ARISTOTLE

THE PORTICS

“LONGINUS”
ON THE SUBLIME

DEMETRIUS
ON STYLE

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETES
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON
WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD
MOMLIN
 First printed 1997
Revised qui reprinted 1982
Reprinted 1980, 1946, 1958

Printed tn Grow Britain

 CONTENTS
PAGR

EntroDUCTION LL cao ix

ARISTOTLE, Tue Porrres—

Notre ox THE DEXTA + cs
Texr AND TRANSLATION

“LONGINUS,” On Tou Sugume-—

Nore on THE TEXT. . 121
Texr AND TRANSLATION + vc i2z

DEMETRIUS, On Sryim
InTRODUCTION LL ca as7
Texr AND TRANSLATION + 1. a 294
Inpzx To ArmtorLE's Pogrios . 489
Isvex ro “ Loneinus” . cs 492
Innex ro Demirrius—
à Names and Matters «cs 4d
ii. Authors and Passages quoted . 500

ApprrionaL Norr on Demetrius $172 . 501

 ARISTOTLE
THE POETICS

“LONGINUS”
ON THE SUBLIME

WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY

W, HAMILTON FYFE
PRINCIPAL AND VIOR-OHANUELLOR, QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY, CANADA
FORMERLY FELLOW OF MESTON COLLEGE, OXYORD
AND HBADMASTER OF CHRIST HOSPITAL
 INTRODUCTION
“Pre corruption of a poet,” says Dryden, “is the
generation of a critic.” But the poets of Grecee
seem to have been free from this decay. In the
fifth century at any rate they left criticism to the
Sophists, such as Gorgias, Protagoras, and Empedo-
cles; but like those who seek biology in Hebrew
poetry, the poets' views were waxped by practical
aims, the production of good citizens and instruction
in the art of persuasion. Thus to them thai poetry
was good which seemed to have a good effect on
conduct, and that prose was good which could work
upon an audience the illusion of truth. Since they
were sensitive to form and understood that the art
of persuasion depended on formal excellence, they
studied in some measure the use of words and
evolved the earliest theories of grammar and syntax,
But their “ ethical twist“ * puts them out of court
as literary critios.
The Greek Comedians may be excluded on the
same ground. Others besides Aristophanes sought
to amuse and to instruct their audiences by rough-
handling the tragedians and even by formulating
theories of dramatic composition. But their aims,
º The phrase is borrowed from Professor Saintsbury, to
whom all students of criticism owe a debt which is a
pleasure to acknowicdge,
AZ . ix
 INTRODUCTION
too, were practical, to find fun where they could and
to tickle the taste of Demos. The judges both of
Tragedy and of Comedy were selected annually by
lot, and, although there was a right of legal action
against their verdict, who can doubt that such am
action, if it were ever brought, would be argued
upon good, plain reasons and not upon the techni-
calities of aesthetic theory? Even Aristotle was
catholic enough to maintain that “the many " are
better judges of poetry than the expert few, and,
since it was the function of the Comedian to refleet the
taste of the many, his judgements of literature were
those of the man who is content to know what he likes
and deride what he doesn't. The plain man, being
more intimately concerned with goodness than with
beauty, ascribes to poetry a moral and political aim
and readily endorses Aristophanes” dictum that
Children and boys have a teacher assigned them,,
The bard is a master for manhood and youth. º

Plato is the first Greek writer who really graduated

in literary criticism. He valued Art chiefly, it is
true, for its moral effect on conduct in the city
state. But he valued it too for its own sake and, if
he was frightened of its fascination, that conclusively
proves him aware ofit. Hls aesthetic theory, culled
from several dialogues, may be roughly summed up
thus: All the arts are “ imitative,” but the objects
which they represent are not the deceptive pheno-
mena of sense (airôhrd) but essential truths appre-
hended by the mind (voyrá) and dimly descried in
a rois uêv vão moudaptoeu
tori ddorados dores ppáes vois Wplew dé morgrai,
. Froge, 10545,
 INTRODUCTION
phenomena, The process by which the artist appre-
hends such truths is not the methdd, slow and sure,
of dialectic. , It is the ecstasy of inspiration, a mystic
memory of something known before birth, a super-
natural apprehension born from a mingled love of
truth and beauty. His power is a spiritual magnetism
Inspired therewith by God, the poet in turn inspires
his interpreter, the “ rhapsodist,” and through the
interpreter the magnetic current passes to the audi-
ence, who dangle fascinated at the loose end of the
chain. This fascination—a Juxaywyia or conjuring
of the soul--is the object of Art; and the test of its
excellence is its power of affecting with its peculiar
pleasure the souls of those whose native qualities
and education make them sensitive to its magic.
There is little fault to find with this account of
Art, except that its statement is more enthusiastic
than logical, It clearly disproves the view that
Plato was insensitive to Art. It was because his
pulses throbbed alarmingly under the stress of poetry
and music that he published the paradox in the
Republic «hich bas been often put forward as his
considered judgement upon Art. How is it that the
Poet who appears in the Jon and the Phacdrus as a
divine creature is abused in the Republic and sternly
banished from the ideal state? The paradox comes
of Plato's preoceupation with a puxely political point
of view. The “ ethical twist “ is at its work again.
Human emotion is always the stumbling-bloek of
the political idealist, and he inevitably scents danger
in the influence of these inspired singers, who so
powerfully affect the emotions of their audience.
The ideal citizen must be logical, resolute, and
sternty self-controlled Poetry waters and nourishes
xi
 INTRODUCTION
emotions which ought to be desiceated.* Wonderful
creatures, these põets, but out they must go. They
endanger the ideals of citizenship. :
And Plato, as a political reformer, has another
complaint against Art. His citizens must be clear
thinkers who face facts and reverence truth above
al things. “ But art does not deal in truth. tis
content to represent the data of sense which are
themselves a distorted image of reality. It is three
removes from truth.” This fatly contradiets the
sesthetic theory expressed in Plato's other dialogues
and seems to be a piece of special pleading designed
to disguise the reformer's prejudice. Possessed by
a sexious and practical aim, he looks at Art as false
and unreal, an irrelevant triviality. In the Laws he
writes: “ Qur social life is the best Tragedy : it is
an imitation of the Best Life. What do we want
with ar imitation of an ímitation?” And even in
the Phuedrus, where his enthusiasm for literature is
not concealed, he complains that books are unsatis-
factory, because you cannot cross-examine them.
They are no good at dialectic. “ They go on saying
the same thing over and over again.” “tis the
speech of the man who knows that is alive: the
written word is really but its ghost.”
It is this view that Aristotle combats, finding the
answer in Plato's own mouth. It is not the “par-
ticulars ” of sense (rà xa” Engora) that Art repre-
sents, but “ universal ” traths (rá xudóAov), the inner
interpretation of the mind. Therefore Art is serious,
more serious and more philosophical and therefore
more useful than History, which he conceives—in the
face of Herodotus and Thucydides-—as a calendar of
ai“ Plato, Rep. 606 D rpége: vãp rara dpôovoa, déor muto.
 INTRODUCTÍON
unrelated incidents. So poetry is not three removes
from tyuth : àt comes nearer the trath than any other
human process, since it records “ not what did happen
but what would happen” * and thus disentangles
from human incidents the principles on which life
works, The truth of art is higher than the truth of
fact. What the artist “ imítates ” is God's method
of creation, Understanding what happens and how
it happens, be cam ereate new happenings, in the
texture of which the pattem of life is plainer than in
any “ particular ” experience.
And in dealing with Emotion, Aristotle meets
Plato's sensitive hesitation with hard common sense.
Of comse emotions are dangerous in the body politie,
But what good is done by ignoring them or by
heaping legislation on the safety-valve? We must
face them as facts and use Art as their medicine,
The soul, like the body, needs an occasional purge
(ráfapois). Pent-up emotion is apt to explode in-
conveniently. What the citizens need is an outlet
such as dramatic poetry conveniently supplied. We
must remember that the Athenian could not go to
the theatre every day. That would be emotional
dysentery. He took his purge regularly twice a
year. “Thus the emotions that would otherwise have
curdled or atrophied were stirred to a storm and
safely drawn off, To afford this pleasurable relief is
the object of poetie drama. Poets must be recalled
from exile to serve as medical officers.
This is Aristotle's chief contribution to the art of
Hterary criticism, of which he was the first fully-
qualified professional practitioner. Fhat the content
of the art-form is “universal” is a truth borroved,
2 Poetics, ch. ix. 8 3.
xii
 INPRODUCTION
from Plato who had absent-mindediy forgotten it,
That its aim is a peculiar form of pleasure, the nleasuve
of having one's emotions stirred not by the facts of
life but by their artistic representation, that seems
to have been Aristolle's own discovery.
His other merits as a eritic are those of an analyt-
ical scientist. His treatment of style is the best
example. He pins a poem on his board for observa-
tion, What makes it different from a piece of prose ?
Not only the metre. There is a difference in voca-
bulary as well, “ Strange words,” the poet uses.
Not strange words only, that would be jargon. A
judicious mixture of strange and ordinary words.
Then he will be both intelligible and “ poetie.” An
uninspiving recipe, but as sound as carelul observa-
tion and analysis can make it. Peter Bell was no
more blind to the beauty of his primrose than is
Aristotle to the enchantment of words.
And it is the same with “plot.” The plays he
Enows are set for careful observation, he probes
them with his scalpel, distinguishes, compares, and
draws conclusion. The resultant rules are admir-
ably sound-—a plot must have unity, it must be one
story, not several; it must not be so long that the
audience forgets the beginning before it is ended ;
the hero must be ““ heroic ” and must cause his fate
but not desexve it; the chorus must play its part in
the action ; paychology must be subordinate to plot,
His conclusions are impeccable ; but they allow the
crudest melodrama to rank with the Oedipus Pyrannius
and above the 4gamemnon. That Greek Tragedians
were the Prophets of their age he seems “wholly
unaware.
And why is it that Greek Tragedies all deal with
xiv
 INTRODUCTION
the adventnres of a small group of heroes? He has
observed tuis in the course of his enalysis, and made
a careful note of it. The reason must be that these
stories alone fulfil the exacting requirements of a
tragic plot, À perfect example of the cireulax argu-
ment; and not a hint of the historical reason that
tragedy avose as a meahs of interpreting the saga
stories in the light of a later morality. One might as
well explain Fra Angelico's choice of subjects without
a reference to the Catholic religion.
But science has its usc among the Arts, and
Aristotle's indifference to literature gives value to
bis observation. Unmoved by the grandeur of
Aeschylus and the sparkle of Aristophanes, he was
all the more able to analyse their work objectively,
and such principles in the art of literary criticism.as
are capable of exact definition he deduced and settled
once for all. His dissection discovers all the great
first principles except the principle of life, and, while
we deplore the capital omission, we must admit that
be has taught all later exitics more than they can ever
afford to forget.
The critics who followed along the trail which
Axistotle blazed as the most enterprisivg of human
pioneers, were dull dogs who reproduced his vices
swithout any of his merits. The pedants of Alex-
andria and Perganos confincd themselves either to
verbal eriticism or to the literal examination of poctie
statements, a futility to which the twenty-fifth
chapter of the Povíics might have supplied an anti-
dote. A Victorian statistician once criticized Tenny-
son's statement: “ Every moment dics a man, and
every moment one is bom,” and urged him to insert
the decimal points of strict aceuracy. He might
sv
 INÉRODUCTION
have thrived at Alexandria. Even Aristarehus, who
asserted the princíple of “ explaining Homer by him-
self,” rejected the line which stated that Odysscus
opened and shut the door of the Wooden Horse ;
Bupopot yàp Epyor; Odysseus was no mere porter,
Nor could Aphrodite have demeaned her godhead
by setting a chair for Helen; and never could
Nausicaa have been so indelicate as to propose to
Odysseus.
Equally futile was the invention and analysis of
technical terms to express the rmyriad facets of litora-
ture-—“anthypallage,” “epanaphora,” “ amadiplosis ”
—a bleak pageant of terminological exactitudes, the
heartless anatomy of dead literature by crities who
regarded any piece of writing as a chemical com-
pound easily produced by those who would learn
from them the appropriate formula. Criticism had
deserted the throne of philosophy to cohabit with
philology and syntax.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus certainly raised the
tone in the last century s.c. He inherits Aristotle's
common sense and adds to it an appreciation of
beauty in phrase and rhythm, dealing freely, as the
earlier critics seldom dealt, with prose as well as
poetry. But he was a propagandist and a sehool-
master. Fis aims were to advocate the merits of
the plain “ classical ” style against wanton Asiatic
innovations and to teach his pupils bow to avoid
faults in composition. The former aim limits his
sympathy almost to the point of absurdity and in
pursuing the latter aim he failed to notice that all
rules for writing are rules for writing badly. He can
justly appreciate what he likes and give reasons for
his liling, but he lacks the supreme exitical quality
xvi
 INTRODUCTION

of responding to all excellence in literature and

infecting his audience with enthusfasm.
This suprgme quality “ Longinus” possesses,
“Pill now,” says Gibbon in his Journal, “I was
acequainted only with two ways of cuiticizing a beauti-
ful passage, the one to show by an exact anatomy
of it the distinct Dbeauties of it and whence they
sprung; the other an idle exclamation or a general
encomium, which leaves nothing behindit. Longinus
has shown me that there is a third, He tells me his
own feelings upon reading it, and tells them with
such energy that he communicates them,” When
Gibbon wrote that, he believed the author of the
treatise On the Sublime to be Longinus of Palmyra,
the friend and counsellor of Queen Zenobia, and
acknowledged by his contemporxaries of the third
century A.D. to be one of the greatest of literary
eritics. Gibbon liked to think that he had “in the
Court of a Syrian Queen preserved the spirit of
ancient Athens.” Later students have found reason
to doubt the aseription. The manuscripts of chief
authority give the author, some as “ Dionysius
Longinus,” others as “ Dionysius or Longinus.”
Zenobia's counsellor was Cassius Longinus, But
perhaps he had the name of Dionysius as well? Or
if-not that, then “ Dionysius or Longinus ” may be
taken to express a doubt whether the author is
Dionysius of Halicarnassus or Cassius Longinus of
Palmyra; and no one who has read the former can
hesitate for a moment between the horns of that
dilemma. Whoever is the author of this admirable
treatise, it is not Dionysius of Halicarnassus. But
there is certainly reason to doubt that the treatise
was written as late as the third century a.D. It has
xvii
 INTRODUGTION
no affinity to the age of Aurelian. It sets out to con-
trovert a work wéitten in the reign of Anfustus. Tt
mentions no author later than the firsj century A.D.
The description of the Roman world in the last
chapter suits the first century better than the third,
and suggests an obvious comparison with Tacitus's
Dialogue on Oratory. Certainly the arguments for
Cassius Longinus as the author of this ireatise are
not more conclusive than those against, AH we can
safely say of the author is that we do not know who
he was or where he lived or when he wrote. His
excellence and his influence ave matters of far greater
importance.
Strangely enough the records of “ antiquity ”
contain no reference to this treatise, and its exist-
ence was unknown until Robortello published it at
Basle in 1554, It was republished and translated in
Italy, Switzerland, and England during the following
hundred vears but remained a close preserve for
scholars until in 1674 Boileau published his trans-
lation, which was re-issued more than twenty times
in the next hundred years. From that moment
“ Longinus on the Sublime ” won fame commensur-
ate with his merits, and the list of his students and
admirers includes such names as those of Fénelon,
Dryden, Addison, Pope, Goldsmith, Reynolds, Hurd,
Fielding, Sterne, Gibbon, Fox, and Grattan, And
whereas Aristotle's Pocties won for a time the position
of a Bible and was most adulated by those who under-
stood it least, the eulogists of Longinus clearly speak.
from warmth of personal acquaintance, inspired by
his enthusiasm and grateful for the stimulus to their
appreciation of literature. As one of his modern
admirers says: “ What Swift observed of books
viii
 INTRQDUCTION

generally, jhat they give the same tone to our mind

as good.company gives to our airºand manners, is
particularly applicable to this treatise. Itis essenti-
ally noble ; it is inspiring, it is elevating, it is illumin-
ing; it taught criticism a new language, it breathed
into it a new soul“ The history of literature is
full of adventure, but it records no fate more romantie
than this of our unknown author, who came into his
own twelve or fifteen hundred years after his death,
and enjoys to-day a fame his dreams could never have
foretold.
The merit of this brief and mutilated treatise is
that for the first time in human history, a eritic here
faces the consequences of Aristotle's admission that
the end of literature is pleasure, the kind of pleasure
which it alone can give; and that this is valuable
not as a means towards guiding conduct or cajoling
a jury but as an end in itself, The criterion of
excellence in literature is the absorption or illusion
(Exorawis) of the audience or reader and that effect
comes not from the mechanical application of rules
or the rigid avoidance of mistakes but from the ex-
pression of a forceful human character. Just as fins
glass or well cast iron rings true to the stroke, so
grandenr or sublimity in art gives the unmistakable
“ring” of a great soul. “Style is the shadow of a
personality.”
The chief means by which personality can thus be
expressed axe beautiful words, but to their proper
usc sincerity is essential, a mind full of meaning,
There is nothing more nauseating than their empty
and frivolous use. And since there is need also of
“ Churton Collins, Studies in Poetry and Criticism (Bell
& Sons, 1905),
xix
 INTRODUÇTION
technical skill before personality can be adequately
expressed in woris, “ Longinus ” employs the terms
and categories which the philologiçal anatomists
invented. He speaks of tropes and figures. But
throughout he insists that these are only means of
analysis. The one essential is gennine feeling.
Without that no skill in writing is of value and its
presence covers a multitude of faults.
Sensitive, acute, enthusiastic, here is a critie who
makes it clear at last beyond all doubt that literature
is a function of life and that those who, having some-
thing to say, have lcarnt how to say it create a
revelation as sweet to the world as the making of it
is to them, and work one of the many miracles that
make life worth living.

EE
 ARISTOTLE
THE PORBTICS

WITH AN BNGLISH TRANSLATION BY

W, HAMILTON FYFE
PRINCIPAIS AND VICR-CHANÇELLOR, QUEEN'E UNIVERSITY, CANADA
FORMERLY FELLOW OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD
AND HRADMASTER OP CHRISI'S HOSPITAL
 NOTE ON THE TEXT
Twe text here printed is based on Vahlen's thhd
edition (Leipzig, 1885), and the chief deviations
from it are noted at the foot of each page.
The prime sourco of all existing texts of the
Poctics is the eleventh century Paris manuscript,
No. 1741, designated as Aº To the manuscripts of
the Renaissance few, except Dr. Margoliouth, now
assign any independent valve, but they contain
useful suggestions for the correction of obvious
errors and defeets in ˼, These are here designated
“copies” V. stands for Vahlen's third edition, and
By. for the late Professor Ingram Bywater, who has
earned. the gratitude and admiration of all students
of the Poetics by his services both to the text and
to its interpretation,
Then there is the Arabic transcript. Translated
in the cleventh century from a Syriac translation
made in the eighth century) it appears to make
little sense, but sometimes gives dim visions of the
readings of a manuscript three centuries older but
not necessarily better than As, readings which
confirm some of the improvements introduced into
Renaissance texts,
 APIS TOTEAOYS
HEPI HOIHTIKHS
sra À. epi momrucis abris re xai rr eldodr adris,
dv tiva diva Exaoror Eyes, Kai mis de? ouv-
ioragõar rods jrúbous ei mé, KodOS Ee 1)
woinors, Eri dé Ex móowr Kal moiwr Cori mopicoy,
duoiws dé xai sept rd dAAwv doa ris adrfs éort
uebódou, Aéyeper dpédpero: rarã qUom mpidror
dio róv mpórwr.
2 “Emomoia B) nai À vis rpaywdias moimor Eri
a EA 1 1 € Ra 4 2 EA

de rupuôia ab 1) AdupanBomoumrue) Kai Tjs ad-

Anruciis À mieiorg nai riagiorucis, mÃcm Tuy-
3 xvovor odoe upujoeis TO cUvodor, Srapépovor dé
dAABAcy vprotr, 7) váp TO yévei! érépois pupeiobau
à TD Erepa ij TD érépoos Kai ut) rOv qlror tpógor.
4 cdomep Yáp Koi XpÓpGOL Kal OxjuaoL moAÃA ju
1 vyéver AS: ép V.
º The explanation of ulunass, as Aristolle uses the word,
demands a treatises ali that a Tooinole can say is this —
Life “ presenis” to the artist the phenomena of sense,
which the artist “ re-presents” in his own medium, giving
coherenve, designing a pattern. That this is true not only
of drama and Action but also ol instrumental rmusic (* most
fiute-playing and harp-playing ”) vas more obvious to a
Greek than to us, since Greek instrumental music was more
definitely imitative. The technical display of the virtuoso
4
 ARISTOTLES POETICS

1, Ler us here deal with Poctry, its essence and its

several species, with the characteristic function of
cach species and the way in which plots must be
constructed if the poem is to be a suecess ; and also
with the number and character of the constituent
parts of a poem, and similarly with all other matters
proper to this same inquiry; and let us, as nature
directs, begin first with first principles.
Kpie poetry, then, and the poetry of tragic drama,
and, moreover, comedy and dithyrambic poetry, and
most flute-playing and harp-playing, these, speak-
ing generally, may all be said to be “ xepresenta-
tions of life.” a But they diffcr one from another
in three ways: either in using means generically
different? or im representing different objects or in
representing objects not in the same way but im a
different manner. For just as by the use both of
colour and form people represent many objects,
Plato describes as “a beastly noise” Since uluqes in
this sense and aenrós and the verb pcinõa: have a wider
scope than any one English word, ik is necessary to use
more than one word in translation, eg. geppris is what
we call an “artist”; and for sigo where “ representa-
tion” would be clumsy we may use the word Cart”;
the adjectivo must be “imitative,” since “ representative
has other meaning. .
* i.e, means that can be divided into separate categories.
5
 ARISTETLE
gobvrai ruwes dgreweálovres (oi guév Sirréxns oi dê
Bra cumbeias), Erepor de dá Ts Govijs,* ouro edy
vais eipnpuévais réxvaUs dimacar per motodvrau rip
tipow é pulud tod Adyg rai dppovia, robrois õ
5% xwpis 7 uepuypévors oiov dppovia puev Kai Prlud
xpospuevas póvor 7 TE aún) tea À suaprarue)
KOv ei tuves ETepar TUyydrOvOw aúoaL <ToirTaL>
emp ôúva put olov ? é cvpiyyov abra dé rd Pub
tinodyras xupis dpuovias ai vódv dpygordy, Kai
vp obras da rr axmpartiopuévesy poluir pepodr»
ras Kai 70 Kai mdbm moi mpógeis,
7 “H de [émomota.]* uóvor Trois Adyois jirÃoie7) rois
issrd térpois rea roúross sire mupyvõoa mer” dAMjAmy el”
évi rui méves XP wpÉvI TO pérpy <ávcivupos >
8 TuyxóveL odca? uéxer wo8 vôv. oúdev Yap dy Exouuer
ôvondoas Kowôv rods Ecigpovos Kai Eevdoyou ut-
9 uous eai rods | Beorparucods Adyovs ovde ei qi9
dra rpinérpuy % eXeyeicov 97 Tó EMA vd réy
10 roLú ren» aototro Ty pipimoty my oé dvBpwmoi ve
cuvinrovres ER) pérpm Tó aroveiy Eeyeromotoús vovs
de émomotods
é dvopdlovow, oby cs rará rip pipmow
momrás ima now Kar Tô pérpov mpocayopevou-
MH
UM res! Koi yãp dy iarpucov à) povorcór Tt Sud tv
1 gmomoa, deleted by Ucberweg and omitted in the Arabic
version, is probably a mistaken gloss, Tt gives no satisfactory
sense,
*? drcdrimos inserted by Bernays: confirmed by Arabic
version.
8 vvyxárer obca Suckow for ruyyárovor At,

º wdby Kai wpáteis cover the whole field of Nfe, what men
do (wpdteis) and what men experience (wáfy). Since mdby
means also “ emotions ” that sense may be present here,
6
 POETIGS, 1. 4-11
making likempsses of them—some having a knows
ledge of art and some working empiricaly—and
just as others use the human voice ; so is it also in
the arts which we have mentioned, they all make
their representations in rhythm and language and
tune, using these means either separately or in
combination, For tune and rhythm alone are em-
ployed in flute-playing and harp-playing and in any
other arts which have a similar function, as, for
example, pipe-playing. Rhythm alone without tune
is employed by dancers in their representations, for
by means of rhythmical gestures they represent both
character and experiences and actions.?
But the art which employs words either in bare
prose or in metres, either in one kind of metre ox
combining several, happens up to the present day
to have no name. For we can find no common
term to apply to the mimes of Sophron and Ren-
archus? and to the Socratic dialogues : nor again
supposing a poet were to make his representation in
iambics or elegiacs or any other such metre--except
that people attach the word poet (maker) to the
name of the metre and speak of elegiac poets and
of others as epie poets. Thus they do not call them
poets in virtue of their representation but apply
the name indiseriminately in vixtue oÊ the metre,
For if people publish medical or scientific treatises
but as a technical term in this ireatise mádos is a calamity
or tragic incident, something that happens to the hero.
* Sophron and Xenarchus, said to be father and sen,
lived in Syracuse, the elder a contemporary of Euripides,
They wrote “ mimes,” 4.º. simple and usually farcical
sketches of familiar incidents, similar to the mimes of
Tlerondas and the fiftecth Idyll of Pheoeritus, but in próses
There was a tradition that their mimes suggested to Plato
the use of dialogue. '
 ARISTOTLE
pérper expépuorm, obra Kadeir cledagiv oUdêr
dE rowór doriv *Ouijpw mai "EuredonhEL mA” vó
nérpor, 80 Tó» pév mornriy dixatob radeiy, vor dé
12 Sucrodóyor uaAov 7) mommijv. óuolws Bê «dv ei
cs dravra Tá pérpa puyvicr moroiro riy piumom
nabárep Kaprúuwv émoinos Révravpor qurijy
Pafwdiar É amdvrwr rd» pérpwr, Kal monTiy
mpocayopeuréov, epi per cbr Todrwr Sunpiolw
robror vó rpósror.
13 Eloi dé vuwes ai são. xpórvrar Trois eipquévois,
Aéym Sé olov prbuo nai péder Kai uérpw, domep
E re ródo Bubupan Budd» goimows Kai À Tv vójuior
Kab 9 TE Tpaypõia mal 7 repudia, drapépovor dé
14 Ori aí juév áua vãow ai de Karà pépos. taúras pv
oiv Aéyes TAS Brabopãs rádv Texvódr, év ois mrotodr-
ros Tv plugar.
Misa 2, "Egrei dé mupoDvTAL OL uuOÚNEVOL TPpÁTIOVTAS,
dvdyrm dé robrous 7 emovôniovs 7) pulhouvs elvar
(rã ydo d0m cxedov del rodrois dxohovbei póvois,
Kenia vp Kai dperf rá Won drapépovor mdvres)
irot Beáriovas 7] xab” Wuãs 7) xeiporas 7) Kai rotou=
2 vous, domep oi ypapeis: Iloliyuuros uér yáp apeir-
rovs, Iavúcwy dé xeipous, Árovógios dé duotous
Selxalev. Bjhov dé Ori mai Tó Aeyderodr cxdom

* Empedocles (Moruit 415 .c,) expressed his philosophical

and religious teaching in hexameter verse, to which Aristotle
elsewhere atiributes genuine value as poetry, but it is here
excluded from the ranks of poetry because the object is
definitely didactic.
* Chaeremon was a tragedian and rhapsodist. The
Centaur was apparentliy an experiment which might be
classed ag either drama or epic. Of. chapter xxiv, 8 IL,
º See Additional Note, p. 116.
8
 POETICS É =. 3
in metre tê custom is to call thgm poets. Bu
Homer axfd Empedocles “ have nothing in common
except the metre, so that it would be proper to
cal! the one a poet and the other not a poet but a
scientist. Similary if a man makes his represen-
tation by combining all the metres, as Clacremon
did when he wrote his rhapsody The Contour, a
medley of all the metres, he too should be given
the name of poet.? On this point the distinetions
thus made may suflice.
There are certain arts which employ all the means
which 1 have mentioned, such as rhythm and tune
and metre—dithyrambie and “ nomie” poetry,º for
example, and tragedy too and comedy. The difer-
ence here is that some use all these at once, others
use now one now another. These differences then
in the various arts 1 call the means of representation.
2. Since living persons ? are the objects of repre-
sentation, these must necessarily be either good men
or inferior-—thus only are characters normally dis-
tinguished, since ethical differences depend upon
vice and virtue-—that is to say either better than
ourselves or worse or much what we axe. It is the
same with painters. Polygnotas depicted men as
better than they ave and Pauson worse, while
Dionysius made likenesses.* Clearly cach of the
& Literally “ menú doing ox experiencing something.” Of
p- 22, note b,
* Polygnotus's portraits were in the grand style and yet
expressive of characier (cf ch. vi 5 15): Aristophanes
alludes to a Pauson as a “ perfecily wicked caricatuxist ” :
Diongysins of Colophon earmed lhe name of “the man-
painter ” because he always painted men and presumably
made “ good likenesses,”
 ARISTOTLE,
pupioemy éberTavras ras Biupopás edi Fora
é érépa
4 TO érepa tugueioda Todrov 7ôv mpórmor. “nai yãp ev
Spxçhoeu al aúkijoes ab raBaploer dor yeréoda
5 raúras rãs dvopotórpras: mai TA" wepl TOUS Adyous
de «al rr fukoperpiar, otov “Qumpos per Behrious,
KAcogéy dé duolovs, Hyuwv dé d Qdoros <d>
Tês mopwdlas momaus mpósros Kai Nexoydons à
6 rj Andidda xeipous: duoiws dé Kai srepl rods Br-
OvpduBous mui epi vods vómovs: domep [yão?]
KúrAwras Tinódeos Kai Dulógevos, Hupuijoatro day
fis. é» abri dé vjj Braopg feai à, Tpayeõia pôs
Tv rwplia Sorqrer À pev vyãp xeipovs 7) dé
Petrious puueiodar Boúeras ródv vôv.
3, "Eri dé roúrwv rpirm diapopã Tê dis Exacra
2 obra pujomro dv vis. Koi yãp é» Trois abrois
rot rd abrô misciodo. êoriv 7) drê pév drayyéd-
Aovra óré 32 Erepór Te yuyrópevor domep “Opnpos
morei, ) os [7óv]" abróv rai um) peraBáMovra, À)
mdvras ds mpárrovras eat evepyotvras rods papou-
3 fuévous. év mpi ê) Tours deashopais ú pipinois
cor, cds ebrouev Kor” dpxyds, é» ois Te <kal &>
Koi Og.
2 7ó By.: Tê AS which V, brackets,
2 yo] no satisfactory explanation. A line may be lost
giving names of two writers and the title of the subject
which they treated difierently.
*.. órê 0) Zeller's alteration of ÀS which omits órê &
and gives à in its place.
* [75] cut out by By. to give exact sense required,
5 arávra Casaubon for AS mávrao,
à Cleophon wrote “epics” (i.e. hexameter poems), de-
seribing scenes of daily life in commonpiace diction (cf.
ch. xxii. 8 2): Hegemon wrote mock epies in the style of
10
 PORTICS, 17. 3-1. 2

above mentined arts will admit of these distinctions,

and they-will differ in representing objects which
difer from enchtother in the way here described. In
painting too, and flute-playing and harp-playing,
these diversities may certainly be found, and it is the
same in prose and in unacecompanied verse. For
instance Homer's people ave “ better,” Cleophon”s
are “like,” while in Hegemon of Thasos, the first
writer of parodies, and in Nicochares, the author of
the Polirooxiad, they ave “ worse.” 2 | is the same
in dithyrambic and nomie poetry, for instance » + +
a writer might draw characters like the Cyelops as
drawn by Timotheus and Philoxenus.? Tt is just in
this respect that tragedy differs from comedy. The
latter sets out to represent people as worse than they
are to-day, the former as better.
8. A third diference in these arts is the manner
in which one may represent each of these objects.
For in representing the same objects by the same
means it is possible to proceed either partly by
narrative and partly by assuming a character other
than your own-—this is Homer's method—or by
remaining yourself without any such change, or else
to represent the characters as carrying out the whole
action themselves.
These, as we said above, are the three differ-
ences which form the several species of the art of
representation, the means, the objects, and the
manner.
the surviving Battle of Frogs and Mice; vf Nicochares
nothing is known, but his forte was evidently satire.
* Both famous dithyrambic poeis. There is evidence
that Philoxenus treated Polyphemus in the vein of satires
Timotheus may have drawn a more dignified picture.

