ft).
U1-A1 U2-A1 U3-AI 0.020 U1-B1 U2-B1 U3-BI
D is p la c e m e n t , m
D is p la c em e nt , m
0.016
Node A1
A1 0.016 Node B1
B1
0.012
0.012
0.008
0.008
0.004
0.004 Load Comb.
Load comb.
0.000
0.000
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
-0.004 -0.004
-0.008 -0.008
-0.012 -0.012
Node E2
E2
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(a) Load Combination No. 11 (b) Load Combination No. 12 (c) Load Combination No. 13 (d) Load Combination No. 14
(e) Load Combination No. 15 (f) Load Combination No. 16 (g) Load Combination No. 17 (h) Load Combination No. 18
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M 3-3
M 2-2
Bending moment
response for leg A & B with
respect to jacket levels
for 100-year extreme for
load combination (DL + LL
+ Wave 100 + 0o Current).
It displays the shape of
bending moment along
jacket and the changes of M For 100 year
3-3
its direction to able to
fixed risers along it and if
needing extension for the
platform.
It is important in the
design of platform leg to
determine the location of
maximum bending moment
because the jacket
diameter wall thickness can
be reduced below locations
of maximum stresses. M 2-2 For 100 year
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Leg A
Leg B
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Conclusions
and
recommend future extension of
present research
Summary
Safe and cost effective design of offshore platforms depends to a large
extent on the correct assessment of response demands which is expected to
be encountered by the structures during its life span.
The structure as a whole needs to withstand extreme design conditions. It
is crucial to reduce the overall response of a jacket platform subjected to
environment loads.
In general, the reduction of dynamic stress amplitude of an offshore
structure by 15% can extend the service life over two times, and can result in
decreasing the expenditure on the maintenance and inspection of the
structure.
The aim of this study is to improve the understanding of the effects of
wave loadings with the current incidence angle variation on the response of
fixed jacket platforms.
platforms. Finite element analyses have been used to simulate
response series.
series.
A finite element formulation has been developed for the nonlinear
response of a fixed offshore platform jacket. Where, three-dimensional beam
element incorporating large displacement, time dependent wave forces is
considered.
Offshore platform jacket displacement, axial forces, bending moments, and
natural modes and frequencies of free vibration are evaluated
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Conclusions
The jacket-deck level (+12.5 ft) and the first horizontal brace level of
jacket (+10 ft) show maximum stresses and displacement demands
from wave action for working and construction stage.
A comparison of the maximum displacement at all nodal points for
various current incidence angles indicates a significant effect of the
current incidence direction. The maximum platform displacement in
the wave direction is 1.0 cm and 1.8 cm at jacket – deck level for 1
year and 100 year return period wave and wind loadings, respectively.
The displacement responses attain its peak values for the coincidence
of the wave, current and wind directions, decrease as the current
direction deviate from the wave incidence direction.
The displacement response, U1 increases nonlinearly with the height
of the platform jacket and display fundamental mode of deformation,
but there is a significant curvature to the displacement response, U2
along the platform height and displays higher mode of deformation.
Conclusions
The deformation shape for the horizontal plane of jacket (level +10 ft)
changes in irregular movement with different current orientation
angels from (0.00o to 360o) for wave extreme values.
Both the maximum deck acceleration and the maximum Deck to top of
jacket displacement are important response parameters affecting the
performance of equipment, vessels, and pipelines.
o low maximum deck acceleration was desirable for the vessels and
equipment,
o but, a small deck-to-top of shaft displacement was desirable for
the risers and caissons.
The bending moment at nodes in jacket – deck level due to wave action
show an inverse pattern compared to those at nodes in the first
horizontal brace level of jacket (i.e., the maximum value decreases).
The splash zone area between (0, +12.5ft) must be inspected
continuously and protect it from corrosion by rubber covering or
protective paints to prevent reduction of jacket legs thickness to
extend platform service life time.
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For producing oil and gas in deep and ultra-deep waters reaching
more than 1000 m water depth, the use of floating-type offshore
structures is required. An extension of the present study to consider
different types of offshore structures.
it is interesting to note that they commonly give rise to highly
nonlinear structural consequences in terms of geometric
nonlinearity associated with buckling and material nonlinearity
together with various other parameters of influence such as
temperature, strain rate, fabrication related initial imperfections and
age-related degradation.
Earthquake Response of Offshore Structures With Soil‐Structures
Interaction
Studying the straining action and the responses for compliant
platforms as the demand of these structures will be more in the
future in Egypt and all over the world.
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