11
 ARISTOTLE
4 “Qore rj pêp 6 adrês dy eim peuriis Ouvjpm
Eodorkis, puunivrar vêp dupw amovdaiovs, qj
Sé *Apusugrreo, mpárrortas Yap” pumoDpTOL icoh
ôpóvras duçew. Dev nai ôpauuara rKadeiodai vives
Badra pac, Ort ujsodvTaL Opúdvras. Did Kal dure-
motoivrar rijs TE rpayudias Kai vis ropwdias oi
Acpreis (rijs pév vap reopupôias oi Meyapeis oi
re évradda às exi Tijs map” abrois dnuoxparias
verouévms «ai oi éx Duxedios, éxeider yãp iu
“Emixapuos O momris moAE mpórepos dv Kim
vidou Kat Moyumros, Kai Tijs Tpayqwõias évior Tó Ex
[elomovjow), motoúueror rã orógara cnuetov:
6 odros gév VAp Kúpas TAS meproiridas raleiv pao,
"Abmraio: dé Dúuovs, cs mmpupndods od dxo vob
rwpdlew Aexbévras dAÃA Ti Karó Kúuas mAdum
driualonévous Ek TOD dorews* Kai TÔ moieiv abroi
mu per dpav, "Abmvalous dé mpárrem mpocayopedeir.
aeph pér odv ro» Bibopddy rol móga Kai mives
rãs punjcews elpjodo radra.
4, “Eoinao: dE yevricas pés ôAmws Tir arormreeju
Sairia vo viés ral abra, quoal. Tó TE vãp
mincichas cluduror trois dvbpemors êx maidewv éori
ral robry Srabépovor Té GAMor ger órk pum
rueiraróv Cori Kal vês pabjueis motetras dd pum
pijoews Tás mpuúras, Kai TO xaipemw TOis paiuaor
Smdvras. anpelor dé roúrov Tô auuflaivor émi vódv
êpyuov à vãp abr Avmnpós dpduev, robrwr Tàs
“ “Drama” being derived from dpãr “to do,”
* The inhabitants of Megara Hyblaea,
* Epicharmus of Cos wrote in Sicily burlesques and
“ mimes” depicting scenes of daily life, He and Phormis
were “ originators of comedy ” in that they sketched types
instead of lampooning individuals (gf. ch. v. 5 5): of
Iz
 PORTIGS, mr. dv. 3

It follogs that in one respeet Sophocles would be

the same kind of artist as Homer, for both represent
good men, angl in another respect he would resemble
Aristophanes, for they both represent men in action
and doing things. And that according to some is the
reason why they are called “ dramas,” because they
present people as doing “things. And for this reason
the Dorians claim as their own both tragedy and
comedy--comedy is elaimed both by the Megarians
here in Greece, who say that it originated in the
days of their demoeracy, and by the Megarians in
Sicily,? for it was from there the poet Epicharmus *
came, who was much carlier than Chionides and
Maugnes; and tragedy some of the Peloponnesians
claim. Their evidence is the two names. Their
name, they say, for suburb villages is «Qua—the
Atheuians call them “ Demes "and comedians are
so called not from awudçerv, “to revel,” but because
they were turned out of the towns and went strolling
round the villages (rôpos). Their word for action,
they add, is ôpãr, whereas the Athenian word is
mpórrev. So much then for the differences, their
number, and their nature,
4, Speaking generally, poetry seems to owe its
origin to two particular causes, both natural, From
childhood men have an instincl for representation,
and in this respect man differs from the other
animals that he is far more imitative and learns his
first lessons by representing things. And then there
is the enjoyment people always get from representa-
tions. What happens in actual experience proves
this, for we enjoy looking at accurate likenesses of
Chionides and Magnes we only know that they wexe “ early”
comedians, £.e, in the first half of the fifth century me,
B 13
 ARISTOTLE

eixóvas vãs páliora mrpiBwnévas yainguer Deca

pobvres olov Onpituv TE popfds TDv ârmordTwr ral
a vecpódv. alriwv dé Kai Todro, Ori grvbávem od
móvor Trois priocógors motoror GAMA Kai rois dMÃois
5 duoies, dA) émi Bpaxyd rommrodow abrod. Bia
vãp rolo yaipovor TAS cixóvas dpejvres, ôri evp-
Baivei Becpodvras pavlárem moi ovAÃoyilecdas mi
8 Exaoror, olov ôrt odros êxelvos: érei edr ju) TUNA
mpoempartos, oby P miumna monjoe. vir NDomp
AMA Sea mijy Amrepyaotas 3) Trjr xpordn 3) Std Torairay
Tivà dAAyv airior.
7 Karã gdow dé ôrros úuly rod uiueiodar rob rijs
dppovias Kai 700 pubuoo (rà ydp nérpa ôrt uópra
rév puluiy dori pavepóv) É dpyiis mepucóres ral
abrã udALoTa Kar jucpôv mpodyovres êEyévncar
8 ri moimouw é ródy abrooyedtaouárwr, Dieomáoly
Be xarê TA oixeia 70n À moimois ob ev yáp cepvó-
repor três nadas emiuodvro wpágeis Kai tds Tr
rorUrmr, oi dé elredeorepo: TÃs Tv paúAwr, mpd-
rov bóyovs morobvres, momep érepor duvovs kal
Pp éyrápia. vd per obv mpô 'Ounjpou oúderos Eyopey
10 cimeiv rotodrov moimua, eixôs de elvar moMhovs, do
de “Ounjpov dpauévors Eoriy, ofow Exeívou à Map-
viros mal vã torbra. é» ois Kara vÔ dpuórror
iuubeior jAbe mérpov, dO Kai iaubeior Kodetras
à ox | Hermann for AS oúxi.

“is not clear whether the “ two natural causes ” are

(1) the instinct for imitation, (2) the natural enjoyment of
mimiery by others; or whether these two are combined
into one and the second cause is the Instinct for tune and
rhythm. Obviously this last is an essential cause of poetry.
14
 POETICS, vv. 3-10
things wiágh are themselves painful to see, obscene
beasts, for instance, and corpses The reason is
this. Learnipg things gives great pleasure not only
to philosophers but also in the same way to all
other men, though they share this pleasure only to
a small degree. The reason why we enjoy seeing
likenesses is that, as we look, we learn and infer
what ench is, for instance, “that is so and so.”
If we have never happened to sec the original,
our pleasure is not dué to the representation as such
but to the technique or the colour or some other
such cause,
We have, then, a natural instinct for representa-
tion and for tune and rhythm “for the metres are
obviously sections of rhythms ?-—and starting with
these instincts men very gradually developed them
until they produced poetry out of their improvisa-
tions. Poetry then split into two kinds according
to the post's nature. For the more serious poets
represented fine doings and the doings of fime men,
while those of a less exalted nature represented
the actions of inferior men, at first writing satire
just as the others at first wrote hymns and eulogies.
Before Homer we cannot indeed name any such
poem, though there were probably many satirical
poets, but starting from Homer, there is, for in-
stance, his Margitesº and other similar poems.
For these the iambic metre was fittingly introduced
and that is why àt is still called iambic, becanse it
» e.g. the rhythm of the blacksmith's hammer or of &
trotting horse is dactylic, but the hexameter is « “ section ”
or alice of that rhythm ; it is cut up into sixes.
* A famous burlesque which Aristotle attributes to Homer.
“ Other similar poems ” must mean other early burlesques
not necessarily attributed to Homer,
15
 ARISTOTLE
vor, óri é TO pérpq rodre iáuBuboy AAjÃous
il xol exévorro ré» meaidy oi pêy Wproueddy oé
1288 idufcov moral. wamep de ai A omoudaia,
pólio momrijs “Oumpos f» (uóvos yãp odx óru
<ó dna. sal petijoeis ôpaparucãs êmoinaer) our
real va Ts tecopuepBias oxduara mpódros Umédeiger
ou ifóvor da, Tô yedoiov dpaparomonioas* ó ãp

Mepyirys dvdÃoyov éxet,

é Comep Tás Kal "OBvo-
4a CELA TpÓS TAS TPayudias, ouro mai obros mpôs TAS
reundias.
13 Uapagaveions de vijs Tpaywdias rol rwjupdius
oi éb” exarépav vi moinaw opuidvres Kará mp
oiketav búcw oi quêr dvri ré» iduBev reppdomol
éxévorro, oi dé Guri ré» éméiv rpayqdodddoiado:
da Tô eilova Kai êvrinórepa TO oxúuara elvar
raúra êxeivo.
Tô pév obv êmoroseiy dp” Exer On 7 rpuywdia
Tois eldegur ixavóde 7) od, aúró Te Kad” adro epa!
H nai mpôs rã Oéarpa, dos Adyos. yevopuévm 3º
od? dar” dexis, abrooyediaar ue) — eai abri) nai 1)
rapundia, rea % pey dao é» cEmpyówreov ou ôt-
BúpamBov, 7% dé ámo Tv tá padhixá á êri rol voy
év moMais médy môAemy drapuever vopulópeva-—rorá
gucpoy n06jbm mpomyóvrmr door eviyvero Pavepôv
15 abris" Kai moAÃds peraBodas peraBadodoa 7 Tpay-
i rplvas Forchhammer for As jpiveras à vol,
E yevopéum & ot] Av has the gen. abs. with ob»: the
vpies have the nom. : By. suggests 5" ob», which the sense
us to require.

“ Since the iambic came to be the metre of invective,

the verb iaufife» acquired the meaning “to lampoon,*
E is probably implied a derivation from idarem, “to
assai
16
 POETHS, 1v. 10-16

was the nietre in which they lampooned each other.”

Of the ancients some wrote heroiê verse and some
iambic. Andjust as Homer was a supreme poet in
the serious style, since he alone made his representa-
tions not only good but also dramatie, so, too, he
was the first to mark out the main lines of comedy,
since he made his drama not out of personal satire
but out of the laughable as such. His Margites
indeed provides an analogy: as are the Jiad and
Odyssey to our tragedies, so is the Margites to our
comedies. :
When tragedy and comedy came to light, poets
were drawn by their natural bent towards one or
the other, Some became writers of comedies
instead of lampoons, the others produced tragedies
instead of epics; the reason being that the former
is in each case a higher kind of art and has greater
value.
To consider whether tragedy is fully developed
by now in all its various species or not, and to
criticize it both in itself and in relation to the
stage, that is another question. At any vate it orig-
inated in improvisation—both tragedy itself and
comedy. The one came from the prelude? to the
dithyramb and the other from the prelude to the
phalle songs which still survive as institutions in
many cities. Tragedy then gradually evolved as
men developed each element that came to light
and after going through many changes, it stopped

» Before the chorus began (or in pauses between their

songs) the leader of the performance would improvise some
appropriate tale or state the theme which they vero to
elaborate. Thus he was called é GEápaear or “the starter,”
and became in time the first “actor,”
17
 ARISTOBLE
16 ôia êmadoaro, êmei Eoxe vv aúris dom. «al
Tó re ródv Droxperádv mAnbos É évôs eis do mpódros
Aioyúdos ijyaye mai Tô 700 xopoô jAdrrwoe rai
róv Aóyor apwraywrarip mapecicedacer vpeis de
I7 «Kal crnvoypadiar Boporhfs. éri dé vô péyelos
er pecpv uúdor nai Adécos pelotas dá TO Ei
corupixod peraBadem dje dureoeuvóvên, Tó TE
18 uérpor ék rerpauérpou iaubeiov eyévero. TO prév
vdp mpidror rerpanérpw êxpódvro dià TO carupucijy
Kai ôpynorinwrépar elvar rav moimowm, Adéews dé
vyevopérms abr) À púcis TO oixetov pérpov cúpe,
pdhorTa vão Aeerucov vd pérpmwv TO iapfeiov
19 doruwr" anpetov de rToúron, micioTa vãp ioubeia
Aéyopev é ri diadérrco TH mpôs dAAjÃovs, éÉ-
duerpa dé dAydeis nai êxfaivorres ris Aerreciis
00 dpuovias. êr Bê Emercodiwr mAjên. nai rá dA
cos Exaora nocundivar Aéyeras tora Tuiv elomuévas
21 70h) yãp dv tows Epyor eim Brcêiévar xab? Exacrov,
5. “H dé rwpupdia doriv Somep elvropev piugous
Paviorépwrv uér, oÚ pévrOL KOTA mÃoov rariar,
2 &Ad od aioxpod éori rô yelolov uáprov. Tô yãp
yedotóv dor dudprnná ru ral aloyos dvdduvor al
“A Satyr play was an interlude performed by a tronpe
of actors dressed as the guat-lixe followers of Dionysus.
Hence rpoywiia, “ poat-song.” Aristotle seems so clear about
this that he does not trouble to give a full esplanation.
But we can see from this passage that the Satyr plays were
short, jocose and in the trochaiç metre which suited their
dances, and that in Aristotle's view tragedy was evolved
from these. No example of a primitive Satyr play survíves,
but we can make inferenees from the later, more sophislicatud
18
 POETIÊS, iv. 16-v. 2

when it hhd found its own natural form. Thus it was

Aeschylus
who first raised the number of the actors
from one to two. He also curtailed the chorus and
gave the dialogue the leading part. Three actors
and scene-painting Sophocles introduced, Then as
to magnitude. Being a development of the Satyr
play, it was quite late before tragedy rose from
short plots and comic diction to its full dignity, and
that the iambic metre was used instead of the
trochaic tetrameter. At first they used the tetra-
meter because its poetry suited the Satyrs and was
better for dancing, but when dialogue was íniro-
duced, Nature herself discovered the proper metre,
The iambic is indeed the most conversational of the
metres, and the proof is that in talking to each other
we most often use iambic lines but very rarely
hexameters and only when we rise above the ordinary
pitch of conversation. Then there is the number
of aets. The further embellishments * and the
story of their introduction one by one we may take
as told, for it would probably be a long task to go
through them in detail.
5. Comedy, as we have said, is a representation
of inferior people, not indeed in the full sense of
the word bad, but the laughablo is a species of
the base or ugly. It consists in some blunder or
ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster, an
Cyclops of Euripides and the fragments of Sophocles'
“Ixrevral, The Trackers, We cannot be certain that Aristotle's
theory is historicaly correct; the balance of evidence is
against it. * Masks, costumes, ete,
e"Ugiy” was to a Greek an equivalent 0f “bad,”
“The persons in Comedy are “ inferior ” (see chapter ii), bat
have only one of the many qualities wlich male vo Ugliness
or Badness, via. the quality of being ludicrous and theretore
in some degree contemptible. '
1
 ARISTOTLE
ob Plaprucôr, olov eúbis TO yoiov mpóogbror alo»
xpóv rt rab Pleorpagpévor divev
à dons.
3 Ai uev ot ris pay ias peraBdosis ab Bu cy
éyévorro od AcAjfaoty, % dé tecopundia, dia Tô ui)
omovôdlecõo. dé àpxijs êaber Kai yáp xopôr meapu-
wand pôm! dé more O dpxwr Edwrev, dAN EDedorral
adou. dom dé oxúuará tiva abriis exodons oi
váuevos. abrãs “rowpal umpuovelouras.
Aeyómero: aUris imoral uumpovedovra. tis Dé
mpócwma drédwnrev ) mpodóyous 7 mAjên úro- ris
5 xprrór Kai óga roradra, Vyrónras TO de uúbovs
moteivepa
[ Exixappos Kai Vans
Dópus |?BNTÔ pévOS CEDE dpxis
Bim
éx3
6 Bixedias Abe, rr dé "Abmow Kpdrns mpiiros
mpger dpégevos Ts iauBicis idéas raldÃov smotiy
Adyous ieal púbovs.
7 “KH per oUv emomosa ri) Tpaywia uéxpi pév Tod
ôia pérpov lueyódou pipas elvas omovbaiwy
mrohobôncer vd de tô Hérpor dahod» xe Kai
8 drayyeliar elvas, roúrm Srapépovorm êm Se TO
uúmer 1 gev ómt páliora, meras Urô ia mepiodor
YAlou elvai à pupóv cEaMAdrrem, 1 de êmoroia.
9 dóproros Tê xpóvo, Koi toúray drapéper, Kairot
«à mpidrov dpois é» vais rpaywBinis rodro êmolovv
2 rwpuwdp By. for ÀS eouwdor.
2 rixapuos Koi Pôpuis] cither the names of these carly
Sicilian comedians have becn inserted from the margin [2
as By. suggests, such words as gar yàp “E. xai db. exeidev
have dropped out after ade.
3 uêprod..se Sha éspor peryddov, which only
the ingenuity translate, As | cannot
follow By. in! eyithou | have interred,
itin a bracket.

2 Probably about 465 n.c.

» In the fifth century dramatists submitted their plays to
Ro
 PORBRTCS, v. 2-9

obvious êxample being the comic mask which is

ugly and distorted but not painfult
The various stages of tragedy and the originators
of each are well known, but comedy remains obscure
because it was not at first treated seriously, Indeed
it is only quite late in its history 2 that the archon
granted a chorus for a comic poet ; before that they
were volunteers." Comedy had already taken certam
forms before there is any mention of those who are
calleditspoets. Who introduced masks ox prologues,
the number of actors, and se on, is not known. Plot
making [Epicharmus and Phorrmis]º originally came
from Sicily, and of the Athenian poets Cratesé
was the first to give up the lampooning form and to
generalize his dialogue and plots.
Epic poetry agreed with tragedy only in so far
as it was a metrical representation of heroic action,
but inasmuch as it has a single metre and is naxrative
in that respect they are different. And then as
regards length, tragedy tends to fall within a single
revolution of the sun or slightly to exceed that,
whereas epic is unlimited in point of time; and
that is another difference, although originally the
practice was the same in tragedy as in epic poetry.
the archon in charge of the festival at which lhey wished
them to be performed. He selected the number required by
the particular festival, and to the poeis thus selected “ granted
a chorus,” i.e. provided a choregus who paid the expenses of
the chorus. The carlier “ volunteers” had themselves paid
for and produced their plays.
* Epicharmus and Phormis, being both early Sicilian
“ comedians” (gf. p. 12, note c), are appropriatehere. Either
part of a sentence is lost or an explanatory note has got
into the text.
& Fragments of his comedies survive, dating about the
middle of the fifth century v.c.
Rae 21
 ARISTOTRE
10 sol é» vofs Emeom, uépmy D ori rá pér uid, TÃ
1 Bé ido ris rpaymdias. Biómep doris mepi rpaya
wBias olde omovôaias rai puliys, olde al qrepi
êmóv. à pév yãp Emonotia Exer, úrópyer TI Tpay-
wôia, à de abri, ob mávra év rj) êmomoua.
6. epi uér odv ris év dfauérpors uuumTucis rob
mepi rupuwdias Vorepor Epoúuer epi dé Tpaywbias
Aéyaer dmohaBóvres aúrijs é rd» elpmpérer ro»
2 yrróguevor Opov ris oboias. Eoru obv rpaywbia
pinos mpáfews gmoviaias xai Tedeios péyelos
Exovons, Suauévo Aóyy ywpis Exdorep! rr eldcn
év rois popiois, Spevrwy Kal oU Sv dmayyedias, di
éXéov Kal bóBov mepaivovoa rir vv TotoóTuy mraby-
8 paro Kdbapow. Aéyw de NOvauéVOr uév Adyov TOL
4 Exovra Pvôuov Kai dppoviav Kai peÃos, Tô dé xeupis
rois eldeos TO did uéTpwr évia juóvov mepaiveobas
Kai máAty Erepa Sud pérous.
5 "Emei Sé apdrrovres motobrrar vv piumow, mpD-
Tor pé cÉ drdyems dv eim v% uópiov Tpaywdias 6
ris ôjews nóuuos, eira pelomoia «al Adéis: év
6 TOUTOIS vdp morodrrar Tip piumow. Adyw de Aéguy
pév rabrm cv róv pérpwv oúvleor, peÃomoar
78 O vir ddvamy dovepãr éxer mãoav. éxei de
mpágems sori pipgors, mpdrrerau dé dirô ruédy mpom-
Tóvruv, obs dvdyrm motols quwas elvas Kard TE TO
à êndorp Dyrwhitt for Aº êxcorou,
2 rabryr By, for AS órip.

º i.e. epic poetry.

* Margoliouth's phrase, “a chapter of life,” iluminates
the meaning, since mpã£ts includes what the hero does ond
what happens to him. (Cf. ch. ii. Ene 1 and note.)
22
 POETIOS, v. 10-yvr. 7

The edistituent parts are some of them the same

and some peculiar to tragedy. “Consequently any
one who kngys about tragedy, good and bad, knows
about epies too, since tragedy has all the elements
of epic poetry, though the elements of tragedy are
not all present in the epie.
6. With the representation of life in hexameter
verseº and with comedy we will deal later.
We must now treat of tragedy after first
gathering up the definition of its nature which
results from what we have said already. Tragedy
is, then, a representation of an action? that is
heroic and complete and of a certain magnitude
—by means of language enriched with all kinds of
ornament, each used separately im the different
parts of the play: it represents men in action and
does not use narrative, and tlirough pity and fear it
effects relief to these and similar emotions.* By
“language enriched ” 1 mean that which has rhythm
and tune, i.e. song, and by “ the kinds separately ”
1 mean that some eflects are produced by verse
alone and some again by song.
Since the representation is performed by living
persons, it follows at once that one essential part of
a tragedy is the spectacular effect, and, besides that,
song-making and diction. For these are the means
of the representation. By “ diction” I mean here
the metrical arrangement of the words ; and “ song-
making ” I use in the full, obvious sense of the word.
And since tragedy represents action and is acted
by living persons, who must of necessity have certain
* The sense vf “ the pity of it” and fear lest such disasters
might befall ourselves are not the only emotions «which
tragedy releases, but Aristotle specifies them as the most
characteristic, For adóxpris see Introduction, pp. siiand xiv,
as
 ARISTOTA E

dos Kai rir didvorar—did pãp rodrer rajfrãs tpd-

14504 Fcis clvai paper Toiis tivas, méguxe 9! aires Jvo
ré mpagewv eivas, deávorar Kai idas, Kal rará,
vaúras Koi ruyyávovor ral Amoruyydvovor mdvres
g—éorw d17' rijs pêv mpágews à uúbos nm piumais
Aéyco ydp mibor robror mjy cúvbeow tó mpay-
udruwv, rã dé 70m, Kad” 6 morús tivas elvai dauer
Tous mpdsrovras, Ouivorav dé, év ôgois Aéyovres
dmoderevóaoiy Tt ) mol dmopaivovra. yredjumr.
9 dvdykm oUv mdons Tpoymdias uépm eivar EE, ab”
ô moié tis doriv 1) Tpaywdia: tadra 8º ori púlos
Kai 10 ral Aééis ral Bidvora Kai des mai pedomovia.
10 0Ês pêv yãp punodrras, dvo puépm eoriv, vs de um
poúvras, év, É Ô€ minoÚvTOL, TPLG, KaL apo Taúra
m 0996. tobrors ue» odv obx GAlyoL adrdr ds elmeiy
réxpuvras rois eldeow Kai yôp ôleis Exer vêr KaL
fiãos ral pUdov nai Adéim Koi puédos rKai didvorar
dobras.
13 Méyioror dé roúrwr doriv 1 vv mpayudrwr od-
oragts* 1 yôp Tpuywia piumois dor od dvôpaimeor
dAMã mpdéemws mai Blov Kai eldmuorias <ical warco-
dauorias, 1 dé eddaquoria> mai 7 rarodauovia év
mpúgei oriv Kal Tô TéÃos mpãéis tis eoriv, od moió-
Ts” etoiv dé Karã gêv TO 10% moral ruwes, rara de
18 TAS mpÓéeis eddaiuoves 7) rodvavriov. obkouvr ômws
Tà bn puujowyrar mpárrovorm, GAÃA TA 18 cup-
mapalanfBiárovow Bi TAS mpógeis: Dove rá mpdy-
mara nai à uobos rédos ris Tpayqdlas, TO dé TEÃOS
1 mégure 6 for AC mégpuser and Form dy for dé are both
suggested by By. and seem necessary.
s The “ means ” are dicliou and music: the “manner”
is * spectacle”': the “ objects” represented are actions or
24
 POETICS, vi. 71-12

qualities *»f character and thought—for it is these

which determine the quality of an action; indeed
thought and character are the natural causes of
any action and it is in virtue of these that all men
succeed or fail—it follows then that it is the plot
which represents the action, By “plot” I mem
here the arrangement of the incidents : “ character ”
is that which determines the quality of the agents,
and “ thought” appears wherever in the dislogue
they put forward an argument or deliver an opinion,
Necessarily then every tragedy has six constituent
parts, and on these its quality depends. These are
plot, character, diction, thought, spectaele, and
song. Two of these are the means of representa-
tion: one'is the manner: three are the objects
represented.º This list is exhaustive, and practically
ali the poets employ these elements, for every drama
includes alike spectacle and character and plot and
diction and song and thought.
The most important of these is the arrangement
of the incidents,? for tragedy is not a representation
of men but of a piece of action, of life, of happiness
and unhappiness, which come under the head of
action, and the end aimed at is the representation
not of qualities of character but of some action;
and while character makes men what they are, it is
their actions and experiences that make them happy
or the opposite. They do not therefore act to re-
present character, but character-study is included
for the sake of the action. It follows that the
incidents and the plot are the end at which tragedy
aims, and in everything the end aimed at is of prime
experiences and the moral gr intellectual qualities of the
drumatis personge, ia, “ plot," as defined above,
as
 ARISTOTÍLE
Ja HéproTOv darduremp, Eri áveu qév mpdtebs odx dp
15 yévorro rpaywlia, dvev dé WO yévorr' dv, ai yãp
rédv véwy ródv meiorwr dijleis Tpaywóias eloiv ral
ôAws soimrai moMÃo! TorobroL, olov Kai Tó ypa-
péwv Zevéis mpôs IeMiyunrov mémovber: O uép
vãp Holdyruros dyabos mDoypágos, 7 dé Zevúéidos
16 pag) oúder éxer fdos. érr edu mis épeéio Of
piceus ias mai Aéger Kai Oravoia ed meroimpévas,
<o> mowicei à dr Tijs Tpaypdias Epyor, AMA moAd
H6Mov À Karadecorépois ToúroLsS rexonuévn pays
wôia, Exovoa dé uOlov Kai cdoTagw mpayuáre.
17 mpôs dé roúrois TA péguoTa ois fuyaywyei 1 Tpay-
wôia rod uúbov uépm êoriv, ai TE mepiréreias rob
18 dvaypwpiceis. Eri onpielor órt nai oi Eyyerpoúvres
moieiv mpórepov Suvarras Ti) Adéer Kal rois ijfeow
dxpiBoiv 7) Tà mpiypara ouvioracões, olor Kal oé
mpóros mormral oxedor dmarres.
19 "Apyi per cbr roi olov buy O uõdos rãs rpay-
20 pôias, debrepov de TÀ bn. rapankjorwv ydp
1450b dor» KaL Emb vis ypaducis: ei vão ris êvalchfeie
rois xadÃtorois Papudros xúdmr, obx dv duolws
21 edbpdverer Kai Acuxoypadicas eixóva. dorm qe
pépmous mpátews xal Bd vabryr uádioTa vódy
TPOTTÓVTV.
22 Tpiror dé 7 Bidvoa. robro Sé dorm vô Adyew
dúvacfo: Tà évóvra Kai Tã dpuórrovra, rep éml
vó Adyuy tis wolituris «ol pyropucis epyor

a See p. 9, notea Zeuxis's portraiis were “ideal” (cf

chapter xxv. $ 25).
* See chapter xi.
26
 PORTFTICS, vr. 14-22

importante, Moreover, you could not have a tragedy

withont action, but you can have one without
character-strdy. Indeed the tragedies of most
modern pocts are without this, and, speaking gen-
crally, there are many such writers, whose case
is hke that of Zeuxis compared with Polyenotus.º
The latter was good at depicting character, but
there is nothing of this in Zewxis's painting. A
further argument is that if a man writes a series of
speeches full of character and excellent in point of
diction and thought, he will not achieve the proper
function of tragedy nearly so well as a tragedy
which, while inferior in these qualities, has a plot
or arrangement of incidents, And furthermore, two
of the most important elements in the emotional
effect of tragedy, “ veversals ” and “ discoveries,”?
are parts of the plot. And here is further proof:
those who try to write tragedy are much sooner
successful in language and character-study than in
arranging the incidents. It is the same with almost
all the earliest poets.
The plot then is the first principle and as it
were the soul of tragedy : character comes second,
Tt is much the same also in painting; if a man
smeared a canvas with the loveliest colours at random,
it would not give as much pleasure as an outline in
black and white And it is mainly because a play
is a representation of action that it also for that
reason represents people.
Third comes “ thought.” “This means the ability
to say what is possible and appropriate, It comes
in the dialogue and is tbe function of the statesman's
* Selection and design are necessary for any work cÊ
“ representation.”
E
 ARISTOTRE

23 doriv* ob psy vãp ãpxalos mokuriueéis emolofo Aéyor-

Tas, oi de vêr pnTópuicôs.
24 “Eorw Sé hos pev TO rorbror O ômãoi rijv mpo-
aipeci, ômoid tus év ois guie dor: dijÃov q mpocupeira
7 Pedyer dtómep ob Exouow idos vódv Adyuy é
ois uno” óMus éoriy É Tu mpompeirar 7 peúyer O
Aéywp.
25 Aávora dé, é» ois àmodenevúouoi TE cds Corr 7
cs odk Eorw à) rabóÃou Tu dimopaivovra.
26 Téraprov dé mó év Adym! 3 Aéise, Aéym dé,
domep mpórepor onrau, Adgw eivar To Sia ris
ôvopaoias eppmreior, ê nal émi ródv EupéTomwv Kai
émi rr Adymy Exer Iv aúriy dUvapuer.
27 Tó dé Aoumady [névre] 7 peÃomotia péyrorTor
ag TV Pvopdrev, E) de dis Wgapasyucão pév, à-
Texvóraror de Kai irioTa obxeioy Ts mommucis*
% vãp ris tpaywbias Búvauus ral dveu dyósvos
roi dmorprróy Eorm, Eru de xupiwrépa epi iv
dmepyaciar dy dec 9 rob cxevororl Té)
ris TO somrôr dorum,
7. Arcupropuéveor dé vor, Déyeper mera ratra
molav Tirá det ri cvoragty elva Tô mpaypáreo,
êmeidm volto ral mpóror ral péyrror Tijs Tpay-
1 vô ev dy By. for AS rr pêv Nóywr.
“Cf chapter six.
» Or “in the style of ordinary people, “ without obvious
rhetorical artifice,
“ wpoupeois is a technical term in Aristotle's ethics
corresponding to our use of the term “ Will” the deliberate
adoption of any course of conduct or line of action. Ii is
a man's will or choice in this sense that determines the
goodness or badness of his character, If character is Lo be
revealed in drama, a man must be shown in the exercise
of his will, choosing between one line of conduct and another,
28
 POETICOS, vi. 29-vrm À

or the rPetorician's artº The old writers made

their characters talk like statesnien,* the moderns
like rhetoriciens.
Character is that which reveals choice,” shows
what sort of thing a man chooses or avoids in cireum-
stances where the choice is not obvious, so those
specches convey no character in which there is
nothing whatever which the speaker chooses or
avoids.
“Thought” you find in speeches which contain
an argument that something is or is not, or a general
expression of opinion.
The fourth of the literary elements is the language.
By this I mean, as we said above, the expression
of meaning in words? and this is essentially the same
in verse and m prose.
Of the other elements which “ emich ”º tragedy
the most important is song-making. Spectacle, while
highly effective, is yet quite foreign to the art and
has nothing to do with poetry. Indeed the effect
of tragedy does not depend on its performance by
actors, and, morcover, for achiering the spectacular
effeets the art of the costumier is more authoritative
than that of the poet,
7. After these definitions we must next discuss
the proper arrangement of the incidents, since this
is the first and most important thing in tragedy.
and he must be placed in cireumstances in which the choice
is not obrious, i.e, cireumstançes in which everybody's
choice would not be the same. The choice of death rather
than dishonourable wealth reveals character; the choice of
a nectarine rather than a turnip does not.
& This seems to be a rmistaken reference to 5 6 above
where “ diction ” is defined as “ the metrical arrangement of
the words.” In poetry they come to the same things,
* See chap. vi, 52.
as
 ARISTOTLE
2 vôtas doriv. «elror 5º duiv vir rpaywdlay releias
Kai SAns mpdéems eira puiumom êxobans Tt péyedos:
3écrw vãp dÃov «ai under éxov péyedos. dhov dé
dor TO Exov doyir wai uécov Kai Televrir.
4 doy dé dorw é adrô per pr) CÉ dvdyrns per” EMO
éoriv, per” êxeivo 8" érepor mépurev eira à) yive-
5 aba relevri dé robvarrior à adro per” dAÃo mégurer
elvat 9) 6É dváyrms 7) &s Emi 70 moMÚ, pero dé TOUTO
6 dAo otdéir: uécor dé O mai adro per” dO Kai per”
7 éxeivo Erepov. dei dpa Tods ouveoTáras ed uúbous
nj6º ômódev Eruyer dpycodo. uno” Omov êruxe
redevrár, dA rexpigdar tais eloquévars idémis.
8 “Em 8º êmei TO Kaddv nai Edor roi dar mpâya
Ô ouvéornxer é TIvy ob póvor Tadra Terayjéva
dei Exeiv dA Kai pévebos Úrdoyemw pi) TO TUyÓv
a Tó yãp Kah é peyéder cal roger eoriv, d0 ore
máuupor dy rt yévorro Kaddv Eor (cuyyeiras
vp | Gecwpla éyyis vob dvarabjrou xpóvou yiro-
usa gm) olre mopuéyedes (ob yãp ua 1% Pewpia
viveras dAN olyeras rois Oewpodor mó év Kai TO
dÃov éx ris Oewopias) olov ei pupiwv oradimr ein
10 ZDov" core dei xalásreo exi rr ovoryudramr! rat
êmi vó» Cu Exew ev péyedos, rolro Dé edodr-
omror elvar, obrw «ol exi Tv uúdwr Exemw pév
gíjxos, rodro de edjuymuóvevrov eira.
HW Tog pjxovs ópos <ó> uér mpôs robs dyúdvas Kob
rip aicônow ob Ts Téxums doriv: ei yap Eder Exarôr
2? ovorgnárior By. tor À? copdriwp.

s With a very small object the duration of our vision is, as

ii were, so rapid that the parts are invisible ; we, therefore,
cannot appreciate their proportion and arrangement, in
which beauty consists.
30
 POETÊCS, vm, 211

We have taid it down that iragedy is a representa-

tion of an action that is whole and'complete and of a
certain magritude, since a thing may be a whole
and yet have no magnitude. A whole is what has
a beginning and middle and end. A beginning is
that which is not a necessary consequent of anything
else but after which something else exists or happens
as a natural result. An end on the contrary is that
which is inevitably or, as a rule, the natural result
of something else but from which nothing else
follows; a middle follows something else and some-
thing follows from it. Well constructed plots must
not therefore begin and end at random, but must
embody the formulae we have stated.
Moreover, in everything that is beautiful, whether
it be a living creature or any organism composed of
parts, these paris must not only be orderly arranged
but must also have a certain magnitude of their own ;
for beauty consists in magnitude and ordered arrange-
ment. Irom which it follows that neither would a
very small creature be beautiful —for our view of
it is almost instantaneous and therefore confused “—
nor a very large one, since being unable to view it
all at once, we lose the effect of a single whole ; for
instance, suppose a creature a thousand miles long.
As then creatures and other organic structures must
have a certain magnitude and yet be easily taken
in by the eye, so too with plots: they must have
length but must be easily taken in by the memory.
Lhe limit of length considered in relation to
competitions and production? before an audience
does not concern this treatise. Had it been the
? alvônois is the play's “ perception” by an audience—
how much an audience will stand.
81
 ARISTOTLE
roaywblas dywvileofas, mpôs rAefúbpas dv iyuvi-
2 Covro, domep moté Kal dMoré pac, O de rar”
adm rir quow rod mpdypuaros ópo8, del per O
peito péxpr rod cúvônÃos elvar waMAtwy éori rarã
rô péyebos: us dé dmAds dropicavras eimeiv, év
doq peyébei rarã Tó eixoôs 7) Tô dvayraior Ebeiis
veyvonévuv cunbaiver eis ebruyiar é duoruxias %
É edruxias eis dvoruyiav peraaNew, iavós ôpos
éoriv rod peyédovs.
8. Múbos à doriv els oty domep ruvês olovra
Em mrepi éra 7)" moMa yãp Kai área TO évi cur
faives, E cv eviwr oúdér dorm éu obrus dé nai
mpdéeis évôs moAÃaL cio, CÉ div uia ovdenia yiveras
Smpõéis. dO mávres doixacw duaprdvew co. Tv
moumrór “Hoaxigida Ononida Kai rá roradra mouj-
nora memonjcacw» olovrar yáp, érei els dv O “Hpa-
3 «KAfis, Eva Kai ráv uobov elvar mpoojnem. 53 “O-
umpos doep Koi vô dAÃa diabéper Kal robr” Eoueer
Kad idetv úros Sd rExumr 7) dia picw "Odvocerar
vãp motdp ob Eroinoer dmavra Sea adrd cuvéBn,
olov mAnyiva pév é vD Iapraocd, povivar dé
mpoomonjanados é TO dep, cv oude” farépou
Yyevrojrevou drayicatoy nv <m> euros Bareporv vevéclas,
da epi play mpGéw colar Aéyoper viv "OBbagerar
+ ouvéommosr, Ouoiws dé nai rir Thudda. pi odv,
nabámep Kai é» veis BMhoss paumricais 1) uia puiumols
évós dor, obra Kai rôv uOdor, Exei mpágems jul-
2 cid By. for AS ovôép,
2 Adyouer] the copies have this: At has Aéyoguer, which V.
keeps, inserting à» aftex oluv,
* Aristotle condemns them ali, assuming—or perhaps
assured by experience-—that their sole claim to unity lay in
the fact that al! the stories in the poem had a common hero,
s2
 POETICS, vm, 1l-vna. 4

rule to préduce a hundred tragedies, the performance

would have been regulated by thé water clock, as it
is said they did once in other days. But as for the
natural limit of the action, the longer the better as
far as magnitude goes, provided it can all be grasped
atonce. To give a simple definition : the magnitude
which admits of a change from bad fortune to good
or from goad fortune to bad, in a sequence of events
which follow one another either inevitably or accord-
ing to probability, that is the proper limit.
8. À plot does not have unity, as some people
think, simply because it deals with a single hero.
Many and indeed innumerable things happen to an
individual, some of which do not go to make up any
unity, and similarly an individual is concerned in
many actions which do not combine into a single
piece of action. It seems therefore that all those
poets are wrong who have written a Heracleid or
Theseid or other such poems.” They think that
because Fleracles vas a single individual the plot must
for that reason have unity. But Homer, supreme
also in all other respects, was apparently well aware
of this truth either by instinet or from knowledge
of his art. Forin writing an Odyssey he did not put
in all that ever happened to Odysseus, his being
wounded on Parnassus, for instance, or his feigned
madness when the host was gathered (these being
events neither of which necessarily or probably led
to the other), but he construeted his Odyssey round
a single action in our sense of the phrase. Ánd the
Hiad the same. As then in the other arts of re-
presentation a single representation means a re»
presentation of a single object, so too the plot being

88
 ARISTOÉLE

umois éori, us re elvar raúrys Kai dXjs, Kai TA

E) s - o EA , SN 1 y

uépm auveorárar TOv mpayuárer olrus ore pera-

”

mudenévor vivos pépous 7) apapovpévov drapépe-

f 1 4 ul 4 é Eq

odor Kat ruweioba TO hor! É yãp mpocôr 7) ui

mpocór undév moti éridnÃor, ovder óprov Tod
ôdou doriv,
9. Davepôr dé êx rády eipnuévwr Kai órt od 70 TÁ
yevópera Àéyew, TODTO sromrod Epyov doriv, dMA
oia dr yévorro ral Tô duvard rKará Tô eixôs 9) TO
2 dvayraiov. O yap ioropueôs Kai O momris od TO 7)
1851b êupucrpa Adyev 7) duerpa Biapépovow eim ydp ày
rã Ne 'Hpodórou
4
eisa uérpa
4
vebijvar
a
nai 4 obdér
304
ijrror
E

dv ein ioropia, tis perã pérTpov 7) dvev pérpwv

da roúre diupéper, TO TÓV uv TA yevópuera hé-
a A 4 Eq mm 1 N A EA 4

3 yeu, vô» de ola dv yévorro. di Kai Procoparepor

Kai omovdarórepov moimor ioropias éorivr | qév
vãp moimois pãMov Tê xabdÃov, 17) 8 ioropia Tá
y L AM A ô A É 8º 3 4 a

rob? Exaoror Aéyes.

4 “Eorw dé raboÃov uév, TO moiw TÁ mota drra
cupnfioiver Aéyew 7) mpárrem marã TÔ elos 3) 7Ô
dvayrator, 0d oroxáleras 9 moinois óvóparo emiri-
Deuévm: Tô dé na?” Eemoror, ri" AdriBidôns Empafev
6% vi Emudev. exi pév odv ris Kwpupôias 9ôn robro
a ERRA E A heod Ea] , x E

djÃoy véyorer ovorijoavres yáp rôv podor did rá

elxórev ora TG Tuxóvra dvópgara dmorilégowm Kai
oty comep oi iumBomorl epi vou rab” ExgorTor
3 The names indicate types. This is obvious, as he says,
in Comedy and is also true of Greek Tragedy, which,
34
 POETICS, vim. dx. 5

a represertation of a piece of action must represent

a single piece of action and the Whole of it; and
the component incidents must be so arranged that
if one of them be transposed or removed, the unity
of the whole is dislocated and destroyed. For if
the presence or absence of a thing makes no visible
difference, then it is not an integra! part of the whole,
9. What we have said already makes it further
clear that a poet's object is not to tell what actually
happened but what conld and would happen either
probably or inevitably. The difference between a
historian and a poet is not that one writes in prose
and the other in verse—indeed the writings of
Herodotus could be put into verse and yet would
still be a kind of history, whether written in metre
or not. The real difference is this, that one tells
what happened and the other what might happen.
Tor this reason poetry is something more scientific
and serious than history, because poetry tends to
give general truths while history gives particular
facts.
By a é “ general truth” I mean the sort of thing
that a certain type of man will do-or say either
probably or necessarily. That is what poetry aims
at in giving names to the characters? A “ parti-
cular fact “ is what Alcibiades did or what was done
to him. In the case of comedy this has now become
obvious, for comedians construct their plots out of
probable incidents and then put in any names
that oceur to them, They do not, like the iambie
although it deals with traditional heroes regarded as “real
people” yet keeps to a few stories in which cach character
as become a type. In Chapter xvii. the dramatist is re-
commended to sketch first his outline plot, making it clear
and coherent, before he puts in the names,
85
 ARISTOÍLE
6 modo. em dê rs rpuywbias vv Yeronéror
dvondrev drréxorras. airor 3º ru mibavóv éori
Tô duvaróv. TA prev oUv ui) verópuera Sm miredo-
mer civar duvará, rá dé yevóuera pavepdv óri
7 duvará, oU yãp dv êyévero, ei jv adúvara. od gijy
da Kai é» vais Tpaywôlas évias ev Ev à) dvo
vp yropiuuv éoriv dvopáruwr, rá dé dAÃa memrom-
uéva, év éviais dé od” é», olor é» r&b "Aydôwros
"Avbes: óuolws yão év Todrp TÁ Te mpdypara Kai
rã dváparo memoinrar, Koi oudev irror edbpaivei.
8 dor” od mávrws elvar inryréov ray mapadedopévwr
múbev epi ods ai Tpaywôio. eioly dyréxecda.
Kai yãp yeÃotov robro Lnrelr, éxel xai TÁ yrdpuysa
dAiyois yrópud dor GAN ôuws edbpaiver mávras.
9 Aihov ody éx Tobrwr dr TOv momiv pãNÃov TV
uúdey eva det mom 7) TO pérpwr, dom mom
ris xará mijv uiugoiv dor, pupetras dé vás mpúéeis.
10 Kd dpa cunbi yerógeva moieir, oUber ijrrov mom-
Tós éoru Tv vAp veronévurv Ema older rwAles
vorbra eivar oia dy elxós yevéoda: Kai Suvaró
yevécõas, nab” 8 êxeivos adrédv mommijs doru.
1º Tóv dé dmidr putbov rob mpágewov ai êmercodtd-
deus eioiv yeiproras. Adyw O éxerroduddm dor

º Aristophanes of course did write about individuals,

But Aristotle is thinking of the New Comedy, where the
names of the characters were invented by the author and
there was no reference to real people.
* The name, apparently, of am imaginary hero. The
word might be “Aréos, but “ The Flower” is an unlikely
title for a Greek tragedy.
* The reason why Greek tragedy dealt only with a few
familiar themes is to be found of course in its religious origin.
It was the function of tragedy to interpret and embroider
86
 PORTECS, rx. 6-it

satirists, prite about individuals: In tragedy, on

the other hand, they keep to veal names, The
veason is that what is possible carries conviction,
If a thing has not happened, we do not yet believe
in its possibility, but what has happened is obviously
possible. Had it been impossible, it would not have
happened. [tis true that in some tragedies one or
two of the names are familiar and the rest invented ;
indeed in some they are all invented, as for instance
in Agathon's Antheus? where both the incidents and
the names are invented and yet it is none the less
a favourite. One need not therefore endeavour
invariably to keep to the traditional stories with
which our tragedies deal. Indeed it would be
absurd to do that, seeing that the familiar themes
axe familiar only to a few and yet please all.
It is clear, then, from what we have said that
the poet must be a “ maker” not of verses but of
stories, since he is a poet in virtue of his “ representa-
tion,” and what he represents is action. Even
supposing he represents what has actually happened,
he is none the less a poet, for there is nothing to
prevent some actual oceurrences being the sort of
thing that would probably or inevitably happen,
and tis in virtue of that that he is their “ maker”
Of “ simple” é plots and actions the worst are
those which are “episodie” By this 1 mean a
myths. Aristotle never gives this reason, but offers instead
the unconvincing explanation that tragedians adhered to
certain “ real” stories to gain verisimilitude-—and yet he has
to admit that, since to many of the anditors these stories
were unfamiliar and none the less attractive, dramatists might
just as well invent new themes, '
& “This term is defined in the next chapter. It seems odd
to use it before its meaning is explained. Perhaps we
should rcad &Nhwv (Tyrwhitt) and translate “ of all plois.”
37
 ARISTOTLE
. ev B rã emerródia per” NÃo. obr gixôs our”
1º udyim eloa. vertdrar Bê motodvraL vo per vó
paúlur comedy à abrovs, dmro dest» ayaday
Bd. Tods Úmoxpirás: dywvricuara yãp motobvres Kal
tusoa TOPA tipo dúva guy mapareivavres pôbor, moAAdieis
Wo Sugorpéperm dvayicáçorrar To epesijs- emei dé ou
móvov redeias ori mpágems 7 pinos Ga, eai
pofepó» Koi Eeeivódu, abra de piveras sai pulÃcoTa
[cab Ao» |" ôra» éra maçã rijv dólar de
12 dMnda- ER) yãp Jovpasrór oúreus Eber [SA q7) eé
dó Tod abrondrou Kai Tijs Tóxms, Emei Kai rr
darô TUxms radra Bavpacuirara doxei doa mamep
érirndes paiverar peyorévas, otov ws O drôpids O
vo9 Miruos é “Apyer dsréxTemev Tôv airiov Tod
Bavárou TO Miru, Becopodyru Epmreoçõo: Eouce yãp
18 TÁ rodra, oúx elf) yerécbar. core avdyrm Tods
voroúrous eirar KaAdiovs púbous.
10. Eloi, de To» próbeoy oé pes doi oi dé memhey-
pévorr rea vãp ai mpágeis div puuoes oÊ Dbi
Selo ômdpyovor eúbds obcas ombros Adya dé
dA quer mpBÉim às vwonévas Somep Sproras
ouvexods Koi quis dveu mepirereias 1) divayues-
3 prouod % peráBaois piverau, memkeypémy dé Aéye
ds? uerá dvayropropod ) mepurereias 9) dgupoi» à
a peróBaois éorw. rTadra dé det yiveodor EÉ aúrijs
* goi uanhor] bracketed by Spengel: V. keeps these
words and suggests that a line ending in a second pdhra
has been lost just before them.
2 werheyutrg Ot Atyw ds] suggested by By, for Aº me
mheyutom dé AdEis. NV. has rerheyutom dé form & às.
s Or “logic” He means lhe chain of escnuss and eflevt,
whercin each incident is the resnlt of what has gone before.
Sec the end of the next chapter.
38
 POETIÉS, 1x, 11-x, é
plot in «which the episodes do not follow each other
probably or inevitably. Bad poets write such plays
because theyscannot help it, and good poeis write
them to please the actors. Writing as they do
for competition, they often strain a plot beyond its
capacity and are thus obliged to sacrifice continuity.”
But this is bad work, since tragedy represents not
only a complete action but also incidents that cause
fear and pity, and this happens most of all when
the incidents are unexpected and yet one is a
consequence of the other. For in that way the
incidents will cause more amazement than if they
happened mechanically and accidentally, since the
most amazing accidental occurrences are those which
seem to have been providential, for instance when
the statue of Mitys at Argos killed the man who
caused Mitys's death by falling on him at a festival.
Such events do not seem to be mere accidents. So
such plots as these must necessarily be the best.
10. Some plots are “ simple” and some “ com-
plex,” as indeed, the actions represented by the plots
are obviously such. By a simple action I mean one
that is single and continuous in the sense of our
definition above wherein the change of fortune
occurs without “reversal” or “discovery”; by a com-
plex action I mean ane wherein the change coincides
with a “ discovery ” or “ reversal” or both. These
» The logie suífers from elipse. Plays which fail to
exhibit the sequence of cause and effect are condemned
(1) because they lack the unity which befts tragedy,
(2) because they miss that supreme effect of fear or pity pro»
duced by incidents which, though unexpected, are seen to
be no merc accident but the inevitable result of what has
gone before.
* In chapters vil. and viii.
39
 ARISTOÚLE
ris ouorágecs roê góbor, bore ex réu npoyeyerm-
pevwr cuubolveir 7 éÉ dvdyrys 9) rará TO eixos
viyveodar raúra: deapépes vap moldrro viyreodos
ráde dd rdde 7) perã Tdde,
11, "Eor dé mepuréreia uév à eis TO dravriov ródy
mparropévwv perafoM) rabdmep elonrai Kai roiro
dé omep Adyouer xará TO eixos 7) dvayraiov:
a corep é ÃO Oidimod EAwr ds edppavédy vou
Oidimovr Kai amadháéwr vol mpôs Tm» unrépa
óBou, ônhdoas ds dv, robvavrior éxoincer xob
ev rd Avyrei O pév áyóueros ds dsrodavoúneros,
36 dé Aavads dxohovicy Às dmoxtevódy, vóv pév
ouréBm êx tv mempayuévwr diobaveir, vor dé
owbijvaL.
é "Avayvápiois dé worep Kai Tolvoga onpaiver CÊ
dyvoias eis pro peraBoAm 7) eis pular 1) eis Ex
9pav ray mpôs eúruytar 9) duoruyiar dprauévesr
Ss kalliorm de draeyrepiors, drav dua meprrérerm
8 yiveoprar otav" êxei 7) é vã Oidimod: eioiv ger
odv Kai dAhu dvayrewpicers ral váp mpôs diuya
nal rá ruxórra dor «bg ômep* sipnros oupfaiver,
Kal ei mémpayé ris 7) um) mémpayer Ear dvayrm-
7 picar GA à páliora v00 púdou Kai 1) páloTA TÃS
1 oiay By. for Aº ofor,
2 às grep Spengel for Aº bomep which V. keeps, marking
a lacuna. before if.
º Atthe end of chapter vil. See Additional Note, p. 116.
* The messenger from Corinth announces the death of
Polybus and Oedipus's suecession to the throne. Oedipus,
feeling now safe from the prophecy that he would murder his
father, still fears to return to Corinth, lest he should fulfil
the other prophecy and marry his mother. The messenger
secks to reassure him by announcing ihat Polybus and
Merope are not his parents. But the effect of this was to
40
 PORTIÓS, x. &-xr, 7
should result from the actual structure of the plot
in such a way that what has already happened makes
the result inevitable or probable ; for there is indeed
a vast difference betwcen what happens propter hoc
and post hoc,
11, A “veversal” is a change of the situation into
the opposite, as described above, this change being,
moreover, as we are saying, probable or inevitable—
like the man in the Oedipus who came to cheer
Ocdipus and rid him of his anxiety about his mother
by revealing his parentage and changed the whole
situation» In the Lynceus, too, there is the man led
off to execution and Danaus following to kill him,
and the result of what had already happened was
that the latter was Killed and the former escaped.”
A “ discovery,” as the term itself implies, is a
change from ignorance to knowledge, producing
either friendship or hatred in those who are destined
for good fortune or ill, A discovery is most effective
when it coincides with reversals, such as that involved
by the discovery im the Oedipus. There are also
other forms of discovery, for what we have described
may: in a sense occur in relation to inanimate and
trivial objects, or one may discover whether some
one has done something or not. But the discovery
which is most essentially part of the plot and part
“change the whole situation” for Qedipus by revealing the
trath that he had murdered his father, Laius, and marricd
his mother, Jocasta. This “reversal” is the more effective
because it is immediately coincident with the discovery of
the truth.
* Lynceus married Hypermnestra who disobeyed Danaus
in not murdering him. Danaus trying by process 0f law to
compass the death of their son Abas was killed himself.
“The dog it was that died.”
4
 ARISTOTLE

mpdéews 1 elpmpévm dorir 1) vão Toby dvayreá-

Hab prois mal mepuréreia 7) EXcov éée 7) Pópor, vim
mpdéemy 1 rpaypdia pinos Umórertar Eru dé ab
rô druyeiv ral Tô edruyeiy émi vádp rorodra
orubiceras.
8 “Emei 5) 1) dvayroprois rwdy dove dvayyáprors,
ai pév Darépou mpós Tóv Erepor góvor, órar 1) SiÃos
érepos tis eorim, Oré dE duporépous det drayrm-
picas, olor À per “Ibuyévera To 'Opéorm dveyrm-
ptobn êx vis mémbews ris éxioroMis, éxelvy Bê
mpôs vv Ideyévesar dAdys Eder dvayvwpicems.
9 Avo pêr odv 100 uúlov uépn epi radr” êorá,
mepiréreia rol dvayrópross rpiror dE smábos.
roúrwy dé mepiréreia ev Kai dvayuóprors elpnraL,
10 mádos dé dor; mpõéis Plaprua) 7) odurapd, oiov ob
TE e E Pavepf) Odvaror Kad ai TrEpUDÔVVICS Feb
rpúsets Koi ôca rorabra,
12. Mépm dé rpaywbias ois mév cos eldeos det
xpiicõa mpórepov elmojer, Karã dé Tô gocôv Kai
eis à duupeiras rexwpiauéva Tdde êgriv, mpódoyos
2 exerúdrr Efodos xoptóv, Kai roúrou TO uév máp-
3 080s Tô BE ordoiar” row pév ddvrav radra, tia
BE rá darô vis crnrijs ral Kómgos.
& “Eorw dé wpóloyos pév pépos Sor rpaypdlas
570 mpô xopoi wapódov, ererródiov dé pépos dAov

* Euripides Inhigeneia in Tauris— Orestes and Pylades

arriving among the Tanri are by the custom of the country
to be sacrificed to Artemis by her priestess, Iphigencia, It
is agreed that Pylades shall be spared to carry a letter from
Iphigeneia to Orestes, whom she supposes to be in Argos.
In order thal. Pylades may deliver the message, even if ha
should lose the letter, she reads it aloud, Orestes thus dis-
Ed
 PORTICS. ar. 7-xm, 5

of the action is of the kind described above, for such

a discovery and rveversal of fortune will involve
either pity o” fear, and it is actions such as these
which, according to our hypothesis, tragedy re-
presents; and, moreover, misfortune and good fortune
are likely to turn upon such incidents.
Now since the discovery is somebody's discovery,
“im some scenes one character only is discovered
to another, the identity of the other being obvious ;
but sometimes each must discover the other. Thus
Iphigencia was discovered to Orestes through the
sending of the letter, but a separate discovery was
needed to make him known to Iphigeneia.e
We see then that two elements of the plot, re-
versal and discovery, turn upon these incidents, A
third elementisacalamity. Of these three elements
we have already described reversal and discovery. À
calamity is a destruetive or painful occurrence, such
asa death on the stage, acute suffering and wounding
and so on,
12. We have already ? spoken of the constituent
parts to be used as ingredients of tragedy. The
separable members into which it is quantitatively
divided are these: Prologue, Episode, Exode,
Choral Song, the last being divided into Parode and
Stasimon. These are common to all tragedies ;
songs sung by actors on the stage and “ commoi”
are peculiar to certain plays.
À prologue is the whole of that part of a tragedy
«hich precedes the entrance of the chorus. An
covers who she is. He then reveals himself to her by
declaring who he is and proving his identity by his memories
of their home.
* Tn chapter vi.
48
 ARIsTOTLE

STpaywdias Tô peragd dAwv xopucv pedir, Eéodos

dé jiépos Bhor Tpaywdias ued” O obx dor; yopod
7uedos: xopucol dé mápodos pêv W mpwúrm AéEis
8 6Ay xopod, ardoimor dé uédos xopod TO dveu dra-
9 maiorov Kai rpoxaiov, Kóugos dé Opijros Koiós
xopeô Kai àmô cxnvis.
10 Mépm de Tpaywbios ols per <ods cidcor> der
xpicêa. mpórepor eimauev, Karã dé TÔ mocór Kai
eis É Srarpeirar Kexupronévo radr! êoriv.
13. “Oy 86 det aroxdleofa: xai à dei elduBeioda
cuvrioTávras vods uúbovs xai smóbdev Egrar TO vis
Tpayôias Epyor, edeéis ày ecl Aciréov vols voy
2 cipmuévors. eme) odv dei qr cúvlecw elvar ris
Koddiorys Tpaywdlas ui dir dAÃA memeyuémp
Koi raúryr doBepidv Kai EXceódv elvar juiuapriejp
(roiro yãp idtov ris vorabrys mjjoews éoriv),
mpiror prev dijÃov órs obre TOds émueixcis dvôpas
dei perofiaMovras fuivecha É edruyias eis duo-
ruxiar, oU vãp poBepov oúde éXcewov rolro dAMd
3 piopóv eoruw obre Tods poxbmpods é áruxius eis
elruxiav, àrpayawdóraror vãp voir Cori wávrer,
14534 oUdEv vOp Exer iv dei, obre vãp dulavbpwmor ouve
4 EXecidv odre poBepóv dor ovo” ad Tôv opódpa
govnpór É eúruxias eis duoriyiar peraminvew: TO
per váp duldrôpwnor êxo. dv 6 ToLaórm uUorasis
dAA” aire Exeor obre poBov, O gêv yáp sepi vóv
1 gay Susemihl for At ghou,
º This does not apply to surviving Greek tragedies, but
may be true of those of Aristolle'stime. The word Stasimon
is applieá to all choruses in a tragedy other than those sung
during entry or exit. It is usually explained as meaning a
“stationary song,” because it was sung alter the chorus
had taken up its “ station ” in the orchestra,
4d
 à
PORTICS, xm. G-xur. 4

episode is the wholc of that part of a tragedy which

falls between whole choral songs, An exode is the
whole of that Part of a tragedy whieh is not followed
by a song of the chorus, A parode is the whole
of the first utterance of the chorus. A stasimen is a
choral song without anapaesis or trochaics? À
commos is a song of lament shared by the chorus and
the actors on the stage.
The constituent parts to be used as ingredients
of tragedy have been described above; these are
the separable members into which it is quantitatively
divided.”
13. Following upon what has been said above we
should next state what ought to be aimed at and
what avoided in the construction of a plot, and the
means by which the object of tragedy may be
achieved, Since then the structure of the best
tragedy should be not simple but complex * and one
that represents incidents arousing fear and pity-—
for that is peculiar to this form of axt-—it is obvious
to begin with that one should not show worthy men
passing from good fortune to bad. That does not
arxouse fear or pity but shocks our feelings. Nor
again wicked people passing from bad fortune to
good. That is the most untragic of all, having
none of the requisite qualities, since it does not
satisfy our feelings º or arouse pity or fear, Nor again
the passing of a thoroughly bad man from good
fortune to bad fortune. Such a structure might
satisfy our feelings but it arouses neither pity nor.
fear, the one being for the man who does not deserve
* The whole of chapter xii Dbears marks of belonging
to the Poetics but seems out of place, since it interrupts the
discussion of “ plot” º See chapter x.
3 i.e. our preference for “ poctic justice,”
G ER
 ARISTOTLE
avdéiov dor dvoruyodvra, O dé mepi TOP ômotor,
> 4 LA 3 E) e ) ] 1 “

éxeos uev mepi vôv dudgiov, GóBos dé sepl TOv

Ed 1 E A z 4 f 1 b] A

ôgotov, core obre Edecwov odre dopepóv êora TÔ

cuuBaipor.
O peragó dpa Toúrwv Aouwrós. éori BE rorodros
e AREA + Eq E 4 Ea)
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ruxiar MÃO 8 duapriav tva rd é peyúdm 006%
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dvrwy «ai edruxia, olor OiSimovs xai Quéorms ab

8 oé êx TAv TOLOUTeV perádr Emupaveis dvÔpes. drdyrm
dpa vóv ralos Exovra púbor ámhoDy eiva, uãMor
7)A dumÃodv,
Ea
Domep
LA
ruésL pao, Koi N peraBdAeim L
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eis ebruxiav Ex Quoruxias GAMA Todvavtiov EÉ cede
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mpidrov gév yãp oi mourai rods Tuxóvras uúdovs
dsrmpibovy, vir dé mepi dAiyas oixias ai xdAAoTaL
rpoywôia. cuvridevtas, olov mepi "Adrualwva Kai
OlSimowr sai "Opéoryr Kai Meléaypor rai Quéoryy
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5) maleiyA
dewã 7) morjooL.
8 “H uér od»& nará viN réxemo radio rpayewbia
9 êx raúrys ris cvordoemws dort. Gt xai oi Eúpi-
miôn eyxadoures [70]! adrô dumprivovom óri
radro Spã év raio Tpayedics mai moAÃai abrod eis
10 duoruyiar Teleurdom. vodro ydo dory omrep
à ro] By. brackets for sake of sense,

* See Additional Note, p. 117.

? &mhois clbewhere in the Poetics means “simple” as
46
 à
POETICS, x. 4-10

his misfortune and the other for, the men who is

like ourselves-—pity for the undeserved misfortune,
fear for the man like ourselves—so that the result
will arouse neither pity nor fear,
There remains then the mean between these.
This is the sort of man who is not pre-eminenily
virtuous and just, and yet it is through no bad-
ness or villainy of his own that he falis into the
misfortune, but rather through some flaw in him,”
he being one of those who are in high station
and good fortune, like Oedipus and Thyestes and
the famous men of such families as those. The
successful plot must then have a single ? and not, as
some say, a double issue; and the change must
be not to good fortune from bad but, on the
contrary, from good to bad fortune, and it must
not be due to villainy but to some great flaw in
such a man as we have described, or of one who is
better rather than worse. This can be seen also
in actual practice. For at first poets accepted any
plots, but to-day the best tragedies are written
about a few families—Alemaecon for instance and
Oedipus and Orestes and Meleager and Thyestes
and Telephus and ali the others whom it befell to
suffer or inflict terrible disasters.
Judged then by the theory of the art, the best *
tragedy is of this construction, Those eritics are
therefore wrong who charge Eurípides with doing
this in his tragedies, and say that many of his end
in misfortune. That is, as we have shown, correct.
opposed to werheyuévos, “complex”: here it is opposcd
to dmhais, which describes a double dénouement, involving
happiness for some and disaster for others.
* This is modified by 5 19 in the following chapter, where
he finds an even better formula for the tragic effect.
47
 ARISTOTLE
etonras Opbóv. qmustor dé péyroror Emi yãp Tó»
” 4 17) EA E) 31 4 IA y ”

cknvéjv Kai Tv dycvwr TpayiRdraras ab ToLadras

palxovrar dv Karopômbdom, ral é Eopiridys ei
EA A) - Y e RR H Ed

Kai rá dAha um) ES oinovopel âMa vpayuecdrarós

1 ) Ea 1 x» 2 a > 1 £ 4

ve TD TomTOv PaiveraL.
1 Acurépa Sº À mpórm devoném Uno tewvôdy dora
ovoTadis 3) BurAijy TE Tv oborao Exovoa raldrmep
1 "Odvogea nai rekeuródoa cÉ êvavrias rois Beh-
o NS 1 m ERA) + a

z 1 f ô Em dé s Ao) É) A 1
i2 Tioo: KaL yetpoci. DokeL dE eivar tpwrm dd env
ré Bedrpwv dobléverar, dicodoviodo: yap oé morar
18 Kar” eyijr motodvres rois Dearais. Eorw BE oby
avr dsrô Tpaywõias 7007 GAMA LãAÃov TS revjuo-
e 2 1 + É 15 A E En

dias oixelar êxet ydp oi dv êxlioro. dow é TO

núbmw, ofov "Opéorys Kai Alyiados, PiÃo: yevógueros
” 2 A J

émi rekevris efepyovrar noi daobvionet oúdeis

vm” obdevós.
usb 14 "Eoruw jév ob TO PoBepor Kai êXeemov éx
1 h]

vis ôfews yiyvecdar, Eorw Bé Kal EE abris vis

Em , 7 a o

cvaTácews ródv mpayudrev, órep êorTi smpórepor

2 Kul mosmrod dueivovos. dei yáp roi Gvev roi dpâv
E f End E El Ea

our cuveorávar TÔv uDBov Dare róv diovovra TÁ

mpdyuara yuómevro moi dpirrew ral Eeciy é rr
1 , > es Ea

q 4 3 4 a
cuuBavórreav ámep àv mao: tis dicobwr róv rod
3 Oidimov uidov, 7ô de dd Ts deus rodro mapo-
oxevdlew drexvórepor ai yopnyias dedueróv doru,
,

& ob dé ur) TO poBepov Bd vijs des Ea

GAMA TO Tepa-
>

réddes jpóvor smapackeváltovres ovder Tpaywdia

“ Against Euripides Aristotle makes the followinp criti-
48
 PORTICS, xur, 10-xxv. 4

And there is very good evidence of this, for on the

stage and in competitions such plays appear the
most tragic of all, if they are successful, and even if
Euripides is in other respects a bad manager, yethe
is certainly the most tragic of the poets.
Next in order comes the structure which some
put first, that which has a double issue, like the
Odyssey, and ends in opposite ways for the good
characters and the bad. Itis the sentimentality of
the audience which makes this seem the best form ;
for the poets follow the wish of the spectators. But
this is not the true tragic pleasure but rather
characteristic of comedy, where those who are bitter
enemies in the story, Orestes and Aegisthus, for
instance, go off at the end, having made friends,
and nobody kills anybody.
14, Fear and pity sometimes result from the
spectacle and are sometimes aroused by the actual
arrangoment of the incidents, which is preferable
and the mark of a better poet. The plot should
be so constrncted that even without secing the
play anyone hearing of the incidents happening
thrills with fear and pity as a result of what occurs,
So would anyone feel who heard the story of Oedipus.
To produce this effect by means of an appeal to the
eye is inartistic and needs adventitious aid, while
those who by'such means produce an efieet which is
not feaful but merely monstrous have nothing in
cisms: (1) his choruses are often irrelevant; (2) the character
of the heroine in his Zphigeneia in, Tauris is inconsistents
(3) in the Medea the deliberate killing of the children
is ineffective and the play is inartistically ended by the
machina:; (4) the character of Menelaus in the Orestes
is needlessiy depraved; (5) Melanippe is too philosophical
for a woman.
49
 ARISTOTLE,
rorewvodow: ob yáp mãcav del Emreir ndowjy àmô
Pa
E rpaywôias BIS ivDo oixelav.
da tua! DA de GÊ virdO àmó
émei Bu
éXéou xai SóBov Bo pujujoems dei Gdomj! mwapa-
okeválew TOv moimriv, pavepór «os Todro é» Trois
mpdypasi eumormréou.
6 oia cdr dewá 5) mota oirrpã faivera ródp cup-
,
menróvrwv, ,
AdBwpev. Er
dydyey de Va7) piAmv
a! 5
eira
mpôs dAMjÃous Tàs Totaúras mpágeis 9) exOpv 9)
À a z h! 4 ! a z (2) Em] a

7umderéepov. dv qpêv obv éxôpos exOpór, oúder

8 EXecuvór obre mawidv ore pé, mAM)y Kar” abrô
970 máfos: od”
N LO o”
&y underépuws Exovres:
n E ” 4
orar 8º er 8 a

rais prims exyérnras rã mály, olov ei adedos

Lo) t % EM x 4 ” » k] A

dSeAbov 7) vios marépa 7) púrmp vidv 7) ulds umrépa.

> A o! e Z o! 4 es A" es t

dmonrelver 7) uéNEL 7 TE AAÃO TOLOUTOV Ôpã, Tara,

Enruréov.
10 Tods pér odv mapemunévovs púbovs Adeiy odx
ore, Aéye de otoy vir RAvraynjorpar deo-
Gavodvar imo vob "Opéorou sai rir "EprfvAmy drô
Ea e À) os Eq + A > 4 ia !

N ro9 "Adrpuimvos, abrôv dé edpioxem Bei mai mois

mapadedonévors ypioda roÃOs.
Tô dé nais ri Adyouer, elmwpev capéorepor.
A x al ! Zz »” Z

12 ori per váp obra viveodar jr mpãém, damep ob

maÃaro! Emolovv eidóras mal yupredorovras, Kadámep
not Ebpuridys êmoincev dmorrelvovcar rods saidas
Eq
18 rj» Myjdeiav. dor dé mpõêas pév, Eyvoonras dé
“ That there «were plays which relicd for their cffect on
the scenery and “make up is clear from chapter xyiil,
“The Phorcides and Prometheus and Scenes laid in Hades,
It was even possible to produce the Bumenides so badly
as to bring it into this category. But Aristotle's criticism
here includes the more important point that the poignancy
of a Greek tragedy is due to what happens and not to our
50
 POETÍICS, xrv, 4-13
common with tragedy.? For one should not seek
from tragedy all kinds of pleasure but that which is
peculiar to “ragedy, and since the poet must by
“ vepresentation ” produce the pleasure which comes
from feeling pity and fear, obviously this quality
must be embodied in the incidents.
We must now decide what incidents seem dreadful
or rather pitiable. Such must necessarily be the
actions of friends to each other or of enemies or of
people that are neither, Now if an enemy does it
to an enemy, there is nothing pitiable either in the
deed or the intention, except so far as the actual
calamity goes. Nor would there be if they were
neither friends nor enemies. But when these
calamities happen among friends, when for instance
brother kills brother, or son father, or mother son, or
son mother-—either Kills or intends to Kill, or does
something of the kind, that is what we must look for.
Now it is not right to break up the traditional
stories, I mean, for instance, Clytaemnestra being
killed by Orestes and Eriphyle by Alemacon, but
the poet must show invention and make a slcilful
use of the tradition.
But we must state more clearly what is meant by
“skilful” The action may happen in the way in
which the old dramatists made their characters act-—
consciously and knowing the facts, as Euripides ? also
made his Medea kill her children, Or they may
do the deed but without realizing the horror of it
secing it happen. That Medea murders her children is
tragic: to display the murder coram populo would add
either nothing or something mexely “monstrous.” And
although Sophocles shows Oedipus with his eyes out, it is
the fact and not the sight which is properly “ tragie.”
* See Additional Note, p. 117,
5
 ARISTOÍLE
mpáéo: Tô dewdv, elo” Jorepor dvayrwploas vip
prilav, comep à Boporhdovs Oldimovs! Tolrto uév
7 e e 4 ar os A

or êécu roi Spúuaros, é 3º abri ri Fpaywdia. olor

OSAD “Adeuataor
,
OSA "Acruddmarros
Sd,
7)É OE Tnlévo
InAéyovos Pes
é ev
ia TO rpavparia *Oduooel. Ert dé rpirov rapá radra
TO péXovra moteiv ru Tv dugréoTauv Ô àyvoar
drayreoplomu mpiy morjoa. ai rapá tadra ob
IS core dAAws. 7) ydp mpõém dváyem 7) ui) Kal
IGeidóras ) um) eibóras. vobrwr dé TO jêv pired-
ckovTa puelAfcas nai um) mpãéas velprror Tó Te yap
miapôr éxer, Kal od rpayixóv: dmabés vip. dimep
sta oúbeis motel doiws, ei um) OAtyáxis, olov dv" Avri-
> b] a e + 2 A 3 L E] E)

17 y0vn tóv Kpéovra d Aluwr. TO dé mpõéas dedrepov.

Eq 1 Cut e « A A Fed £

18 Bédrior dé 7ô dyvoodrra pér mpõêar, mpágavra dé

4 1 1 > Eos 1 m 4 A

dvayrwpioas Tô TE YOp piapdv oU mpógeoTir «ai d

19 dvomyrópros ermAniTiKóv. iepáruoror dé Tô Tedeu-
ratov, Aéyw dé olov év TO Kpeopóvrn 7 Mepómy
Em) f A y 3 El F q E)

Hed es 7Ov vlôv dmorereieim, dimorereúves de od, dA

E A 1 es > A > A 4 ” > >

dveyribpioer, Koi év Ti Tbryereig j á5eAdr) qov

dBeApór, mai ep Rg) “EMAy dó vios Tv uurTépa éx-
Bidórar pv dveyvedpioer.
20 Ai yãp Todro, ómep mrádau elomras, ob arepi moda,
A A La 4 4 ” 3 1 A

pyém ai 7payqpdia eloiy, Luroôures yãp odx dó

réxens AM amo róxns elpov Tô Totodrov Tapa
areválem ev vois uúbois. dryayrdlovras obr em

“ à.e. Oedipus kills his father Latus before the play opens.
* A prolific tragedian of the fourlh century.
º Haemon, discovered by his father Creon embracing
the dead body of Antigone, drew his sword on bim but
missed his aim and Crcon fed.
“ By Euripides. Polyphontes killed Cresphontes, king of
5a
 4
POETICS, xrv. 12-20

and then discover the relationship afLerwards, hke

Oedipus in Sophocles. That indeed lies outside the
play,? but anºexample of this in the tragedy itself
is the Alemacon of Astydamas? or Telegonus in
the Wounded Odysseus. A third alternative is to
intend to do some irremediable action in ignorance
and to discover the truth before doing it. Besides
these there is no other way, for they must either
do the deed or not, either knowing or unknoying.
The worst of these is to intend the action with full
knowledge and not to perform it. That outrages
the feelings and is not tragic, for there is no calumity.
So nobody does that, except occasionally, as, for
instance, Haemon and Creon* in the Ániigone,
Next comes the doing of the deed. It is better to
act in ignorance and discover afterwards. Our
feelings are not outraged and the discovery is
startling. Best of allis the last; in the Cresphontes,
for instance, Merope intends to kill her son and does
not kill him but discovers; and im the Iphigeneia*
the case of the sister and brother ; andin the Helle*
the son discovers just as he is on the point of giving
up his mother,
So this is the reason, as was said above,” why
tragedies axe about a few families. For in their
experiments it was from no technical knowledge
but purely by chance that they found out how to
produce such an effect in their stories. So they are
Messenia, and gained possession of his kingdom and his
wife, Merope. She had concealed her son, Aepytus, in
Arcndia, and when he returned, seeking vengeance, she
nesily killed him in ignorance but discovered who he was.
He then killed Polyphontes and reigned in his stead.
º* Im Tauris. Sec chapter xi, 3 8, note.
* Author and play unknown, * Ses chapter xiii, 8 7.
cz 58
 ARISTOTLE
raúras Tás olxias Gmavrãv cas TÃ Tora cuja
BéBnue mada. .
at epi pêv ob ris Tóv mpeyuirer ovorácems
Kai moiouvs ruas elvor del vods jtdovs elonrar
ixavóds. .
15. Iepê de vá 70 rérrapá éoruw dv del oroyá-
2 LeobaL, Ev pév mai mpódror órus xpyorá d. efe
dé MÃos per édv comep EXexlm mori paxepdv é Adyos
) 1 mpãéis mpoaipeciv tua, [7] xpnorôr Sé edu
sxpyorijr. êoriy de é» Exdorap véver: ral vão yum
coTt” xpnoT)) Kai doidos, Kairo. ye laws TobIW
Tô juêv xeipov, TO de dAws pabhór eorur.
4 Acúrepor Bê TÃ dpuórrovra dor vãp dryôpeiov
pév Tó bos, dAN oby dpuórror yurauneip vÔ
dvôpeiov 7) derm)y elvar.
5 Tpiror dé vô ôpotov. todro yáp Erepor To8 xpn-
orôv 7ô jbos Kai dpuórrorv mova domep elonras.
6 Téraprov dé 7ô duadóv. xdv vão ducduuhás res
9 6 rir miumow mwapéxev Koi Totobrov fDos dsro-
Tibeis, Ôueus OuaAids dvápiadorv dei eivar.
7 “Eorw de mapúdemyua mormpias per úbous qui
8 dvayratov? olov é Mevélaos 6 év rm "Qpéorm, rod
de dmperois «al um dpuórrovros é te Bpijvos
"Osvocéws é» tj LixvdAn xai q tis Meduvimans
1 yuramelo +) By. for AC qurun v% vó The copies
have rô. * drayralou (fem.) By. for AS dvayralor.
º See chapter ix. 8 8, note. * Sec chapter vi. 8 24,
s The meaning probably is “ like Lhe traditional person,”
e.g. Achilles must not be soft nor Odyssens stupid. Cf.
Horace, Ars Poet. 120 “ famam sequere."
& Avistotle has a personal distaste for this character on
the ground that Furipides made him a creature meaner
than the plot demands.
õ&
 POBTICS, xrv. 20-xv. 8

obliged to have recourse to those families in which

such calamities befell.º
Now concéming the structure of the incidente
and the proper character of the plots enough has
been said.
15, Concerning “ character ” there are four points
to aim at. The first and most important is that
the character should be good. The play will show
character if, as we said above,* either the dialogue
or the actions reveal some choice; and the character
will be good, if the choice is good. But this is
relative to each class of people. Even a woman is
“ good” and so is a slave, although it may be said
that a woman is an inferior thing and a slave beneath
consideration.
The second point is that the characters should
be appropriate. A character may be manly, but
it is not appropriate for a woman to be manly or
clever. +
Thirdly, it should be “like.” e This is different
from making the character good and from making
it appropriate in the sense of the word as used above,
Fourthly, it should be consistent. Even if the
original be inconsistent and offers such a character
to the poet for representation, still he must be
consistenthy inconsistent.
An example of unnecessary badness of character
is Menelaos im the Orestes ?; of character that is
unfitting and inappropriate the lament of Odysseus
im the Seylla* and Melanippe's speech?; of in-
s À dithyramb by Timotheus, Cf chapter xxvi. 53.
* A fragment survives (Nauck 484), Euripides seems
to have given her a knowledge of science and philosophy
inappropriate to a woman.
à5
 ARISTOTLE

gpjous, rod dé drwndiov 7 év AXIS. Ibryérera

cUúdEv ydp Eoucer 9) ixeredovoa 17) Dorépa.
10 Xp) de ral év rois ileom Domep rai ev +f vv
1 N 1.3 Ea) Eu A ..s “o A

mpoypdreov gvoráger dei Enreiy n TO dvayraiov 7

Tô elxós, more Tó» ToLobror rã Toraúra Aéyeiv 1)
mpderew 7) avayralov 7) eixôs Kai TobTo perá oiro
yiveofa 7) dvayiator 7) cixós,
109º Davepóv od» ôr. Kai Tás Aúgeis TAP púlwr É
adrof det rod púbov ovufalver Kai ui) Domep év
uso 7 Mydeia dó pmyavis sat év ri) “IAtdOL TÊ srepi
10º 7Ov dmrómÃouv' GAÃS unxyavi) xpnoréov Emi rá Ebw
Toi dpámaros, 7 ôga mpô TOU yéyover à ody oióv
re dvBpemor eidévor, 7) dva Vorepov & Belrar mpo-
ayopeúcemws Kai dyyedias' dravra vãp dmodidojner
10) mois Beois ópãv. dAoyor dé under elvai év rois
mpdyuaoi, ei dé ui, EE TIS TpOypdias, otov Tô
é ré) Oidimod: Tr DopoxAéovs.
nº “Emel dé niunois dor |) Tpaywdia Belridrr,
inês dei peueiodos Tods dyabods elxovoypagous
nai yêp exeivor dmodibóvres rip idiar mpoppiy
ôuoious motobvtes Kadhious ypdpovow ouro Kai
a Or “unravelling”
» f), 5, 1585-181, where it is only the arbitrary (Le. un-
caused) intervention of Athene which stays the flight o!
the Greeks. In the Medea lhe heroine, having killed her
rival and her children, is spiriled away iu the chariol of the
Sun, a result not “ caused” by what has gone before.
e The unyarm or “car” was a sort of crane with a pulley
altached, which «as fixed at the top of the back-scene in
the left corner of the stage. By ita god or hero could be
lowered or raised or exhibited motionless in mid-air. Weak
dramatists thus introduced a car to “cut the knot” by
declaring the déncuement instead of unraveling the plot
by the logic of cause and effect. It was presumably ou
such a “car” thal Medea was borne away.
56
 POETICS, xv. 9-11

consistent character Iphigeneia in Aulis, for the

supplant Iphigenecia is not at all like her later
character.
In character-drawing just as much as in the
arrangement of the incidents one should always
seek what is inevitable or probable, so as to make it
inevitable or probable that such and suth a person
should say or do such and such; and inevitable or
probable that one thing should follow another.
Clearly therefore the “ dénonement”“ of each
play should also be the result of the plot itself and
not produced mechanically as in the Medea and the
incident of the embarkation in the Jhad? The
“god in the car” * should only be used to explain
what lies outside the play, either what happened
earlier and is therefore beyond human knowledge,
ox what happens later and needs to be foretold in
a proclamation. For we ascribe to the gods the
power of seeing everything. There must, however,
be nothing inexplicable in the incidents, or, if there
is, it must lie outside the tragedy. There is an
example in Sophocles" Oedipus.?
Since tragedy is a representation of men better
than ourselves we must copy the good portrait-
painters who, while rendering lhe distinetive form
and making a likeness, yet paint people better than
& ig. Ocdipus had killed Laius in a wayside quarrel, not
knowing who he was, When his subjecis at Thebes erave
his help to remove the enrse which is blighting their crops,
he pledges himself to discover the murderer of Latus.
may seem odd that he should not know enough about the
details of the murder to connect 3t in his mind with his own
murderous quarrel. But that was long ago, and neither an
audience nor a novel-reader is critical about incidents which
oceur long before the point at which lhe story begins, See
chapter xxiv. $ 20,
57
 ARISTOTLE

TÔL momrijy psoUpnevOr KaL OpyiÃous Kai palúgavs

1.” 1 A Y, DAM ana /
Kai TádÃa rÊ Tordra Exovras éri ródu NO ToLwú-
Tous ôpras émtenceis morei: [mapadempa orAn-
pórnros | olor rór " Axuhéa * Ayddar rai “Oumpos.
rabra 8) dLarnpeiv Kai mpôs roúrois Tás mapã Tás
to
m

éÉ dvdyens dxoÃoulodcas alubnces Tf mori:

3 a Z 3 L 2 Ed a o

nai yãp Kar abdrãs for duaprávem modhdris:

clonras dé mepi aúrddp é Trois exdedouérois Adyors
E) 1 1 ED! s mo ) EA 4

ixavós.
18. "Avaypoprais Sé ri pév Core, clograrmpórepov:
clômy dé dvayrwpicemws, mpúrm pêv q drexporára
roi À mheiorn xpóvrar de
h) ag A, , Ea >
dmropiar, | Bá
3 FA E A
ro»
ms

2 onpeitov. Toúrwmv Bê TA juêv obupura, olov “ Aóyygr

+ t 4 A A . Eq e <a 4

ju bopodar myeveis ” 4 dorépas otovs é TO Quéorn

a Pe Mona / “ 3 m 4

3 Kapxívos, Tá dé Exixrnra, Kal robrwv TA pév Ev TO

ocógare, olov ovais TÁ dé exTOs, TA mepidépara
A E) ] f y 1 3 4 A Es

1.” E) nr A 1a 24
& nai oioy é rj Tupoi da ris oxágms. êorw dé 1 ai ,
”

toúrors xpijodas 7) Bédmiov 7) xeipov, olov "Odvogeds

dd rãs ouAfs dMes dveyrmploln úmo vijs tTpoçod
1 By. brackets mupddemua cxNypórgros which looks Hkc a
marginal note.

º* Apparenty «a nole on Achiles which has been copied

by inistake into the text.
é i.e. stape-craft rather than staging.
o Às distinct from the body of “ esoteric” doctrine
circulated by oral teaching among Aristotle's pupils.
4 Yn chapter xi.
58
 PORTICS, xv. l-xvr, 4

they are, It is the same with the poet. When

representing people who are hot-tempered or lazy,
or have othêr such traits of character, he should
make them such, yet men of worth [an example of
hardness|2; take the way in which Agathon and
Homer portray Achilles.
Keep, then, a careful eye on these rules and also
on the appealto the eye? which is necessavily bound
up with the poet's business; for that offers many
opportunitics of going wrong. But this subject
has been adequately discussed in the published
treatises.
16. What a “ Discovery” is has been already
stated.! As for kinds of Discovery, first comes the
least artistic kind, which is largely used owing to
incompetence-—discovery by tokens. These may
be congenital, like “the spear the Earth-bom
bear” or stars, like those which Carcinus * uses in
his Thyestes;? or they may be acquired and these
may be on the body, for instance, wounds, or
external things like necklaces, and in the Tyra?
the discovery by means of the boat. There is a
better and a warse way of using these tokens; for
instance Odysseus, by means of his wound, was
discovered in, one way by the nurse and in another
mn mf the carly fourth century. The
issted in Aristophanes” IFasps.
“ ibese were “ birtn-maris,” The “spear-head ” dis-
tinguished the descendants of the Spartoi at Thebes; the
star or bright spot on the descendants of Pelops com-
memorated his ivory shoulder, and in Carcinus's play it
seems to have survived cooking.
9 A play by Sophocles. Tyro's twins by Poseidon, who
appeared to her in the guise of the river Enipeus, were
exposed in a little boat or ark, lixe Moses in the bulrushes,
and this led to Lheir identification.
59
 ARISTOTLE
s sai dAAws Úrô rd» cuBoródy. elol yáp ab pév mia
orem Evera drexvórepor, Kai ai TOLAbraL mãoar, ab
de éx mepurereias, domep 7) év rois Nimrpos,
q Bedrions. deúrepal dê ai memomuévar Úrô rod
moiroU, do dreyror. oiov "Opéorms é» rj Idu-
yereia dveyvóprosr óru "Opéorms" exeivm ev vão
78d ris emuroAis, éxcivos dé aúros Aéyer & Boú-
dera O tomris AN oby O uúbos: dó eyyús ru
ris eionuévas ipaprias coriv, ci vão dv éra
sai êveyreiv. «ai év r) Boponhéous Inpei dj rijs
Kepiidos pan.
8 “EH vpiry dd prjuns TO dxleoda! 1 iBóvra,
1u5sa Domep 1 é» Kumpioss Tois Araoyévovs, ddr yãp
vi vpapjv Exhaucer, nai 1) év "Adxivov àrodóyio,
dicovur vãp Tod mubaprrod ab puynobeis cdd-
rpucer, ô0ev dveyvwpioêncav. terdprm dE ) dx
o

cviÃoyionod, otor é Monbópois, ôrL Gmoios TIS

nos
éxjAvber, óuoros dé oúbeis dAN W é "Opéorns,
* x0ecôm] AS has aicbérêa which does not really yield
satisfactory sense, as the outward sign is essential to this
form of discovery.

a Qd, six. 886 aq. and xxi. 205 eg. The first came about,
automatically, the second was a deliderate demonstrativa
“to prove the point,” Aristolle here distinguishes belwcen
a discovery inevitably produced by the logic of events (ag.
it was inevitable or at least probable that Odysseus, arriving
as à strange traveller, should be washed by Euryeleia, and
that she should thus see the old secar on his thigh and discover
lis identity) and a discovery produced by a deliberate
declaration (ed. Odysseus's declaration of his identity to
Eumacus). The latter kind is “manufaciured by the poet,"
not logically caused by what has gone before,
* Od. xix. 892, Ses preceding note.
º Euripides! Iphigeneia in Tauris. Secchapter xi. 88, note,
60
 POETICS. xvr. 5-9

way by the swinc-herds.* Discovery scencs con-

structed to prove the point are inartistic and so are
all such scenes, but those are better which arise out
of a reversal scene, as, for instance, in “ The Wash-
ing”? In the second place come those which are
manufactured by the poet and are therefore inartistie.
For instance, in the Iplsgeneia” Orestes revealed
himself. She was revealed to him through the
letter, but Orestes says himself what the poet
wants and not what the plot requires. So this
comes near to the fault already mentioned, for he
might just as well have actually brought some
tokens? And there is “the voice of the shuttle ”
in Sophocles' Tereus.
The third kind is due to memory, to showing
distress on seeing something, An example oÊ this
is the scene in the Cyprians by Dicacogenes; on
seeing the picture he burst into teus”: and again
in the “ Tale of Alcinous,” ? hearing the minstrel
he remembered and burst into tears; and thus they
were recognized. The fourth kind results from an
inference; for instance, in the Chotphoroe “ Someone
like me has come; but nobody is like me except
& To prove his identity Orestes mentions Pelops" lance
and other “things from home,” which is much the same
as producing visible lokens.
* When Philomela's tongue was cut out, she wove in
embroidery the story of her rape by Tereus. Thus the
facts were discovered to her sister, Procne, by deliberate
demonstratien.
* Teucer, returning to Salamis in disguise and seeing a
portrait of his dead father Telamon, bursi into tears and was
thus discovered. So, too, in The Two Gentlemen of Verona
Julia is discovered because she syoons on hearing Valentine
offer Sylvia to his rival.
“ Od, vii. 521 sq.
6
 ARISTOTLE
otros dpa eXjduber. xai 7 Holveidov Toi cogi
orod mepi ris Ipryeveias: eixos yãp qov "Opéoryy
Ee o A

cuAdoyicasdar óru 7 7º Adel) ErUÔY rcai abr cup-

F 4 ss. Nos E + 1

Baiver Búcobar. nai é rr Weodéxrov Tudei, ôr

eXOem cos ebpjomr vidr adbrós drdAâvrar. Kai 1
a N € E f sa 3 1 > E4 1 €

é» vols Duveidars: iBoduar yãp Tôv Tómov ouveloyi-

cavro tir eiuapuévm» Ort év Todr eluupro ámos
Oaveiv adruis, mai vap eferébncar êvradda.
30 ar
“Rory dé tis nai ouvber) éx mapadoyrojuoU rod
+ Y À 2 o E]

Bedrpov, oiov é» TD "Odvocer rã fevdayyéde: O

1 , o, x J 4 a a. E 4 1
mer yãp Tó Tógov Ebm yuciaecdar O odx Ewpúker, TO
dE cs Om! êxeivov dvayrwprdvros dt rovrou
movia, mapakoyionós.*
NH Iacôr dé Peiriorm drayreóprors 1 EÉ adróv Tôv
mpoypáror vis exmAúécos yiyvopgévms By eixó-
Ea 2.4

reuv, otov [0] é» rip BoporAdovs OiBimod: ral ri)

P, 5] 3 mos Aé: St 8 + e

di
duyevelar eixos yãp Boúlecas émibeivas ypájr
F ED A [4 2 Ens 4

pora. ci yOp ToLubra póvor dvev róv merom-

12 pévwv ommeiwy Kai mepidepalwv. Seúrepar dé aé
êr culdoyiopnod.
1
i Tyrwhtt for As de.
AC pnhoyro nor, sugurested by V, and
46 and the Arabic transeript,
“A Sophist who either wrote an Fehigencia with this
uement or mere probably pussested mn a work of
(cf chapter avi, $ 6) that Orestes on being led
bouid speentate loud upon the odd coincidence
Uai bolh he and bis sister shout be sacrificed, thus revosling
his identity to Iphigencia. Like most critics, Polyidos
would have been a poor dramatist. There is an example of
this form of discovery in the, French opera. Ceur de Lion,
where the old knight says “ goddam ” and is thus dis”
covered to be an Englishman.
* In these cases the inference was presumably uttered
sa
 POETICS, xvr, 9-12

Orestes; therefore he bas come.” And there is

Polyidus'sº idea about Iphigeneia, for it is likely
enough thatOrestes should make an inference that,
whereas his sister was sacrificed, here is the same
thing happening to him. And in Theodectes'
Twdeus that “ having come to find a son, he is
perishing himself.” And the scene in the Phineidae,
where on seeing the spot the women inferred their
fate, that they were meant to die there for it was
there that they had been exposed.»
There is also à kind of fictitious discovery which
depends on a false inference on the part of the
audience, for instance in Odysseus the False Messenger,
he said he would recognize the bow, which as a
matter of fact he had not seen, but to assume that
he really would reveal himself by this means is a
false inference.*
Best of all is the discovery which is brought
about directly by the incidents, the surprise being
produced by means of what is likely-—take the scene
in Sophocles' Oedipus or in the Iphigencia-for it
is Hkely enough that she should want to send a
letter. These ave the only discovery scenes which
dispense with artificial tokens, like necklaces? In
the second place come those that are the result of
inference.
aloud and hence the identity of the speakers discovered,
Nothing else is known of these plays.
* See Additional Note, p. 117,
2 The classical esample of these tokens in English drama
is “the slrawberry mark on the left arm” in Boy and
Cox. But Aristotle seems here to use “tolens” ina wider
sense than at the beginning of the chapter and to include
not only birthinarks, necklaces, ete,, but any statement
or action which may be used as a sign in the scene of
Discovery.
6s
 ARISTOTLE

17. Ac dé Tods púbovs ouviorávas Kai Th) Adfer

ovvamepyólecda Ori udLoTa Tpô OpudTmr qubé-
uevov out ydp &v evapyéorara [6]! Spr domep
map" abrois puyvógevos Trois mparronévors elpioxoL
Tô mpérov xai mora dv Aaubávo. [76] rá Umevavria,
gonuciov dé vrolrou 8 éxerpãro Raprivy: O yâp
“Aubiipaos CE (epod drjer, O ui) Opvra? «ou
mormrir* exdvbavev, émb O vis crnvijs ebémecer
3 dvoxepavdvrav rodro ré Dearór. doa dé duvaror
nat Tois oxúuaor cuvamepyalópevor. muava-
rarot yãp dxo ris adris pÚcews ob é» vols máleatr
elow «ai yemuaiver O yemualóperos Kai yakemalves 5
4 ópyilóueros dAmbwdrara. do epuois 1) morri
dormi 7) pavixod: Toúrem» Yãp ai mév edmAnoroL oi Be
êxcrarikoi elo.
5 Toús re Aóyous xai Tods memomuévovs dei Kai
mes b abrór sopra erribecdor raboÃov, el” obrws
6 meroodrodv Kai mapareivem. Aéyw de ouros dr
Dempeiofar vô rabóÃou, otor ris "Ibiyerelas: Tum
Belons Tivôs xópns Kal aparibelons dôjiws rots
Bdoaow, iBpuvbeions dê eis dv xdipar, é À
à By. brackets é which the copies emit: perhaps we
should keep à and insert somrds.
S dpôvra ÀS.
“ womrhe] E cannot persuade myself that Scurip Aº gives
any sense and have adopted Dacier's sugpestion.
à êxurarixol appenrs in oncofthe copies: Athas deragrinol,
“ The cxample is obscure. Clearly Carcinus introduced
an absnrdity which escaped notice until the play was staged.
Margoliouth suggests that if Amphiarans were a god he
should come down, and if a mere hero, he should not have a
temple. In The Master of Ballantrae Mrs. Henry cleans
a sword by theusting it up to the hilt in the ground—which
is iron-bound by frost, “This wonid be noliced on the stage :
a reader may uúss the incongruity.
Bá
 PORTICS, xvrr. 1-6

17. In constructing plots and completing the effect

by the help of dialogue the poet should, as far as
possible, keep the scene befwre his eyes. Only
thus by getting the picture as clear as if he were
present at the actual event, will he find what is
fitting and detect contradictions. The censure
upon Carcinos is evidence of this. Amphiaraos was
was made to rise from a temple. The poet did not
visualize the scene and therefore this escaped his
notice, but on the stage it was a failure since the
audience objected.? “The poet should also, as far as
possible, complete the effect by using the gestures.
For, if their natural powers are equal, those who are
actually in the emotions are the mest convincing ; he
who is agitated blusters and the angry man rages
with the maximum of convietion.? And that is
why poetry needs either a sympathetic nature or &
madman,* the former being impressionable and the
latter inspired.
The stories, whether they are traditional or
whether you make them up yourself, should first
be sketched in outline and then expanded by putting
in episodes. I mean that one might look at the
general outline, say of the Iphiseneia, like this: A
certain maiden has been sacrificed, and has dis-
appeared beyond the ken of those who sacrificed
her and has been established in another country,
* Sir Joshua Reynolds used thus to simulate emotion before
a mirror, Tn his Preface to ihe Lyrical Ballads Wordsworth
says that lhe poet will wish “to bring his feelings near to
those of the persons whose feclings he describes . .. and
even confound and identify his own feelings wilh theivs,"
See also Burle, On the Sublime anel Beuntiful, de de
* “Genius to madness near allied” is the meaning of
govirds as used herc. Plato held that the only excuse for
a poet was that he couldn't help it. 6
5
 | ARISTOTLE
vógos ju Todg Éévovs vei rj De, radrmv Eoxe mp
iepwodryv xpórp de vorepor TA doAdO curéBy
eAdeiy vis iepelas, TO dé Ort dveidev O Deós dá tiva,
airiav [Efw TOU rabóhou]" EAeiy êxet nal ep O qu
dé eéw rod púldov Nav dé nai Anfheis Bico
HéMAwr dveyuciproer, ci” os Edpuridys lb” cs
HoAdeidos éxoincer, xará Tô eixos eim Ori ox
dpa póvor riu ddeApr dAMA Kai adrôv éde rubirar,
7 Koi ênreidey 7 cwrnpla. erô taira dé 0)
8 Uúmolévra rã dvógpara emesgodroUv: ómews dé dora
oixeia Tô emeicddia, olov é 7 "Opéory À maria
8 ds EXjgOn Kai 7) owrnpia did vis rabdpoeus.
? “Er uév obp rois dpápaciy TA Emercódia obvrona,
10%) 8º émomoiia voúrois punrúveras. ris yãp "Odvo-
veias ob parpôs à Adyos eariv: dmodnuolvrós revos
Erq moMd xol mapaguiarronévoy Uro rod Ilocs-
dévos Kal póvov ôvros, Eri dé múy olkot oúrmws
êxórTwv dove vã ypipara óxô punorápwr dy-
oAioreodas Kai rôv uior emBoviedeodar, aúros de
Opecveiras yeaobeis roi dvayvupicas ôri* adrés,
embégevos adrós mêv eocibn rods 5” exbpods du
LI édlere. TO uév odv tBtor rodro, rá O” dAda êmeco-
ódia.
18. “Bor: dé adons Tpaywdias vô uêr Bémis TO
dé Adois, TA puév Eémber nai éra Tv Eowbev moA-
1 Duentzer brackets these words which seem to be an
explanation 'gf EE rob gúlou with reference to the use oÉ
xu00Ãou in $ 5
2 ôm By. for Aê rivás,
“ See Pp 62, note a.
* In the Inhigeneia in Tauris Orestes is caplured becanse
he is suffering from a fit of mania; and at the end Iphigeneia
pretends that the image of Artemis has been infected by the
blood-guiltiness of the Greek strangers, and that, before they
66
 POETICS, xvrm, 6-xvrr. 1

where it is a custom to sacrifice strangers to the

goddess ; and this priesthood she holds. Some time
afterwards ithappens that the brother of the priestess
arrives there—the fact that the god told him to go
there, and why, and the object of his journey, lie
outside the ouiline-plot. He arrives, is seized, and
is on the point of being sacrificed, when he reveals
his identity either by Buripides' method or according
to Polyidos,? by making the very natural remark that
after all it is not only his sister who was born to be
sacrificed but himself too; and thus he is saved.
Not until this has been done should you put in names
and insert the episodes; and you must mind that
the episodes ave appropriate, as, for instance, in the
case of Orestes the madness that led to his capture
and his escape by means of the purification.?
Now in drama the episodes are short, but it is by
them that the epic gains its length. The story of
the Odyssey is quite short. A man is for many years
away írom home and his footsteps are dogged by
Poseidon and he is all alone. Moreover, affairs at
home are in such a state that his estate is being
wasted by suitors and a plot laid against his son,
but after being storm-tossed he arrives himself,
reveals who he is, and attacks them, with the xesult
that he is saved and destroys his enemies, That is
the essence, the rest is episodes. .
18. In every tragedy there is a complication and
a dénouement.: The incidents outside the plot
and some of those in it usually form the complication,
can be sacrificed, she must cleanse both image and strangers
secretly in the sea. Thus they all escape together by boat.
e The Greek says simply “tying” and “loosing”
Complication and dénouement scem clumsy conivalents,
yet they are the words we use in dramatic erilicism,
67
 ARISTOTLE
2 Adxis À Bécis, TO dé Aveumor 7 Adois. Adym de Séow
poév eras my dm” dpxis méxp: Tolrou vob pépovs
ô doyaróv core EE 0d peraBaivem eis córuxiar cér
dvoruxias ovupaiver 7) É edruxias eis Buoruyiar>)
Aúow dé iv dad vis dpxis ris perafidcews péxpt
s rélous* diomep é& TO Avyret TO Qeodérrou déois
Hev TÁ TE mporempayéva «ai 7 TOU maidiou Aifis
Kai 1 qmdAy
4,
7e abródr,
1. /
<Avois>? a
5º qr Àesdao 4 risa airid-
1.4

cews 708 Oavárou uéxp. TOD Tédovs. Bixo» dé

El m +

Kai rpapyewdiar dAMmr «al rijy abri Aéyem oddevl

1 o AAA 1 1 DA Aé ê. Y

tous TO uUbm robro dé, Oy 1 adm) mÃoxi) Kai Alois.

Es A” L Ee) 4 e Ç E x 1 4

mohhoi dé mAééavTes ed Aúovor roxids: dei dé duo

dei rparelodar
4 Tpaywlias dê ciôm eloi récoopa (rocadra yãp
5 Kai rã pépn EXExO),M) pev memdeypévm, Às TO ÔÃov
s Ny f 33 É t A EA “4

6 eoriy mepurérera Koi dvaypóprors, 7) dé vabnriai,

7 olov oi re Alovres Kai oi "Igtoves, 1) Sé Wuei, olov
1usãa é Dlibrides Kal é Ilmheds. 7ô Bé rérapror dpus;
8 olov ai re Doprides Kai Il pougbeds rai doa év dou.
9 piora juév oúv dravra det meipãodas Exew, el dé
1 The inserted words are V.'s suggestion and obviously
needed.
3 One cf the copies gives Aúeis, which is clearly wanted,
3 The words dlxator dé +.» + Kpareicôu come in À“ al 1456 b
lines 7-10, 1 have adopted Susemihl's suggestion and trans.
ferved them here for the sale of the sense. oúder Tyrwhitt
for Aº ovder,
“Achas vô 8 vérapror ons: byus, very close to ops in
uncials, is By.'s conjecture,

“ See p. 4l, notec. The boy must be Abas, and “they”

are presumably Danaus and perhaps his other danúgihters.
68
 POETICS, xvim. 2-9

the rest is the dénouement. I mean this, that the

complication is the part from the beginning up to
the point whith immediately precedes the oceurrence
of a change from bad to good fortune or from good
fortune to bad; the dénouement is from the begin-
ning of the change down to the end. Fox instance,
in the Lynceus of Theodectes the complication is the
preceding events, and the scizure of the boy, and
then their own seizure; and the dénouement is
from the capital charge to the end.?
Tragedies should properly be classed as the same
or different mainly in virlue of the plot, that is
to say those that have the same entanglement and
dénouement, Many who entangle well are bad at
the dénouement. Both shoulú always be mastered.
There are four varieties of tragedy—the same as
the number given for the “ elements " ?—first the
complex kind, svhich all tams on reversal and dis-
covery; the “ calamity play” like the stories of
Ajax and Ixion; the “character play” like the
Phthiam Pomene and the Peleust The fourth
element is spectacle, like the Phoreides* and
Prometheus, and all scenes laid im Hades. One
should ideally try to include all these elements or,
Aristotle seems to regard the arrest of Danaus not as part of
the Aúgis, but as the end of the décis.
* Apparently the reference here is to the four elements
into which in the course of chapters x.-xy. Plot has been
analysed, “ Reversal,” “ Discovery," “ Calamity)! and
“ Character.” But the symmetry is spoilt by the fact that
his first species, “ the complex play,” corresponds to the fest
tuo of these four elements, viz, to “ Reversal" and “ Dis-
covery.” Thus his fourth species is left im the air and he
hurriedly introduces “ Spectacle ” as the fourth correspond-
ing element, Other explanations scem even sillicor than this.
* By Sophocles, * Both Sophodes and Euripides
wroto a Peleus. * Sec Add, Note, p. 118.
89
 ARISTOTLE
Es TÃ péyrora nau viera, dAAws ze Kai cos vôv
curoparrodaw rods moradas: Veyoróre vãp xad”
Exuarov mépos dyabéy morri, Exdorou TOD idlou
dyadod ágiodor Tou éva dmepBdAesim.
12 Kpi) de ômep
6 clprprau modâdeis usuvijodas ral 1%
13 roieiv émomouor cvormpra TPEypdiar. Emomouiôr
dé Aéyw [88] rô mokúuulov: olov ei mig or vis
14 Thiddos dAov mori uúbov. éxel uév yáp did TO
uícos Aaufáver rá mépn TÔ mpérov jéyebos, é»
dé rois Spúuaos mod smapã mijv dmóAmbu dmoBalves,
15 onuueiov dé, dgo: mépowm "Íhiou dA» émoincar Kai
mw) Kara uépos vomep Evpuriôns, <i> NidBmr sal
nm cdomep Aloyúdos, 7) Exmimrouow 9) rardds dycori-
Cortar, émei ai ' ÁAyálar eféreger év TolrTm uóry.
16 é» dé vais mepurereiors Kai év Tois dudois mpdy-
poor croxdtovra v Bovlovras Buvpactóds: tpa-
17 ytcôv vôp rodro «ai Pudvôpwmor. éoriy dé rodro,
órar à copôs pev perã movmpias <B'> efasrarndh,
Womep Etovpos, xal O dvôpeios uev ddicos dé
UA ? 4 “ E Ea) 1 Es )

18 rnb. Eoriy dé vodro eixos domep, “Ayábeor

Aéyer, eixos yãp piveodar moda nai mapa vó ciós.
19 Kai tóv xopêv de éva dei dmodaBeiv rédo úro-
perde seo póptov elvar rob ôhou au cuaunite
oba ui) Domep Edpuriôn dA” damep Bogoihe.
so rois dé Aourois TA ddópueva colder> pãAÃo» oi
púdor à) Ads mpuywbios éêoriv: dó euBólqua, ddov-
&
cu mprou âpfavros "AvdBwvos roê Totoúrou.
Kairos Té dragepei É7 EuBóda, dõem 7) el pjow eÉ
ârÃou eis indo ápuórros
à à exeroddeoy PAov;
19, Ilepi pêv odr ródr dAMeuv Fm clonar, Aourôr
“ à.e. those that have no “ Discovery” “ Reversal”
See chapter x.
70
 POETICS, xvir. 9-x1x. 1

failing that, the most important and as many as

possible, especially since it is the modern fashion
to carp at póets, and, because there have been good
poets in each style, to demand that a single author
should surpass the peculiar merits of each,
One must remember, as we have often said, not
to make a tragedy an epic structure: by epie I
mean made up of many stories—suppose, for instance,
one were to dramatize the Hiad as a whole. The
length of the Ihad allows to the parts their proper
size, but in plays the result is fuil of disappoint-
ment. And the proofis that all who have dramatized
the Sack of Troy as a whole, and not, like Euripides.
piecemeal, or the Niobe story as a whole and not
like Aeschylus, either fail or fare badly in competition,
Indeed even Agathon failed in this point alone.
In “ reversals,” however, and in “ simple ” stories *
too, they admirably achieve their end, which is a
tragic eifeet that also satises your feelings. This
is achieved when the wise man, who is, however,
unserupulous, is deceived—like Sisyphus--and the
man «who is brayve but wicked is woxsted. And his,
as Agathon says, is a likely result, since it is Hkely
that many quite unlikely things should happen.
The chorus too must be regarded as one of the
actors. It must be part of the whole and share in
the action, not as in Euripides but as in Sophocles.
In the others the choral odes have no more to do
with the plot than with any other tragedy. And so
they sing interludes, a practice begun by Agathon,
And yet to sing interludes is quite as bad as trans-
ferring a whole speech or scene from one play to
another.
19. The other factors have been already discussed.
a
 ARISTOTLE
20 mepi Adéews Kai ôravoias simeiv. vô pêv odb
mepl rip Bidvorar év rois mepl Pnroppreijs neisôeo,
3 rodro rap, tdov pãAÃov éExeivms ris Hededou. éort
dE rarà rj” didvorar vaira doa úrmô rod Adyou dei
a rapacrevachipvar. pépmy dé TovTwr TÔ TE dgo-
Berxvivas Koi vô Ade Kai 7ô vdbm mapackevdlemw
usb (olov EXeor 7 PóBov 7 Opyiy Koi doa Toda) «ai
6 ér; péyehos Kol pucpórmras. SjÃov dé ôru mai ér
Tois mpdyuaciw dó rr adro idem dei xphofas
ôrav 1) Eee 7) deva 7) peydÃa 1) eixóra dém mapa
6 crevdlemw mAijy rocodror dapéper, Ort TA uév dei
fuivecda: dvev Sidaoxadias, Tá dé Er TD Adyw úno
Tob Adyovros mapaoueváleobar Kal mapá vor Adyor
viyvesbor. Ti ydp dv eim rod Aéyovros êoyov, el
davoiro À déoi! mai un) dA TÔv Adyor;
71 Tó de mepl rijy Aéém & uév dorur elos Bewpias
Tê oxiuara ris Adésws, & dorw eidévar TÃjs úiro-
eprreis rol Tod qm rotabrmy éxovros dpxr-
rexroviciy, olov vb évroAm) rai Té edy) Kal Orijymors”
Koi dae) nai epodrmors mai dmórprois Kai eb Tt
Mo rotoirov: mapá yáp my Tobrwr yrdow |
te]

dyvoiar oUder eis mv somtucjp êmvriumno. péperar

ô ri Koi détov cmovôis. Ti yãp &» ves úroAdBos
Uaprijobs à Ilpwrayópas êmminã, ôri eúyeclu.
! 0% Vos thivd edition tor AS iáca,

didroa—is al lhul which ia expresse doorefiecied by Ile woris

(ef. chap. vi. 8822, 28 and 259). “Thus the student is rightly re-
ferred to the Art of Rhetorie, wheve he learns “what to say in
” pAristotle adds that he res there given for the
Tenin he use of incidents, since the
by talk or by “situation.”
 3

POERTICS, x1x. 2-8

It remains to speak of “ Dietion ” and “ Thought.”

All that concgms Thought may be left to the treatise
on Rhetoxic, for the subject is more proper to that
inguiry.e Under the head of Thought come all the
effects to be produced by the language. Some of
these ave proof and refutation, the arousing of feelings
like pity, fear, anger, and so on, and then again
exagreration and depreciation? Tt is clear that
in the case of the incidents, too, one should work on
the same principles, when effects oí pity or terror
or exaggeration or probability have to be produced,
There is just this difference, that some effects must
be clear without explanation,* whereas others are
produced in the speeches by the speaker and are
due to the speeches, For what would be the use of
a speaker, if the required effect were likely to be
felt without the aid of the speeches ?
Under the head of Diction one subject of inguiry
is the various modes of speech, the knowledge of
which is proper to elocution or to the man who
knows the master art *-I mean for instance, what
is a command, a prayer, a statement, a threat,
question, answer, and so on, The knowledge or
ignorance of such matters brings upon the poet no
censure worth serious consideratien, For who could
suppose that there is any fault in the passage wlxch
Protagoras censures, because Homer, intending to
5 Ttis an important part of the orator's skill to depreciate
what is important and to exaggerate trivial points,
* Those nrodneed by “ situation.”
E Roeciurcv a “master art” in relation to elocution,
since it decides the effects to be produced, and elocution
decides how to produce them. So the doctor's art is
“* master ** to that of the dispenser, and the art of riding
to that of the maker of bridles.
78
 ARISTOTLE
x a
oiójuevos emimárrer eimrv “uijyiy desde Bed”; vô
vãp reketoa. fmoiv moteiy t+ 7) ui) Emiragis dora.
980 mapeiodea cos &AAms Kal oU ris momrucis dp
Gedprua.
20. Tgs dé Aéfews âmdons vdd” dori Tá pépn,
orouyeio» cuida) cuvôeonos dpbpor droga pijua
êmrdos Aóyos. oroyeiov pév oUp dor dum)
dBiaiperos, od vãca dé dA) EE ds mépure ouver?)
viyueobar dor cai yáp rod» Enpior eloiv ddiai»
3 peror duval dv oddepiar Aéym oroiyeior. vaúrns
de uépm TÓ TE Puwviev Kai Tó Wuipwvor rai dewvor.
Cori de puviev uév <rô >! dveu mpocfoAis Exor pa-
vir deoverijy, úuipuvor dé vô perã mpocBoAis
éxov Pwrjv dxovorpy, otov Tô É «ai Tó P, ágewvor
dé Tô pero. mpocBoAis Kab” aúrô pév oúdeptioy Exor
duviy, perã de TO Exdvrmr Tua prvi yevépgeror
4 axovoróy, oiov vô T Kai vô A. raúra dé Bupéper
oxiuaciv re Tod cróuaros Kai rózrois xai dagúrnri
Kai juAdrpre ral pires rob Bpaxydrgre Eru Sé SEU
Kat Bapóryre Kai Tó uécw mepi dv rob” Exacror
[6»]" rois merpucois mpoorrei Oempeiv.
5 EvihaBi) dé dor qu) donos cuvber) É
apevor Kai dwrjy Evovros: ral yáp Tó PP éven
roi A ava) nai perá roi A,olov ro PPA. áMa.
nai qoúrewy Dewpioa vás dapopás vis perpucis
earim.
* vó added by Christ. 2 Spengel brackets dr,

S A translator is bound to render this chapter, since the

balance of evidence is in favour of its inclusion, But the
reader is advised to skip it, since it is written from the
point of view of grammar and phílology, and does not,
ike the succeeding chapter, deal with the literary use of
74
 POETICS, xtx. 8-xx. 5

utter a prayer, gives a command when he says,

“ Sing, goddess, the wrath”? To order something
to be done or not is, he points out, a command,
So we may leave this topic as one that belongs
not to poetry but to another art.
20. Diction as a whole “ is made up of these parts :
letter, syllable, conjunction, joint)? noun, verb, case,
phrase. A letter is an indivisible sound, not every
such sound but one of which an intelligible sound
can be formed. Animals utter indivisible sounds
but none that É should call a letter. Such sounds
may be subdivided into vowel, semi-vowel, and mute,
À vowel is that which without any addition has an
audiíble sound; a semivowel needs the addition of
another letter to give it audible sound, for instance
Sand R; a mute is that which with addition has
no sound of its own but becomes audible when
combined with some of the letters which have a
sound. Examples of mutes are G and D. Letters
differ according to the shape of the mouth and the
place at which they are sounded; in being with
or without aspiration; in being long and short; and
lastly in having an acute, grave, or intermediate
accent. But the detailed study oí these matters
properly concerns students of metre.
A syllable is a sound without meaning, composed
of a mute and a letter that has a sound. GR, for
example, without A is a syllable just as much as
GRA with an À. But these distinctions also belong
to the theory of metre,
words. It is also very obseure. Students should refer to
Bywater's edition.
5 A “ioint,” as defined below, appears to be a word which
indicates the beginning or end of à clause.
7
 ARISTOTLE

6 Eúvôcanos dé dorm rom) donos 9 gire redes

rasta Ore qrosei Gerry pior onuarTiRip cêx mÃeróvey
Peró megurvlay cuvribechas [ Va Kai émi so
dxpwv iai Emi TOO nécou)? NA5 e) Gpuórres é» doxf
Aóyou rubévas ab aúróv, olov uév 8% roi dé: 1) pum)
donos à Er mÃeióvey uev pavédy Jutês onuavrucódy
dé moteiy mépuicey pulo onuavruey dev olov TO
dg Kai TO epi Kai Tà iMa.
7 “Aplipor 8º coTi bw) denis q Aóyou px, E)
Tédos 1) Buoproquor ônÃot, [7) dum) donnos À) oure
«wAves obre motel puv)r giav onpavrucy êx srÃcio-
vesv peuvidy] mepurvia ribeofa Kai Emi vdv dxpwr
Kai émi TOU uécov.
8 “Ovopa 8é éori Gu) cuvler) onpavruc) áiveu
xpóvou As Hépos ovdév éori rab” aúrô onpovricór-
év vãp vols dtrÃots ou xpopueda cs tea aúró nad?
aúrô enpaivor, olov é» TO Qeobúpp vô depor od
onpuaives.
9 “Píua dé Pav) cuvber?) onpravruci, perá xpóvou
is oúdér tuépos onjuaives ab, adrô cdomep Kai émi
Tó Svopáreor: vô ney yãp dvbpwmos 177 deuxóv od
onpaives rO móre, Tô dé Badites 1) Bedducer mpoo-
omualver Tô pév róv mapóvra xpóvor Tô De vv tmap-
eAndubóra.
tó Iródors o éoriy ôvóguaros ú Priparos E nev Tó
Karà «70» roúrou à, toúrea onmaivor «sai d08
roradra, 1) de Kará «ô évi 7 moAdois, olov dvôpamo:
7 dvbpomos, 1% dé nara rá Úmorpiruco., oiov ram
Epesraouw êxiragiw Tô ap Báducev; 9 Bádile
aróois pújmaros Kará rara T& elôm dorio.
1 See note 8 below.
2 V. keeps olor, .. Tê Sha after Soprndr ônha? where
76
 POETICS, xx. 6-10

A eonjunction is a sound without meaning, which

neither hinders nor causes the formation of à single
significant soúnd or phrase out of several sounds,
and which, if the phrase stands by itself, cannot
properly stand at the beginning of it, e.g. pév, dj,
rol, dE; or else it is a sound without meaning
capable of forming one significant sound or phrase
out of several sounds having each a meaning of
their own, e.g. dupi, mepi.
A Joint is a sound without meaning which marks
the beginning or end of a phrase or a division in it,
and naturally stands at either end or in the middle.”
A noun is a composite sound with a meaning,
not indicative of time, no part of which has a meaning
by itself; for im compounds we do not use each
part as having a meaning of its own, for instance, in
““Theodorus,” there is no meaning of ôúpor (gift).
A verb is a composite sound with a meaning,
indicative of time, no part of which has a meaning
by itself-just as in nouns. “ Man” or “arhite ”
does not signify time, but “ yralks” and “ has walked”
connote present and past time respectively.
A case (or inflexion) of a noun or verb is that
which signifies either “of” or to” a thing and the
like; or gives the sense of “one” or “many” eg.
men and man ; or else it may depend on tic delivery,
for example question and command, “ Walked?”
and * Walk |” ave verbal “ cases “ of this kind,
« This paragraph remains à cause of despair. Bywater's
notes suggest à restoration.
they standin AS. But thsy seem to excmplify the alterna-
tive meaning of oúrdeopos.
8 V. brackets ) qu) +. « exlrodpécow 1 have followed
By.'s suggestion and reseued the last ten words. Clearly
there has been confusion with 1457 a 2,
b 7
 ARISTOTLE
1º Adyos dé qeu) ouvleri) onparruc) de Eva uépy
12 Kad? aúra onuaiver ri" od ydp das Adyos êx inud-
Tuv ral dvopuáreuv cuyreirar (olov O Tob dvôpemou
óprjiós) GN” Evdéxerar dvev pmuireov elvar Aóyor,
mépos pévro dei Ti onpaivor éger olov é TA) Badi-
13 fer KAdwr O RAcwr. eis dé dor: Adyos diydds, À)
vão O Ev onpaivev, 7) O éx wAeidvwr ouvdécua, alov
à “Thuás uév ourôécup eis, à dé rod dvbpimov vo
é onualvery,
al, *Ovógaros dé eim TO uév dsmÃodv, dmrhodv dé
Aéyw É put) êx onporvóvTor oÚyreiras, otov YA, TO
dé BimÃody robrou dé Tô ev êx ongaivovros, [Kai
to

doúuov], Ay otx év TD dvógar: onpaivovros, tab

doou, TO dE dk anponóvrwr oúyrerros. eim 8º
“o

dv «ai TpurÃod» Kal TeTpamÃoOv ôvoga Kai moiÃa-

1457b 7ÃoBv, clov TÁ moda TÊv peyalewrdy,;? Eogo-
xoixóéavãos . . . drav dé dvond dorm À) aúpior
a

7 yibirra 7 perapopã 7) Kócuos 7) memomuéror à)

emexrerapiévor 7) Ubmpmuévor 7 eEnMaypévrov.
Aéyw dé Kúpror uêv O vpivrar ExadToL, yAbTTar» dé
Sm

b érepor wore puvepóv Ori Kai yAdrrav Kal úpior

21 have followed Ussing and omitted xai áoúuov as an
uninteliigible repetition.
* neyudewrôr By. for At pevaMwrôr. Ou the margio of
one of the copies is writlen xoAAgropvoyaMwrár, which may
conceal the real reading, ic a multiple animal Ju the
Arabic transcript the sentence finishes with some words
about “*praying to the Lord of Heaven” which might seem
to indicate a third multiple word.
2 There is no exact English equivalent of this meaning of
hóyos, which has been used already in 8 7 above without
explanation, “ Statement” and “ proposition ” also cover
part of its meaning.
* Probably one of the two definitions given in the Topics,
78
 PORTICS, xx, 1l-xxr, 6

A phrase º is a composite sound with a meaning,

some parts of which mean something by themselves.
It is not true to say that every “ phrase “is made up
of nouns and verbs, eg. the definition of man?;
but although it is possible to have a “phrase”
without verbs, yet some part of it will always have
a meaning of its own, for example, Cleon in “ Cleon
walks” A “phrase” may be a unit in two ways;
either it signifes one thing or it is a combination
of several “ phrases.” The unity of the Jkad, for
instance, is due to such combination, but the defini-
tion of man is “one phrase” because it signifies
one thing.
21, Nouns are of two kinds. There is the simple
noun, by which I mean one made up of parts that
have no meaning, like y%, and there is the com-
pound rom, These may be made up either of a
part which has no meaning and a part which has a
meaning—though it does not have its meaning in
the compound—or of two parts both having a
meaning. À compound noun may be triple and
quadruple and multiple, e.g. many of the bombastie
names like Hermocaieoxanthus.” ... Every noun
is either “ ordinary ” dor “rare” or “metaphorical”
or “ ornamental ” or “invented ” or “lengthened ”
or “eurtailed” or “alteredO An “ordinay”
word is one used by everybody, a “ rare” word one
used by some; so that a word may obviously be
“a tyo-footed land animal” and “an animal amenable
to reason.”
* A compound of the names of three rivers, Hermus,
Caicus, and Xanthus.
& i.e, one which has gained normal currency as contrasted
with the “vare word, which is confined to a dialect or
borrowed from a foreign language.
7a
 ARISTOTLE
eira Buvarór vô adro, ua) rois abrois dé TO yip
ciyuvov Kumpíois ger núpror, duiv de yhóirra.
? Meragopa dé dor Svóguaros GMorpiou Emupopã
9 dio toi pyévous émi eidos 7)1 àmô rod eldous exi vô
yévos 3) daró rod eldous Emi eldos 7) xará Tô dvdÃoyor.
8 Aéye dé dio pyévous ev émi eidos olor “us dé gor
975 EorqKer “e rô vap ôppueiy cor Eoráver qi. do”
eidous dé émi yévos “o 3%) up "Oduaaeds cola
copyev” qô ap pupior godó êortv, ? vor dmi
10 708 modhod Kéxpnras. dm eldovs dé émi siõos olov
“ake dao buy ápúcas * “cai raqudsy dererpér
Kero evraúda, vap vô pér ápúcar vapeiv, Tô
de Taueir poa eipnmer dupo yãp dpeleir mó
éoru.
H To dé dvioyor déyeo, ôrar Puoies éxn TO deu
repoy mpôs Tó mpúsrov Kai TÔ TérOpTov pôs Tô
rpirov: êpet yôp avril rod Bevrépou TO Térapror 9)
12 duel 70d reráprou Tô deúrepor. rob êvivre mpoo-
tubégo dvê? od Aéper, pôs é eori. Aéyeo de otou
Quoias exe Prim mpôs Asóvucor «ai Gomis pôs
“Ap * êpel roivur Ti” prá dormida Arovócou rol
18 mv dormida quim * “Apems. % ô vipas pôs Blov,
Kat comépa pôs Jpépar épei moivuv vip eomépor
vipas Wuépas 7 Womep "Epedoxhis, nai 70 vipas
comépar Blov 7) Bvouás Biov. êuios & od dorw
* Meaning “ spear.”
? Probably “the bronze” is in the first case a knife
and in the second a cupping-bowl. This would male the
metaphor intelligible.
* This may claim to be one of Aristotle's least Incid
sentences. It means this: If Old Age: Life: : Evening:
Day, then, we may call old age “ the Evening of Life” Tn
that case “old age” is “the Lewm enpolaniced by the meta-
phor;” and it is relative to “ Lite”; thereloro “Life”
so
 POETICS, xxr. 6-14

both. “ordinary ” and “rare,” but not in relation

to the same, people. ciyvror,S for instance, is to
the Cypriots an “ordinary ” word but to us a “ rare ”
one.
Metaphor is the application of a strange term either
transferred from the genus and applied to the
species or from the species and applied to the genus,
or from one species to another or else by analogy.
An example of a term transferred from genus to
species is “ Here stands my ship.” Riding at
anchor is a species of standing. An example of
transference from species to genus is “ Indeed ten
thousand noble things Odysseus did,” for ten
thousand, which is a species of many, is here used
instead of the word “many.” An example of trans-
ference from one species to another is “ Draming of
his life with the bronze” and “ Severing with the
tireless bronze,” where “drawing off” is used for
“severing” and “severing” for “ drawing off
both being species of “ removing.”
Metaphor by analogy means this: when B is to
A as Disto €, then instead of B the poet will say
D and B instead of D, And sometimes they add
that to which the term supplanted by the metaphor
is relative. For instance, a cup is to Dionysus
what a shield is to Ares; so he will call the cup
“ Dionysus's shield ”” and the shield “ Ares” cup.”
Or old age is to life as evening is to day; so he will
call the evening “ day's old-age ” or use Empedocles”
phrase?; and old age he will cal) “the evening of
hfe” or “life's setting sun” Sometimes there is
(i.e. “that to which the term supplanted by the metaphor
is relative ") is added to the metaphorical (or “ transferred ”)
term ** Evening.” à Unknown to us.
81
 ARISTOTLE
óvopa Keiuevor vv Svidoyov, SAM” oúdev irrou
Spots dexbnjoeras otov Tô Tou raprop ney dsprévos
cmcipew, TO dé Tv PAóya Exi! qo0 gAlov dvavupor
GAMA” duoiws Exer TODTO TpÔs TÔV TALOv Kai TO omei-
per mpôs Toy napróv, di eipnrar “ omeipwy Beo-
Krigray Phópa.”
15 “Bor dé TD Tpóme roúrty rijs nerapopãs xpijobe
nai às, mpocayopelcarra vô (Mórpror dimo-
pica Tô oikeiw ti, oloy ei rijv domida cimo
Pudim um) “Apems ax domo. Voa
W lemompévor 8º éoriv O SAws um nakoúpevor úmro
à
TWO aúrós riberar ó6 mori doxei vãp via. clrau
rorira, olor Tá xépara eprúyas Kal Tór iepéa
ãàpyripa.
18 “Egenreranévor dE dor 7) dpnpmpévor zô pev
essa Edy demjevri parporépe nexprpueévor À TO8 oixeiou
% CUMaBf euBeBAnuérm, Tê de dyà dbnpuévor E
19 adrod, EmexteTanévov uév olov TÔ modems mó os
nai Tô HyJeiBov? IyAnidõee, dfnonuévor dé oiov
vô pi rol vó 86 Kai “uia yiveras auporépmr db.”
20 “EéyMayuévor 8º doriv ôrav rod Svopalonévou
vó per Kamaneir, TO de mos, olov vô “ Begirepór
rarã palóv” duri roi detido.
21 Adródy de rá Svopudresv Tá. pé dppeva rá de
22 Brida TO. d€ perabo, dppeva puev doa, releurã eis TÔ
1 exi Schmidt for Aº dd.
? Iyheiõov By. from one of the copies for AS Iyiios which
V. reads with a lacuna after it,
s Or you might cal Love “ Venus's juloodless Wan" At
this point a few lines on “ Ornament º have evidently been
lost, since this is its place in the catalogue of nouns above,
By “ ornament ” he seems to mean an embellishing epithet
or synonym, In the Rhstoric he quotes “ Our lady the
82
 POETICS, xx1. 14-22

no word for some of the terms of the analogy but

the metaphor can be usedall thesame. For instance,
to scatter seed is to sow, but there is no word for
the action of the sun in scattexing its fire. Yet this
has to the sunshine the same relation as sowing has
to the seed, and so you have the phrase “ sowing
the god-created fire.”
Besides this another way of employing metaphor
is to cali a thing by the strange name and then to
deny it some attribute of that name, For instance,
suppose you call the shield not “ Ares" cup” but a
“wineless cup.” e.
An invented word is one not used at all by any
people and coined by the poet. There seem to be
such words, e.g. “ sprouters “ for horns and “ pray-er ”
for priest.
A word is “lengthened” or “ curtailed,” the
former when use is made of a longer vowel than
usual or a syllable inserted, and the latter when part
ofthe word is curtailed. An example of a lengthened
word is móAgos for roAéws and IIyAniddew for IÃeidov;
and of a eurtailed word «pi and db, and eg. uia
yiveror duçporéper dyd
A word is “ altered” when the poet coins part
of the word and leaves the rest unchanged, eg.
Sefurepdv xarã paçáv instead of defeóy,
Of the nouns themselves, some are maseuline,
some feminine, and some neuter* Masculine are
fig-iree” as a misplaced “ ornament.” One might add
the seventeenth- century use of “ Thames ” for “ water.
b Ro é for xpidy,* “barloy "3 db for 88 jam “house”; By for
byos + face, “ eye,” or “appearance.”
* This paragraph the reader should either skip or study
with Bywater's notes. Without them these generalizations
on gender seem merely wrong.
83
 ARISTOTLE
N Kai P cral > Kal doa dx rolrou obyreiras,
28 (rabra 8º Eoriv Svo, "FP rai E), Ojdca dp doa ex vády
deynévrcv eis re TA dei papá, olov eis H xai L), rat
Mer emercrewondvov eis À dote iva cupbaiver
mAjOm eis doa TA dppeva Kai rá Ondcar 70 váp “FP ral
/ , “ Nos ] A Es ) uy h!

2570 E «rg El» raúrd dor. eis de dpwror obdéy

26 óvojua Tedevrã, ovde eis puwvger Bpaxú. eis dé Tô
E rpia jróvor, péAL rop mésreps. eis de vó Y qévre.
rã dé merafd eis raúra nai N et E.
22. Aééemws de áper?)
á cabi seo vo TOME elvos.
cupeorárm per ouv cor 1) Ex vu eupieoy dvopd-
27wv, dada tamem. mapádeuo dé 7) RAcopédrros
3 moinois waij Ebevedou. ceu de Kai Efaarrovoa
Tô iduurucdv 7) trois Éevixois Kexpnuévm. Gerucor
dé Adyo yAbrTar Kai perapopãv xai ExérTacw Kai
drâv vó mapa Tô Kúprov. AA! év ris [à] daravra
roudra movjon, 7 alviyua dora 7) BapBapuuós
àp pêy obv é ueragopór, | atua, cdv de éx
5 yAcorréiv, BapBopronós. ,ebviyparos Te yôp idéa
atra dori, Tô Acpovra imdeyovra dbúvara cuvóspar.
nara pé or mijv véi ôvopdrer cúvleorw ay olóv
Te mobro moto, rarã dé mi uerapopár é
déxeras, oiov É dvôp” cidov rupi xaAscôr ém dvépe
5 nolijaarra, “ral rã -rowdra. ck TO PAwrridy
7 BapBapropós. Bei àpa mexpãoBai us robrois" Tó
He” vp |) IOuurucov metjoes udê ramewór, olov
* ri E] an anonymous conjecture adopted by By. as neces-
sary to the sense.

a Seep. 10, note.

» A tragedian whom Aristophanes ridicules for the
insipidity of his diction.
º See preceding chapter $ 19,
84
 POETICS, xx. 29-xx1r. 7

all that end in N and P and E and in the two com-

pounds of E, 'Y and &. Feminine ave all that end
in those of the vowels that are always long, for
instance H and &, and in À among vowels that can
be lengthened. The result is that the number of
masculine and feminine terminations is the same,
for Y and &Z are the same as *, No noun ends in
a mute or in a short vowel. Only three end in 1,
méAL, Rós and vérepo. Five endinY. The neuters
end in these letters and in N and >.
22. The merit of diction is to be clear and not
commonplace, The clearest diction is that made
up of ordinary words, but it is commonplace, An
example is the poetry of Cleophon < and of Sthenelus.»
That which employs unfamiliar words is dignified
“and outside the common usage. By “ unfamiliar ”
I mean a rare word, a metaphor, a lengthening;
and anything beyond the ordinary use. But if a
poet writes entirely in such words, the result will be
either a riddle or jargon ; if made up of metaphoss,
a riddle and if of rare words, jargon. The essence
of a riddle consists in describing a fact by an im-
possible combination of words. By merely combining
the ordinary names of things this cannot be done, but
it is made possible by combining metaphors. For
instance, “ L saw a man weld bronze upon a man with
fire,” and so on? A medley of rare words is jargon.
We need then a sort of mixture of the two. For the
one kind will save the díction from being prosaic
& The answer is a cupping-howl. This was a bronze
vessel which was applied to the body at the place ai which
a small incision had been made. Feated lint was placed
in the bow] of it and the reduction of air-pressure thus caused
a strong flow of blood. For this form of ridale qf. “ Qut
of the strong: came forth sweelness.”
p2 85
 ARISTOTLE
à yABirra Kai 7 perapopã Kai O xócuos rai TÃMa
rá elpnuéva cid, TO OE Kúpior Tip caprjveiar.
8 Odk exdyroror dé uépos cuupdMeraL eis tô
158 b cabês ris Adéecos iai um) iduwTecOr! ai Exertágeis
Kai dioromai Kai Efalhayai Té dvojudremr" Bed puév
vãp Tó dAAws Eye 7) «és TO Kúprov mapã Tô cluubos
yryvógeror TÔ pm) iOuurucdv motoeL, Lá dE TO Kou-
9 rwveiy rob eiwbóros Tô capês dora, dore ol
óplis iiéyovow oi EmirunidvTes TO TOLoóTp TpÓTI
ris dralérrov Kai diaxwpuwdoUuTes Tóv moimriu,
otov Ebxleidns O dpyaios, cs pjdrov mroreiv, ei tis
Buger Exreivery eb" ómócor Boúleras, lauBomonjoas
év adj v7 Adées Emiydpyy eidov Mapabdráde
Badilovra," mai “odx & y epduevos Tor Exelvor
10 éXAeBopor.” vô pér obv daivecbai tus xpújuevor
NU roirp TO rpómrp yedotor Tô BE pérprov! Kowôr
drdurmy êori rédv pepv. Kai yãp perapopais ral
Adira nai TOis AAÃow clico ypúuevos dmperôs
Kai émirndes Emi TA yedoia TO adro dv dmepydcarro.
12 Tô % dpuórror ôvor diadépe. êmi vódv êxáy
Dewpeisõe evribenévmr ródv dpopdram eis TO péTpor.
13 «cal émi ris yAcdrTns dé Kal êmi ré peragopóy xa
émi ródv dAAwrv idem» perarideis dv ris TÁ Kúpia
1 pérpioy Spengel for A“ uérpor.

º See p. 82, note.

“A critie of Lbis name wrote on the drama, but his date
is uncertain,
º In Homer we find short vowels lengthened “ by position,”
but, whereas Homer uses the licence sparingly, Buclcides
raised a laugh by overdoing it and writing in parody such
hexameters as those here quoted. 4 moctera parallel mey
ilmstrate this. The poet Stephen Philips emplored to excess
the licençe which allows a clash betwcen the nulural accent
86
 POETICS, xxrr. 71-18

and commonplace, the rare word, for example, and

the metaphoy and the “ oomament,” * whereas the
ordinary words give clanity.
A considerable aid to clarity and distinction are
the lengthening and abbreviation and alteration of
words. Being otherwise than in the ordinary form
and thus unusuval, these will produce the effect of
distinetion, and elarity will be preserved by retaining
part of the usual form, Those critics ave therefore
wrong who censure this manner of idiom and poke
fun aí the poet, as did the elder Eucleides”? who said
it was easy to write poetry, granted the right to
lengthen syllables at will, He had made a burlesque
in this very style:
“Emixdlpg» elBjor Mapaldbride | Bãdiifovra
and
obk dy ly êpânelros Têm | êxeijvou dindgopar.e
Now to make an obirusive use of this licence is
ridiculous; but moderation is a requisite common
to all kinds of writing. The same effect could be got
by using metaphors and rare words and the rest
unsuitably for the express purpose of raisng a
laugh.
Wa a difference is made by the proper use of
such licence may be seen in epic poetry, if you
substitute in the verse the ordinary forms, Take
a rare word or metaphor or any of the others and
substitute the ordinary word; the truth of om
and the metrical ictus, and Mr, Owen Seaman, “for the
express purpose of raising a laugh,” parodied the trick by
carrying it to further excess and wrote in blank verse,
“* She à milliner wás and hér brothérs
Dynámitérs.
87
 ARISTOTLE
dvóguara rarido: ôri dAnbm Adyoner: olov Tô aúró
mowjcavros lauBetor Aioyúdou ral Eúperidou, ê» dé
uóvov ôvoga pevaribévros, dyri mupiov elubóros
a aa ; Vo e a st
vAbrras, TO jev palvera. nador TO O edredér.
Aloxúdos per yãp é» rd Dilorrirn êmoinve
> EA x a ” = t 3 A

!8
payédama 7e mou cdpras
4! 350ie
éolie: Só
modos,
ó dé dvri rod éobie, Tó Oorwirar perébnner. sai
vv dé pu” Emv GAiyos re Kai oúridarós «ai deidis,
ei ris Aéyoi rã Kúpia perarideis
UA Eq A 4 z

vox dé w' Edy pucpós TE ui aobevucos ral detdis.

E 4 3 38 (4 13 Ny 3 EA

Kai
Sibpor 7º dercédtov rarabeis dAiymy Te Tpámrelar,
dibpov poxênpóv raradeis pecpdy re rpámelov.
xa Tô “midves Bodom ” dudves apálovor.
“ Mera f f 2 3. L

14 “Eri dé Ah"Apigpdôns rodsa Tpaywõods exwjudder,

Erê , > A A 1 > [A

a
ôr: à oúdeis dv elsror êv 7%) Biadéxtw rodrois xpdv-
Tas, olov Tô Sepuimwy dmo dAdG wa) did dwpudrawr
1459 EM
Kai TO gédev nai TO Eyes Dé vv Kal rO
1 A “8,
"Axidddms 1 Aos A 8 4 1 1 “A f

mépi dAÃO. ut) mepi "AxeAÃécs mai doa dia Toradra.

t 3 x A 12 Eq + e 3 E"

15 8d vdp Tô pm elvar é» Tois Kupiors aoiei vô q)

idteuricor év rf Adéer dravra rã roradra éxeivos
de rodro dyvóei.
16 ori
"E
dé uéya pév TO Exdory ródr eionuéver
a À £ ! A E SD EA Ea ] EA

mpemóvrws xpiodar, mai dirÃoTs dvóuaor Kai yAcdr-

a 1 E)

« Similarly we might use “ordinary” words instead of

those which Keats chose so carefully and speak of “ wonderful
windows abutting on to a dangerous sea-shore in a dreary,
mysterious country.”
88
 POETICS, xxrr. 13-16

contention will then be obvious. For instance,

Aeschylus and Enripides wrote the same iambic
line with the change of one word only, a rare word in
place of one made ordinary by custom, yet the one
line seems beautiful and the other trivial. Aeschylus
in the Philoctetes wrote, .
The ulcer eats the flesh of this my foot,
and Euripides instead of “ eats ” put “ feasts upon.”
Or take
I that am small, of no account nor goodly ;

suppose one were to read the line substituting the

ordinary words,
I that am little and weak: and ugly.
Or compare
He set a stool unscemly and a table smail,
with :
He set a shabby stool and a little table,
or “ the sea-shore is roaring ”É) with “the sea-shore
is shrieking” é
Ariphrades? again made fun of the tragedians
because they employ phrases which no one would
use in conversation, like “ Swuiror do” instead of
dmô Sopdruv and their “eéler” and “ êyid dé vir” and
“*AxiAAéos mépi” for mepi "Axihdéus, and soon. Al
that sort of thing, not being in the ordinary form,
gives distinction to the diction, which was what he
failed to understand.
His a great thing to make a proper use of each
of the elements mentioned, and. of double words
º Unknown.
89
 ARISTOTLE

TOS, moÃd dé péprorov Tô peradopucôr elvar.

1 póvor yáp Todro ode map" Mou ori AaBeiv cd
Guias TE omueióv dort TO Yap €O perapépei TO TO
Guarov Dewpeiv éorur.
18 Tor 8 dvouárw Tá uêv BirÃã pádioTa dpuórrer
mois difupduBors, ai dé yAlrTaL Toi Npmuiois, al
1986 meradopal vois luubeiors. ral é» juév rofy
Mpwucois dmavra xpúoua Tà eloyuéva, év dé Trois
iauBeiors Std TO Ort pdAtoTa Aééw menetoldos radra
dpuórre. ro» dvoudrmv doors rãv é [ôcos]
Aóyois TIS xpjomTo" dart dé TA Toraira TO Kúpior
Kai petapopã mai Kócuos.
so epi puév odv TpOy pias nai is év TO mpárrem
/
ujoews ;
Fora ijuivA ixava, Tá eipmpéva,
28. Iepi de rãs Sumyunaricis roi ev péroo Hajime
Tuciis, Órt dei rods prúdous nabómep évé vais rpayq-
Bias cuvioTávas ôpapuarucods Kai mepi uicy mpõéw
SM Koi Teeiar éêxovcar dpyiy nal uéca Kai TéÃOS,
b' domep Edor A hoy moi Tv oixetav Wdovijy,
2 ôfÃov, Kai o) olas! ioropias rãs ourijders elvas, Ev ais
divdiyrer) oúxi puãs mpágews motetoda BjAmom AX
évôS xpóvou, ôga ev roúre cuvéf mepi éra 9)
mÃeious, dy êxagrov os eruxev Exei mpôs iMnÃo..
Sdomep vãp romã roUs adrods xpóvous mr éy
Eahauivi éyévero vavpaia tea ET) & Buncedia Kap-
xndoviwv dym oder mpôs 70 abro cuvreivouoa
rédos, ouro xal é» rois dpeéis xpóvois evioTe
2 olas for A ôpuolas seems the simplest of Lhe many alleva-
tions suggested, all with the idea of giving the same
general sense,
& ig, the power of detecting “identity in difference”
which distinguishes also both the philosopher and the
scientist,
go
 POETICS, xx. 16-xxrm, 3

and rare words too, but by far the greatest thing is

the use of metaphor. That alone cannot be leamt ;
it is the token of genius. For the right use of
metaphor means an eye for resemblances.?
Of the various kinds of words the double forms
are most suited for dithyramhbs, rare words for heroie
verse and metaphors for iambics. And indeed in
heroic verse they are all useful; but since iambie
verse is largely an imitation of speech, only those
nouns are suitable which might be used in talking.
These are the ordinary word, metaphor, and “ orna-
ment,” »
Now concerning tragedy and the art of represent-
ing life in action, what we have said already must
sufice.
23, We come now to the ari of representation
which, is narrative and in metre* Clearly the story
must be constructed as in tragedy, dramatically,
round a single piece of action, whole and complete
in itself, with a beginning, míddie and end, so that
like a single living organism it may produce its own
peculiar form of pleasure. It must not be such as
we normally find in history, where what is required
is an exposition not of a single piece of action but
of a single period of time, showing all that within
the period befell one or more persons, events that
have a merely casual relation to each other. For
just as the battle of Salamis occurred at the same
time as the Carthaginian battle in Sicily, but they
do not converge to the same result ?; so, too, in any
* See note on p. 82.
* i.e. Epic.
& Gelo's defeat of the Carthaginians in Sicily in 480 nc.
took place, according to Herodotus, on the same day as the
battle of Salamis.
9
 ARISTOTLE

yiverar Gdrepov merã Oúrepov, éÉ dv êr odôém

ayiverar TéÃos. cxedov dé oi moMoL qd» momTp
prodro ôpdor. Biô worep eixopev 757 xai Tadr
Deomécios &v puveiy "Qunpos mapã rods dous, rp
undé Tô» módeuov xaimep Exorra dpyir mai TédOs
Exuxespioa moreiv dAvv- Altar vãp dp péyas rai odx
edoúvorros EueMev Eoecla, 1) TO) pepéder perpró-
lovra raramemeyuéror 7 mola. vor & &
uépos àmoÃaBd» Emercodios xéxpnrat abrdemoMdois,
olo» vedvy xuralóymo ai dAhos exetoodios ois
6 duadauBáver vijy moimom. ob S do: epi é&va
motodo Kai srepi Eva xpóvor nai pular mpãéw modu-
1459 Lepi, olor O 7à Kúmpia morjoas Kai viu pixpar
7'Idda. rorpapody êx pév Thiddos nai "Oduocetas
uia rpaydia moteirar éxarépas à) Odo póvai, é
de Kumpiwr mwoMai Kai tis puucpãs "IAiddos mAéov
órrco, oiov êmiwr «picos, Diorrirms, Neo-
mróenos, Eúpórvios, mrwyeia, Adravar, "IAiou
mépois icai dmómious mai Euveov nai Towádes.
24, “Eri dé [Eri BE] TA cid raúrá dei Exem rip
êmomolav Tfj Tpaywdia, Y yãp dry q) memey-
apego ) Plum q mabgrucio nai tô uépr éêm
gedomoitas Kai ôfews rabrá: rai vãp mepureresdr
der Kai drayropicem Koi madnudrwv. ére TáS
3Bavolas Kai riv Adéw Eye xadós. ais dmaciw

« As we have seen already in chapter viii. (p, 88), a poem

or a play must be one story and not scveral stories about
one hero. “Phus, since the Zliad and Odyssey have this
essential unily (i.e. one thread runs through the narrative of
each), few plays can be made out of them but many out of
the Cypria or the Little Iliad, which ave merely collections
of lays on similar themes.
92
 POETICS, xxrrr. 3-sxrv, 3

sequence of time one event may follow another and

yetthey may notissucin any oneresult. Yetmostof
the poets do this. So in this respect, too, compared
with all other posts Homer may seem, as we have
already said, divinely inspired, in that even with
the Trojan war, which has a beginning and an end,
he did not endeavour to dramatize it as a whole,
since it would have been either too long to be taken
in all at once or, if he had moderated the length,
he would have complicated it by the variety of
incident. As it is, he takes one part of the story
only and uses many incidents from other parts, such
as the Catalogue of Ships and other incidents with
which he diversifies his poetry. The others, ou the
contrary, all write about a single hero or about a
single period or about a single action with a great
many paris, the authors, for example, of the
Cypria and the Letile Tiade The result is that out
of an Iliad or an Odyssey only one tragedy can be
made, or two at most, whereas several have been
made out of the Cypria, and out of the Little Iiad
more than cight, e.g. The Award of drms, Philocietes,
Neoptolemus, Burypylus, The Begging, The Laconian
Women, The Sack of Troy, and ónilang of the Fleet,
and Sino, too, and The Frojau Women,
24, The next point is that there must be the
same varieties of epic as of tragedy?: am epic.
must be “ simple ” or “ complex,” e or else tmm on
“ character” or on “calamity” The constituent
“ parts, too, are the same with the exception of song
and spectacle. Epic needs reversals and discoveries
and calamities, and the thought and diction too
must be good. All these were used by Homer
» See chapter xviii. $ & * Sce chapter x
93
 ARISTOTLE

“Opimpos teéxerras ab mpros Koi inavs, oi

vp Kai Tô mouuárav Exdrepov guvéariice 1% mé
Thids dmhodv «ai mafiyrucór, à de “Odvocea
memeyuévov (druyróprois yôp Bióhov) xai Pduc).
mpôs ydp roúrors Adfer Kai dravola mávra úmep-
BéBAmmer.
4 Arabéper dé Kará TE TS ovoTávems Tô píjxos 9)
5 Emomosia Kal TO pérTpov. Tod pévodr ujxous ôpos
ixavós ô eipmuévos. Súvacbe yãp det ouvopâodar
Ti» dpxir Kai vô rédos. ely 5º dy Todro, ei Tô
uév doyalwv êxárrous ai ovoráceis elev, mpôs
de vô mAidos rpaywdir róv eis uiav dipóaow
6 rideuéveor mapúmomev. Exer dé mpôs Tô êmexvelve-
ola: Tô uéyelos mohv Tu 1) Emomoua tdtov dtã TO ev
mer TH) TpAymdia ju) evôdyecda. Eua mparrógera
smoMÃa uépr mepreioda GAMA TO Erê Tijs crnvijs nai
vódv ômorpurrdv pépos povo: é» dé tj) Emomoia did
Tô duiygow elvar Eori oa puépm Ápua smoteir mepar-
vópevo, VP” dv oixeiwrv ôprwv abéeras O rod aom-
Tuaros ôyros. dote rolr éxer vô dyabov els
ueyokompémera» mai Tô peraBdAhemw mai êxero-
odroty dropolors êmewodios' vô váp ôuotor raxyd
mAnpodv vó dxolovra* êxmimrew moi? Tás Tpay-
põtas.
8 Tó dé pérpor vô jpwicôr diró vis meipos Ypuorev.
ei yáp ris év Mm Tui uérpi dmynpoariucj pijunou
Byotoiro 5) év moAÃois, amperes dv palvorro” Tô yãp
3 vêr dxolorra in Ae follows peragdAei»
and V, prints thus,
Bywater's exumple of perua» transitive in the Problems
is not a real parallel.
Ea
 POETICS, xxrv. 3-9

for the first time, and used well. Of his poems he

made the one, the Hliad, a “ simple ” story tuming
on “calamity,” and the Odyssey a “complex”
story-—it is full of “ discoveries ”—turning on char-
acter. Besides this they surpass all other poems in
dietion and thought.
Epic differs from iragedy in the length of the
composition and in metxe. The limit of length
already givens will sufficc—it must be possible to
embrace the beginning and the end in one view,
which would be the case if the compositions were
shorter than the ancient epics but reached to the
length of the tragedies presented at a single enter-
tainment? Epic has a special advantage which
enables the length to be increased, because in
tragedy it is not possible to represent several paris
of the story as going on simultancously, but only
to show what is on the stage, that part of the story
which, the actors are performing; whereas, in the
epie, because it is narrative, several parts can be
portrayed as being enacted at the same time. If
these incidents are relevant, they inereasc the bulk
of the poem, and this increase gives the epic a great
advantage in riclmess as well as the variety due to
the diverse incidents; for it is monotony which,
soon satiating the audience, makes tragedies fail.
Experience has shown that the heroic hexameter
is the rightmetre. Were anyone to write a narrative
poem in any other metre or in several metres, the
effect would be wrong. The hexameter is the most

“ See chapter vii. 8 12 (p. 32).

à Gee Additional Note, p. 118,
95
 . ARISTOTLE

peter gracipuúrarov Kat. dynwbéoTaTOr TAP

géTpwr coriv, Old Kal yATTOS Kai perapopãs
déxeros púdiora! arepurri yáp Kal % dimpnuarue)
10 péunois vv dm, TO dé imfeior Kai rerpá-
14600 ETPOV KUMTUCA KOL TO mêv Opymorucdv, TO dé
NM panrixór. Eru dé dromrepor el ueyrúos ris abrd,
Ewomep Napriuwv. Bi oúdeis garpáv oboraow é»
EMA memoimer 7) TO py, AAA” domep elmoper
abr m qúois Sidaonre, 70 dppórror abr [8]
aipeiodar.
13 “Oumpos dé da re moAã déios êmarveic0a. nai
dm «ai Ort uóvos TOV Tomar odx dyrocl O dei
motelv aórórv. avbrôv yãp dei vór mom exdxiora
IH Ayer oU ydp éoTL KarTÃ TaúTO uuntis. oi mer
oiy dAÃo: abrot per S” 6Ãou dymwvilovrar, uurodvras
dé dAlya ral dhryáris: O dé dAiya dponacdperos
eúbvo elodye dvôpa 7) yuvaira 7) dA TL jdos rai
oúdév” df GAN Exorra 7j8m.
15 Ac pêv op év reis vpayewdias moriy vó Bau-
paoróv, pãMov 9º eêvôéxeras é» Tj emomotig vô
dÃoyou, du ô cuupaiver uúlioTa TO Baupaoróv, dd
16 Tô po) dpãv eis vOv mpdrrovra, émei [7ã] TÁ epi
rijv “Ervopos Siwéw émi ornvis êvra yedola dy
paveim, oi per doridres mai ob Iuúnovres, O dé
17 dvavedevr, év dé rois Emcormm Aarbdver. Tó dé Bav-

é This takes us back to the beginning of chapter iii,

where the various “manners” of representation ave dis-
tinguished. Homer represents life partly by narration,
pártly by assuming a character other lhan his own. Bolh
these “ manuers ” come under the head of “ Imitation,”
When Aristotle says “ the poet speaks himself” and “plays a
part himself” he refers not to narrative, of which there is a
great dealin Homer, but to the “ preludes ” (cf, ppomarágeros
96
 POETICS, xxrv. 9-17

sedate and stalely of all metres and therefore

admits of rare words and metaphors more than
others, and narrative poetry is itself elaborate above
all others, The iambic and the trochaic tetrameter
are lively, the latter suits dancing and the former
suits real life. Still more unsuitable is it to use
several metres as Chacremon did. So no one has
composed. a long poem in any metre other than the
heroic hexameter, As we said above, Nature shows
that this is the right metre to choose.
Homer deserves praise for many things and
especially for this, that alone of all poets he does not
fail to understand what he ought to do himself,
The poet should speak as seldom as possible in his
own character, since he is not “ representing ” the
story in that sense? Now the other poeis play a
part themselves throughout the poem and ouly
oceasionaliy “ represent ” a few things dreraticaltr.
but Homer after a brief prelude at oree ! ao
a man or a woman or some other character, never
without character, but all having character of their
own.
Now the marvellous should certainly be portrayed
in tragedy, but epic affords greater scope for the
inexplicable (which is the chief element in what
is marvellous), because we do not actually see the
persons of the story. The incident of Hector's
pursuit? vould look ridiculous on the stage, the
people standing still and not pursuing and Achilles
waving them back, but in epic that is not noticed.
But hat the marvellous causes pleasure is shown
below) in which Lhe poet, invoking the Muse, speaks in his
own person. lidgeway points out that in the whole of the
Tiad and Odyssey Homer thus “speal:s himself ” only 24 lines.
* See Additional Note, p. 118.
97
 ARISTOTLE,
pavrór joU: onpuetou dé, mávres yãp mpoorilévres
dirayyéA ovo «ds xapitógevo..
18 AcSidaxev de páiara “Oumpos Kai Tods dAÃous
bevdr Aéyew os dei. Ear dé Todro gapudoyruós,
olovras vãp, Gvl promos, óray rouêi óvros
é 798% 9 À
ywopévou irmas, ei Tô vorepov cortm, Kai TO mpó-
Tepov eivai 1) ytveodar: rodro dé dor: peidos. do
der," dv rô mpórov Jeidos, dAÃo 8º é roúrou ôvros
dvdyrr clas 1) perésba 9). mpoubeivar dd ãp To
rodro eidévos dAnbes ô», mapakoyiteras ur ú
du Kai Tô mpóror és év. mapúdewpa dé robro
ex rod” Nimrpwp.
19 Tipoapeiobas Te dei dôdvara eixóra uãov 9
20 Suvarã, ámidava: rods re Adyous ua) ouvioraotas Ex
Lepó Goya, dAda uáiora pêv under Exeu
&Ãoyou, ei de um, Gm roi uubevuaros, momep
OiBimovs Tô ud eidévas módg O3 Agitos Gmrédaver, GA
[ é TO Spams Dorrep & ér “HAcerpa oi Tê Tiódia
dmayyéMovres 71 év Mugois ê, dpuvos éêx Teyéas
eis vijy Muciav ira. ore Tô Aéyem ôr,
à dvipnro
e1dro à uúdos yedotorv cg dpxis
à yãp oú Sei ouvioracieos
rotobrous, dy de 0% rea Palma euhoywrépeos
22 évdéyeodar, mai dromov émei ral rã é» "Oduo-
1 57] Bonita for Ae dh.
* Od,xix, Odysseus tells Penelope tha! he is a Cretan from
Gnossus, who once entertained O, on his voyage to Troy.
Às evidence, he describes O,'s dress und his companions
(0. 164-260). P, commits the Enllacy of inferring the truth of
the antecedent from Lhe lenth of the consequent »
If his story were true, he would know these details ;
But he does know them :
Therefore his story is true.
The artist in fiction uses the same fallaey, e.g:
98
 PORTICS, xxrv. 17-22

by the fact that people always tell a piece of news

with additions by way of being agreeable.
Above all, Homer has taught the others the proper
way of telling lies, that is, by using a fallacy. When
B is true if A is true, or B happens if A happens,
people think that if Bis true A must be true or
happen. But that is false, Consequently if A be
untrue but there be something else, B, which is
necessarily true or happens if À is true, the proper
thing to do is to posit B, for, knowing B to be true,
our mind falsely infers that A is true also, This is
an example from the Washing.?
What is convincing though impossible should
always be preferred to what is possible and un-
convincing. Stories should not be made up of in-
explicable details ; so far as possible there should be
nothing inexplicable, or, if there is, it should lie
outside the story — as, for instance, Oedipus not
knowing how Laius died—and not in the play; for
example, in the Electra the news of the Pythian
games,» or in the Mysians the man who came from
Tegea to Mysia without speaking.” To say that
the plot would otherwise have been ruined is
ridiculous. One should not in the first instance
construet such a plot, and if a poet does write thus,
and there seems to be a more reasonable way of
treating the incident, then it is positively absurd,
Even in the Odyssey the inexplicable elements in
W chessmen could come to life the white knight would be a
uiter
But he és a most awful duffer (look at him !);
Therefore chessmen can come to life,
He makes his deductions so convincing that we falsely infer
the truth of his hypothesis.
» Ses Add. Note, p. 118, * Telephus,
95
 ARISTOTLE

geiq idoya rà. mepi ip" Excbecu os oúr dy “jo

Gverrá BijÃov àdv pévoiro, ei abra paúlos mori
1460 b moujocier vip dé gols dois dyabois O momris
apaviter WoUver Tô dromor.
os Th dé Aéfer dei Bramovciy évé rois dpyois pépeciy
ea bre Nucois unre Stavonrucois” dimoipúmrer
yáp made 1d Ala Aajurpã Adéis rá ve 707 Kai tás
Sexvolas.
25. [epi dé mpoBAmudrwy ral Aúcem, é mógur
TE Kai moitov Lav] eidcir for, oo dv Bempodow
2 evo dy pavepór. érel váp dor puupayr ns O
mois, domepavei Lwypágios 7, TUs iNÃos eixovo-
mos, drdoyn puueiodar Tpudy dure Tou dpubpor
év mu dei, 7 yãp ola ijy 1) ori, 1) olá agi Kal Boxe,
3 cp ola eivar dei. radra S” efayyéAderas Aéfe.7)
Koi yAcirras Kal perapopais' Kai smoAÃA mb nie
Aéfemws eori, didouer yap radra rois morais.
ampos dé Todrors oux 7 abr) dplórms éoriv ris
mwoderecis «ab rijs mouprucis ovde EMAms TéxUNS Kai
stones. adris Sé vis momrukijs dum) auapria,
6% pe vãp xab” abriv, À d xará cumbenros. ei
per ydp mposidero juujoaota. <ijuapre de du»
dduvaiar, abris |) duapria: ei dE TO mpoehéobas
1 NY. matks a lacuna here, By. suggests lhe words
inserted.
2 Qd. xiii, 116 sq. It seemed to the exities inexplicable
that Odysseus shonld not awalze when his ship ran agronnd
at the hardonv of Phoreys in Ithaca and the Phacacian
sallors carried him ashore.
» The Messengers” speeches, a regular feature of Greek
trapedy, may serve to ilustrate what is here called the
“idle part ” of a play, i.e. passages wbich, but for brilliant
writing, might be dull, since no character iis there elucidated
and no important “ sentiments ” expressed,
100
 POETICS, xxrv. 22-gxv. 6

the story of his landing º would obviously have been

intolerable, had they been written by an inferior
poet. As it is, Homer conceals the absurdity by
the charm of all his other mervits.
The distion should be elaborated only im the
“idle” parts which do not reveal character or
thought? Too brilliant diction frustrates its own
object by diverting attention from the portrayal of
character and thought.
25. With regard to problems; and the various
solutions of them, how many kinds there are, and the
nature of each kind, all will be clear if we look at them
like this. Since the poet represents life, as a painter
does or any other maker of likenesses, he must always
represent one of three [hings—either things as they
were or are; or things as they are said and seem to
be; or things as they should be, These are expressed
in diction with or without rare words and meta-
phors, there being many modifications of diction, all
of which we allow the poet to use. Morcover, the
standard of what is correct is not the same in the art
of poetry as it is in the art of social conduct or any
othey art. In the actual art of poetry there are tyro
kinds of errors, essential and aceidental, If a man
meant to represent something and failed through in-
capacity, that is an essential emror. But If his error
is due to his original conception being wrong and his
* A“ problem” in ihis sense is a difficult passage or expres-
sion which needs explanation and may easily be censured by
an unsympatheticeritic. Aristotle here classifies the various
grounds of censure and the various lines of defence, Most
of his ilustrations are drawn from lhe critical objections
lodged against the Hiad by Zoilus and other “ hammerers
of Homer.” As the reader will see, many of them are
abysmally foolish.
toi
 ARISTOTLE

na ôplds GANG, róv immoy ápp rã degia mpo=

BeBdmicára o) Tó tea" éxdoriy réemy iudpripa
oiov vô tear” dam puerj 7 Mp Téxvn) 7,
1 dôdvara.
7 memoinra Smotavodr, ou xaf” eavriy. Gore dez
rã emimuunjuara é» Trois mpoBAfuaciw er TobTmv
émanomotvra, Aúeum.
Modrov quev Ta mpôs abrir mio méxumo <ei>
g ddivara menolgras, mudpraras GA pls xe,
ei Tuyyáver rob rékous roi aúrijs (ro vãp rédos
cloro), ei obras ElemAmkTucciTepor %7 adro 7) do
motei uépos. mapódeua ú ol “Exropos Sis.
2 ei uuévror 7 rédos à1) HôAou <) mp ijrrou evedéyero
dmrdoxei no Kará rip” areph roúrav réxunr, [ipuap-
rolar]? abr ópbds" dei vãp ei evdexerar Sos
10 undaai) uaprioda. êri morépav dori Tô dudp-
ruta, rédy Kara mi réxuny 1 car” ÉMo cupBeBqrós ;
avrov yãp ei um), údei ri Exagpos Brida répara
ob Exer 9) el depuijreos Exponper.
u Ipós de Toúrois édy emuruuôras ôru od dAgBi,
GAR iows dei, oiov ral Roporkis Eb, aúTôs ue»
olous Bei moueir, Edprridyy de olor eloiv, aún
12 Aurégu. ei dé pnderépes, óri obrw dacwr otor
13 rã epi Oeôy dious ydp pobre Bédrior obra” Aéyeim
use obr” AO, dAA” Eruyev domep Bevopárer* dAA olv
1% «uy Ucherweg. V. inserts only ) which seems to give
wrong sense.
k 2 By. brnckets juaprjcêeu as am insertion from the next
ne.
3à obra isà given in one of the copies for :ÃS ore.
Eevogáve. By. for Ac Feropáry which V. prints.

* See chapter xxiv. $ 16 and note,

à à, immoral and therefore unirue. He opened the
102
 POETICS, xxv. 6-13
portraying, for example, a horse advancing both its
right legs, that is then a technical error in some special
branch of knowledge, in medicine, say, or whatever
it may be; or else some sort of impossibility has
been portrayed, but that is not an essential error.
These considerations must, then, be kept in view
in meeting the charges contained in these objections.
Let us first take the charges against the art of
poctry itself, Ifan impossibility has been portrayed,
am error has been made. But it is justifiable if the
poct thus achieves the object of poetry-—vhat that is
has been already stated—and makes that part or
some other part of the poem more striking. The pur-
suit of Hector is an example of this? If, however,
the object could have bcen achieved better or just
as well without sacrifice of technical accuracy, then
it is not justifiable, for, if possible, there should
be no error at al im any part of the poem. Again
one must ask of which kind is the error, is it an exror
in poetic art or a chance error in some other field ?
E is less oí an error not to know that a female stag
has no horns than to make a picture that is un-
recognizable.
Next, supposing the charge is “ That is not true,”
one can meet it by saying “ But perhaps it ought
to be,” just as Sophocles said that he portrayed
people as they ought to be and Euripides portrayed
them as they are. If neither of these will do, then
say; “ Such is the tale”; for instance, tales about
gods. Very likely there is no advantage in telling
them, and they are not true either, but may well
be what Kenophanes declared ?--all the same such
assault on Homeric theology at the end of the sixth or the
beginning of the fifth century po.
108
. ARISTOTLE

1á fact. Tê de tous od Bélrior pév, LAN otruws eixer,

oiov rá mepi ré ômÃcou, “ Esxen dé ope 090” êmi
r A 1 Em) “ se TA EM os A

caupwriipos- “otro yãp tor éevópulor, comep rai

vor "TAAvptoi,
15 Ilepi dé rod nudds 5) (11) Kad 1) elpyrai tun 1) E o) y ” a ” Eq a

mérparto ov móvor crentéor els abrô TO me-

mpayuéror 7) elpmuévor BAérovra ei omovônlor à
detdov, LAMA mai eis rov mpdrTarra 7) Aeyorta pós
dvEà) óre 1) Orey 1) 08 êvener, oiov
DD ei ueitovos
5 ,
dyalod,a
iva yérmras, <> ueitovos Kaxod, iva amoyérpras.
16 a dé TROS ri Aééiv dpóvro dei Stalvem, oiov
NE! 1 4 , FA En + ”

br “oúpias quer mpiirou"” tows yãp oú vobs

muLÓvOUS Aéyes dAAa rods púlaxasr cab rôv Aóduva,
, Os p' À roi eidos per Emp Kaxós ou Tó só
doúpuerpor dAMA 70 mpóocwmou aioxpórv, TO yãp
eteides oi Kpijres <ró>! edmpóowmov radodos: ai
ro “lmpórepor dé xépare” od Tô dkparor es
17 oipópAvéim MA vô Gârrov. vô Sé Kar perapopáv
2. > A 1 Eos , f A A

” A es o Z vo 54
ctonras, otor “ dAÃo: uév pa feoi TE Koi drépes
vs s
eúdor smarvúxgio.”- dua dé brow “À tou Or” és
1 By. inscrts the arlicle which the sense requires.

“ Hiad, x. 1592. Problem: “ Surely a had stance: they

might so casily Fall and cause alem,” Solution : “ Homer
does not defend it. To merely stnles a facto! Mis thus
that we exouse “ unpleasant” fielion.
» dl. 3. 50: “The mules and swift-footed hounds he
first Dbeset with his arrows” Apollo is sending plague
upon the Greek arty. Problem: “Why should be first
attack the mules ?” Solution: “Lhe word may here
mean * sentinela,”
8 Mx 918: One that was verily evil in form Dn swift
in his running,” Problem: “TE Dolon «xeere deformed,
how could he min fast?” Solution: “Form” may here
mesm * feature.
104
 POETICS, xxv. 14-17

is the tale, In another case, perhaps, there is no

advantage but “such was the fact,” e.g. the case
of the ams, “ Their spears erect on butt-spikes
stood,” « for that was then the custom, as it still is
in Tlyria.
As to the question whether anything that has
been said or done is morally good or bad, this must
be auswered not merely by seeing whether what has
actually been done or said is noble or base, but by
taking into cansideration also the man who did or
said it, and seeing: to whom he did or said it, and when
and for whom and for what reason; for example,
to secure a greater good or to avoid a greater evil.
Some objections may be met by reference to the
diction, for example, by pleading “ rare word,” e.g.
oipias juv mpúroy, for perhaps he means not mules
but sentinels.* And Dolon, “ One that was verily
evil of form,” it may be not his deformed body but
his ugly face, for the Cretans use “ fair-formed ” for
“ fair-featured.”º And again“ Livelier mixit “ may
mean not undiluted as for drunkards but quicker,º
Other expressions are metaphorical, for example :
Then all the other immortais and men lay all night in
slumber.
while yet he says :
& JE. ix, 202:
“ Set me, Menoetius' son, a larger bow] for the mingling,
Livelier mix it withal and make ready for esch one a
beaker,”
Problem: “* Livelier* suggests intemperance.” Solution :
“ Perhaps the word means * quicker;”” Similar scruples
emended the lines in “ Young Lochinvar ” Lo read:
“ And now am Í come with this pretty maid
To dance but one measure, drink one lemonade.”
105
 ARISTOTLE
mediov 7ô Towidr dPpjocer, alo cupiyyor 8
ôuador"+ vô ydp mwávres dyri <rod> mrodÃo: rará
a E

peradopdv elanras, Tô ydp mêv moAÚ te wai Tô

“oly 8º dumopos” rará uerapopdu, Tô vãp yreo-
í Y

piuciraror uóvov. '

18 Kerã dé mpocwdlav, domep mmias êExver à
Boris Tô “ Sidomer dé oi" rat vô pér oô rara-
19 muberar ôuBow.” ca dé diupécer, olov EjuredoxAijs
alta de Ovijr” Edúovro, Tà mply púlov dldrara
(é DI 3 3 L A 1 L 3 A

20 Empá ve mpi rérpnro.” vá Sé dufiBodia, “uap-

cxmicer dé mÃém vos” Tó yãp mÃcio dupiBoddv ear.
4 y Lj 4 ER) Ny A Fr 5 [4 z >

º Jii, 1,2 (quoted by mistake for Jl x. 1) and x. 18, Td:

“ Then all the other immortals and all the horse-crested
heroes
Night-long slumbered, but Zeus the sweet sleep held
not. «o. (Mil,
Yea, when indeed he gazed at the Trojan plain, Agamemnon
Maxvelled at voices of fiutes and of pipes and the din of
the soldiers.” (Jl. x, 13, 14)
Problem; “ If all were asleep, who was playing the flute ? ”
Solution: “This may be a metaphor; as explained in
chapter xwxi., “all” is one kind or species of “many, and
thus by transference *all” is used for * many, the species
for the genus,”
PJ. xviii. 480:
“ She alone of all others shares not in the baths of the
Ocean.”
The reference is to the Great Bear. Problem; “Why does
Homer say * she alone" when the other Northern Constella-
tions also do not set?” Solution: “ As in the last instance,
this may be 'metephorical,' 2,e. the genus, 'sole;' may be here
used by transference Tor one of its species, * best known."
e M. ii 16. Our text is different. Aristotle, who
quotes the line again elsewhere, read thus :
“ No longer the gods in the halls of Olympus
Strive in their plans, for Hera has bent them all to her
purpose
106
 POETICS, xxv, 17-20
Yea, when indeed he gazed at the Trojan plain Aga-
mempnon '
Marvelled at voices of flutes. . .
“AN? is used instead of “many” metaphorically,
“all” being a species of “many,”s And again,
“ Alone unsharing”& is metaphorical; the best
known is called the only one,
By intonation also; for example, the solutions of
Hippias of Thasos, his “ Sidoper BE oi” e and “rd
gev 08 raramúdera: duBpop ” *; and by punctuation;
for example, the lines of Empedocles :
Soon mortal grow they that aforetime learnt
Immortal ways, and pure erstwhile commingled.*
Or again by ambiguity, e.g. mepúygner 88 mAéw viÊ,
Thus by her prayers; and we grant him to win the boast
of great glory.”
Zeus is instructing the Dream, whom. he is sending to lure
Agamemnon to disaster, Problem: “The last statement
isa lie” Solution: “ Change the accent and the statement
Bione» Bé ol becomes a command (the infinitivo Bilúgerer
written in a shortened form and used as an imperative).
The lie will then be told by the Dream and not by Zeus,
who may thus save his reputation for veracity.”
& D xxii. 897:
“A fathom high from the carth there rises a stump all
vithered,
A stump of an oak or a pine, that rois not at all in the
rain.”
Problem: “The last statement is incredible.” | Solution :
“ Alter the breathing aud vô uêér có becomes vô pêv ob and
means ' part of ii rots in the rain”
* The problem is whether “ erstwhile ” goes with “pure ”
or with “* commingled.” The former interpretation seems
to give the best solution. Empedocles is speaking of the
elements or atoms.
107
 ARISTOTLE

gi rã” dé xará tô A édos rijs Acfews. Tóv reipanéror!

A a)

olvóv doom elvar, ôbev memoiytar “ uymuis veo-

Teúrtov «aggeréporo”* «ai yalkéas TOUS TOM
4

, a
ciônpor doyaboueévovs, ó0er elpyrar é Pavupajôns
Au oiyoxosdei, od miwórrmr otvor.
1 mn
ely 5 dy roiró
o

ye rorã peradopdr,
22 Ac dé Kai óray ôvouá TE Umevartiwpnd Ti dorci)
onpalvew, Emoromeiy mocaxds dv onpujvere rolro
é» TO elpnpévw, clov vô “rf p' êoxero xúlkeor
éyxos," Tô Tabrn rwvliva movaxds erdéyerar—
23 SSL A coBDL
BOL M) <WO cos " uador”
Dor É E W:
dy ris úmoAdBoL rara VArip
Va , j e Dao
24 Karavrueou 9 es DÃovicarv Aéyer, Ort Evia GNóyuos
mulb mpovrolaufárovow ol abrol rarulmpradgevor
à By.'s second edition follows the copies in reading rd»
xexpapévos for AC Ti rexpagérimr.
8 V. suggests but does not print the second dd, ltisin
one of the “ copies,” Riccardianus d6,
2 lx 252:
“ Come now, lhe night is far spent and at hand is the
davwning,
Far across are the stars and more tun Lwo parts of the
nighi-time
Are gone, but a third is still left us,”
Problem: If “more than two parts” are gone, a third
cannot be left. Solution: Ao here means “full de “the
full night of two-thirds”
=“ full two-thirds of the night is
gone," and so Homer's arilhmetic is saved,
* Problem: “ Greaves are made not of tin but of an
alloy of tin and copper.” Solution: “ Compounds are
called by tho name of the more important partner. Just
as a mixture of wine and water is called “ wine,' so here an
alioy of tin and copper is called “tin.'” So, too, is whisky
and water called “ whisky.”
* Nectar: gods:: winc: men. Therefore, according to
the rules of metaphor in chapter xxi., neetar may be called
“yine” or “the wine of the gods.”
108
 POETICS, xxv. 21-24

where mãiw is ambiguous.” Others according to

the habitual use of the phrase, e.g. wine and water
is called “wine” so you get the phrase “ greaves
of new-wrought tin ”;? or workers in iron are called
“ braziers,” and so Ganymede is said to pour wine
for Zeus, though they do not drink wine. This
last might however be metaphorical.
Whenever a word seems to involve a contra-
diction, one should consider how many different
meanings it might bear in the passage, e.g. in “ There
the bronzen shaft was stayed,” é we should ask in
how many ways “ being stayed ” might be taken,
interpreting the passage in this sense or in that, and
keeping as far as possible from the attitude which
Glaucon * describes when he says that people make
some unwarrantable presupposition and having them-
selves given an adverse verdict proceed to argue
E Hoxx 272:
“ Nay but the weighty shaft of the warlike hero Aeneas
Brake not the shield; for the gola, the gift of a god, did
withstand it.
Through iwo folds it drave, yet three were beneath, for
Hephaestus,
Crook-footed god, five folds had hammered ; two were of
bronzesvork,
Two underneath were of tin and one was of gold; there
the bronzen
Shaft of the hevo «was siayed in the gold.”
Troblem: “ Since the gold was presumably outside for the
sale of ornament, how could the spear be stayed in the gold
and yet peneirate two folds?” Bywater suggests as a
solution that “the plate of gold sufficed to stop the course
of the spear, though the spear-point actualiy pierced it and
indented the underlying plates al brass.”
* This may well be lhe Glaucon mentioned in Plato's
Ton as an authority on Bomer,
E iog
 ARISTOTLE
cuMoyitovrar, mal «Os eipnkóros O mt doxei émi-
25 rquDorw, dy drevavrtor 7 TH aúróy olijoer. robro
de mérovde rã mepi "Exáprov. olovrar yãp adrôv
Adrewva eivarr dromor od» Tô ju) evtuyeip róp
Toiéuaxor adr eis Aaxednipora ebóvra. vô
dº iows éxer Womep oi Kepalivés paor map!
aóróiv yãp vimos Aéyovor Tor "Odvocéa. mai eb
“Ixdôdiov AN obr "Ináprov: B” dudprmna dé TÔ
mpoBAnua eixos dart.
26 “Ohms dé rô dôvvarov per mpós Tijv moinau 1) pôs
27 7ô Bélrior 7) mpôs Ti» doar det dvdyem. pós ve
yãp TI» moimow aiperedrepor mibavór ddúvaror à)
28 dmifavor mai duvaróv <ral ei dBUvarov> rorobrous
elvar, olov Zedêis Eypager, AA Bédrior Tô yãp
mapdderyua det dmrepéxer.
29 Wpôós à dacw riÃopa: obrmw TE Kal ri moTê odx
dÃoyór eo eixós yêp kal mapa TO eixôs plveofar.
30 rã 5º dmevavricos eionuéva obra cromeir cdamrep oi
é» vois Aódyois EXeyyor ei TÔ uvrô xab mpôs Tô adrô
Kai duaúrws, Dare Kai adrôv 3) mpôs & abrôs Adyes
31% 6 dy Ppóviuos Urobira. dpby O émriumors Koi
dÃoyig xai poxônpia, órar ui dvdyens obons unbev
xpionrar TD dhóym, dorep Edpiniôns Tb Ale,
9 rã mormpia, domep é "Opéory Tod Meveldou.
1 V. snggests but does not print the words inserted. They
are confirmed by the Arabic transcript,
2 imevarrius By, second edition for AS bmerdoria, cs,
º Penclope's father.
* See chapter vi. $ 15,
º Eurip. Medea, 668. Im Aristotle's opinion lhere is no
good reason for Aegeus's appearance and no good use is
made of it.
d See p. 54, note d,
io
 POETICS, xxv, 24-31
from it, and if what they think the poet has said
does not agree with their own preconceived ideas,
they censure him, as if that was what he had said,
This is what has happened in the case of Icarius.?
They assume that he was a Spartan and therefore
find it odd that when Telemachus went to Sparta
he did not meet him. But the truth may be, as
the Cephallenians say, that Odysseus married a wife
from their country and that the name was noi
Icarius but Icadius. So the objection is probably
due to a mistake.
In general any “ impossibility ” may be defended
by reference to the poetic effect or to the ideal or
to current opinion. For poetie effect a convincing
impossibilty is preferable to that which is un-
convineing though possible. It may be impossible
that there should be such people as Zeuxis? used
to paint, but it would. be better if there were; for
the type should improve on the actual,
Popular tradition may be used to defend what
seems irrational, and you can also say that sometimes
it is not irrational, for it is likely that unlikely
things should happen. Contradictions in terms must
be examined in the same way as an opponent's
refutations in argument, to sec whether the poet
refers to the same thing in the same relation and
in the same sense, and has contradieted, either what
he expressly says himself or what an intelligent
person would take to be bis meaning, It is right,
however, to censure both improbability and depravity
where there is no necessity and no use is made of
the improbability. An example is Euripides” intro-
duction of Aegeus* or (of depravity) the character
of Menelaus in the Orestes!
111
 ARISTOTLE
32 Tá pévodr êmimpúnara ex mévre eidv pépovow:
À ydp «os dôdvara 7) ds dÃoya 7) «ds BhaBepã 7) «de
úmevaveia 3) ds mapa vi ópbórura Ti” rará Téxir.
ab dé Aúoeis ex rr eipyéveor dpiludip oxemréa,
cioiy dé Oúúdena.
26. Moórepor 3é BeArimv 7 êxomoux?) piumols 7)
27) rpayuci, drmopúgcerev dv rig. el yãp 7 mrror
dopruer Bexricuv, Toraúrm 8º 1) mpôs Beirious Beards
Cori dei, Mar ôijÃov Ort 1) <mpós>! dravra piov-
3 uém dopreij às yap ob airbavonéreor dv qd)
aúrós pool, mohMiy rimow iwodrrar, olov oé
gado. adAnrai rukópgero: av dLoxov den jujsetodas,
roi Exrovres róv xopupaiov dy ExúlÃav adAdow.
47% pév odv Tpayedia ToraúTm égriv, ds Kai oÉ mpó-
repor Tods dorépous abródv corto Urokpirds: «ds
Alav vãp úmrepBdMorTa mibycov à Munioxos Tóv
KaMimmidy êxdÃeo rorwbrm dé Bófa ai epi
ugza Ilevôdpov dv: às 5º obro: [5"] Exovor mpôs adrods,
59 dm réxim mpôs TYv exomoiar Exew mv pév odv
mpôs Bearãs émcineis dao elvor <ol> oddev
Béovra tv oxquármr, viv dé rpayucjr após
dabhovs" ei ob» popruci xeipcr BijÃov ôr dr eim.
1 By. adds wpôs which the argument certainly requires,

“ je. any expression that is eriticized should be considered

with reference to (1) things as they were; (2) things as they
are: (3) things as they are said to be; (4) things as they seem
to be; (5) things as they ought to be. Purther, we should
consider whether (6) u rare word or (7) a metaphor is
used; what is the right (8) accent and (9) punctuation:
also whether there may be (10) ambiguity and what is (11)
the habitual use of the phrase; also we may refer to (12)
the proper standard of correctness in poetry as distinct from
other arts,
ii
 POETICS, xxv. 32-xxvr. 6

The censures they bring are of five kinds; that

things are either impossible or irrational or harmful
or inconsistent or contrary to artistic correcimess.
The solutions must be studied under the heads
specified above, twelve in number.º
26. The question may be raised whether the epic
or the tragic form of representation is the better.
If the better is the less vulgar and the less vulgar
is always that which appeals to the better audience,
then obviously the art which makes its appeal to
everybody is eminentiy vulgar? And indeed actors
think the audience do not understand unless they put
in something of their own, and so they strike all sorts
of attitudes, as you see bad flute-players whirling
aboutif they haveto do “the Discus,” or manling the
leader of the chorus when they are playing the
“ Seylla.” e So tragedy is something like what the
older school of actors thought of their successors, for
Mynniscus used to call Callippides “ the monkey,”
because he overacted, and the same was said of
Pindarus.* The «whole tragie art, then, is to epie
poetry what these later actors were compared to their
predecessors, since according to this view epic appeals
to a cultivated audience which has no need of actor's
poses, while tragedy appeals to a lower class. Ifthen
it is vulgar, it must obviously be inferior.
? Aristotle first states the popular condemnation of tragedy
on the ground that it can he and often is spoilt by the stupid
vulgarity of actors. So might spectators of certain produe-
tions of Shakespeare in their haste condemn the post. The
refutation of this view begins at $ 6.
e Cfech xy. 68.
& Mynniscus acted for Aeschylus: Callippides belonged
to the next generation, end of fifth century, Pindarus is
unknova,
lis
 ARISTOTLE
[à Hpôror név ou ris momrucis 7 Karnyopia dá
ris Umoxpurinis, érei êort mepiepyásecda rots
onuetois nai palpdodvra, âmep [ori] Emoi-
arparos, «Kai digdovra, dmep emoter Myagideos ó
v'Omobprios. eira gude rivmos dmaga fimo-
doriuaoréa, elirep end Spxnois, GAR! 1| paid, ómep
à
rob KoMummidn éxeriudTo eai voy, aMois cos oUk
8 eXeubépas yovaixas purovpéver. Em, 2 rpuyebia
Kai dpeu ruvijreçms mouei Tó córis, dormrep 1, émo-

moua did pap, ro dvayiwáoicem povepã. ómoia,

6 mis
dor ei obv éoru Tá VA Ba Kpeirrw, Toró pe
cb dva prator adrã ômbpyem.
9 “Errevra Bióri wdvr” Exer Soumep 7 émomoa. (eai
10 vãp Tê préremw Efcor xpiodar), ieai Eru OU puuscpóu
pépos mijy ovouejy eai TAS ômpers, du e ai dor (on)
11 ouvioravrar evapyéororar eira real, vó evapyes Exer
12 Kai & Tjj dvayedoes Kai êm Tô Ep Eri mr &
mod Eldrron ujrei vô TEdOS vis tupnfoecos elvar (rô vãp
GB pocrepov Motor 7)j modAd mexpauévor rd Ypórco,
déyo Sº otov ei mis Tou ÓlBimow Deim [din] .ov
18 Zogorhéovs é» greom ôcos % "TAds): Eru dirrou
uia Ea uigimois 7 ródv êxomordp Conucior ô€, Ex yãp
ômotagody puijoceos mAcious pay wdia yivopra)
deore dam per Eva, ô8oy modo, 7 Bpaxémws deuevd-
uevor uúoupor Galveotas,1) êxolovbodvra TO rod
pérpou punjicet apt.
éyas dé ofau cam éx mheróvam mpúéemv À guy-
14 Kequévm, donep À Tás éxet é mroMda roara mépm
noi 7 Odvocea mai Ka” dxvrã êxe uéyedos
* uam By, for Atpula, V, brackets 7
* Both unknown,
* Literally“ the length of the (proper) limit.”
iliá
 POETICS, xxvr. G-14

First of al, this is not a criticism of poetry but

of acting: even in reciting a minstrel can overdo
his gestures, as Sosistratus did, or in a singing competi-
tion, like Mnasitheus of Opus.e Besides it is not
all attitudinizing that ought to be barred any more
than all dancing, but only the attitudes of inferior
people. That was the objection to Callippides ;
and modem actors are similarly criticized for re-
presenting women who are noi ladies. Moreover,
tragedy fulfils its function even without acting, just
as much as epic, and its quality can be gauged by
reading aloud. So, ifitis in other respects superior,
this disadvantage is not necessarily inherent.
Secondly, tragedy has all the elements of the
epic—it can even use the hexameter-—and in
addition a considerable element of its own in the
spectacle and the music, which make the pleasure
all the more vivid; and this vividness can be felt
whether it is read or acted. Another point is that
it attains its end with greater economy of length.
What is concentrated is always more effective than
what is spread over a long period; suppose, for
example, Sophocles” Oedipus were to be turned into
as many lines as there are in the Jhad. Again, the
art of the epic has less unity, as is shown by the
fact that any one epic males severa! tragedies. The
result is that, if the epic poet takes a single plot,
either it is set forth so briefly as to seem curtailed,
or if it conforms to the limit of length” it seems
thin and diluted.
In saying that epic has less unity I mean an epic
- made up of several separate actions. The Jhad
has many such parts and so has the Odyssey, and
each by itself has a certain magnitude. And yet
115
 ARISTOTLE,
rcaitos rubra mowjunta ouvéorqmer «ds evdéxerar
16 dprora. «od rt udMora puãs mpúfews plumas. é
odv roúrois re Srapbéper mãow Kal Ert vó ris Téxums
py (dei yãp od rjp royodoar Poviy moieiv aúrds
aa iv clpmuémr) davepóv Ori epeirruv dv ey
Mov 700 rédovs Tuyydrovea. rijs emomoias.
16 Hepi pêr cdr roaywBias Kai éxomoias, Koi abr»
Kai rev cid nai vv pepdr, Kal móce sai tí
Srabéper, Kai roi <d 7 mi) Tives alrias, mal qrepi
émtripujoemy ral Adoewr, eipjodw rogadra. ...

Sid the pleasure felt when by the representation of life

in art “relief is given” to pity, fear, and other such

AnpitionNaL Notes
P,8,º The traditional definition is that the Dithyramb was
sung to a flute accompaniment by a chorus in honour of
Dionysus ; and thai the Nome was a solo sung to a harp
aceompaniment in honour of Apollo, but it is not clear that
Avistotle regarded the Dithyramb as restricted to the worship
of Dionysus. Timotheus's dithyramb mentioned in eh. xv. 88
cannot have bcen Dionpsiae. But there is good evidence
to show that the dithyramh was primarily associated «with
Dionyaus.
P.40, * Vahlen and many other exponents of the Poetica
confine the meaning 0f “ reversal” to the situation in which
the hero's action has consequences directly opposite to his
intention and expeclation, There is much to be said for
this interpretation, which stresses the irony al lhe heart of all
tragedy. But it is too narrow for Aristotle's theory. AU
tragedy involves a change of fortunc (aerágaois). In a
“simple” plot this is gradnal; in a “complex” plot it
is eatastrophie, a sudden revolution cf fortune's «eheel. In
116
 PORETICS, gxvr, 14-16

the composition of these poems is as perfect as can be

and each of them is—as far as an epic may be-—a
representation of a single action. Ifthen tragedy is
superior in these respeets and also in fulfilling its
artistic function—for tragedies and epies should pro-
duce not any form of pleasure but the pleasure we
have described : —then obviously, since it attains its
object better than the epic, the better of the two is
tragedy.
This must suflice for our treatment of tragedy
and epic, their characteristics, their species, their
constituent parts, and their number and attributes ;
for the causes of suécess and failure ; and for critical
problems and their solutions. . ..
emotions, or, to use a term now prevalent, when such
emotions are “ released,” Cf chapter xiv. 88.

Apprrronar Nores—(continved)
some of the greatest tragedies, but not in all, this is the
result of action designed to produce the opposite effect.
P, 46, * Whether Aristotle regards the ““flaw ” as intellectual
or moral has been hotly discussed, Itmay cover both senses.
The hero must not deserve his misfortune, but he must cause
it by making a fatal mistake, au error of judgement, which
may well involve some imperfection of character but not
such as to make us regard him as “ morally responsible ”
for the disasters although they are nevertheless the con-
sequences of the flaw in him, and his wrong decision at à
erisis is the inevitable outcome of his character (gf. ch, vi. 524).
P. 54, * This does not necessarily imply that Aristotle
reckons Euripides “ a modern,” since the Greelz can equally
mean '* Euripides as well as other old dramatists,”
P.68,º The text is obseure, and our ignorance of the play
or rhapsody adds to the darkness, but the referençe may be to
the ruse, common in detective stories, of misleading the
22 117
 ARISTOTLE

Appirionar Nores—(continued)
audience by false clues in order to make the final revelation
more effective,
P.69,º A Satyr play by Acschylus. The Phorcides were
sisters of the Dragon who kept the garden of the Hesperides,
and they lived “ under Seythia”” The Prometheus is not
the Prometheus Bound bul another Satyr play, probably by
Aeschylus.
P. 95, + “ Entertainment” must mean a festival. Atthe
City Dionysia three poets competed, each wilh three trage-
dies. By the end of the fifth century only one Satyr play
was performed at each festival. But the tragedies were
longer than those we possess. Tt is therefore likely thal the
nine tragedies together with one Satyr play amonnteú to
abont 15,000 lines. The fliad contains between 16,000 and
17,000 lines.
P. 97, * Miad, xxil, 205 sq. “* And to the host divine
Achilles nodded with his head a sign and let them not launch
their bitter darts at Hector, lest another should win glory
by shooting him and Achilles himself come second.”
P. 99, * In Sophocles' Biectra the plot hinges on a false
story of Orestes' death by an accident at the Pythian games,
Presumably the anachronism shocked Aristotle,

118
 “LONGINUS”
ON THE SUBLIME

WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY

W. HAMILTON PYFE
PRINCIPAL AND VICE CRANCELLOR, QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY, CANADA
FORMERLY FELLOW QE MERTON OOLLEOE, OXFORD
AND HEADMASPER OF CHBIST'S HOSPITAL
 NOTE ON THE TEXT

Tu oldest and best manuscript of this treatise is the

Paris manuscript 2036 of the 10th century, which is
probably the source from which all the other existing
manuseripts are derived. From it twenty pages,
more than two-thirds of the whole, are unfortunately
ost. It is designated P.
The text here printed is based on Vahlen's fourth
edition (1910) of Otto Jahn's text. Readings which
are neither in P nor in Vablen's 1010 text axe
recorded in footnotes,

121
me ATONTZIOY H AOTTINOY
HEPI TPOTYS
À. Tô pév rod Kerdiov ovyypanpárior, O mepl
Upous ouverágaro, dvacromouévois Wuiv cos oloda
now, Hooroúme Tepevriumvê PiArare, rameóre-
por épdem vis OAys Umobécems, Kai jktora rd
repiur epanrómgevor oU modify ve dpélear, fo
uálvora det oroxdlecdas Tor ypápovra, mepumrorofy
rois évruyydvovow el” éml adoms rexvoloyias
Sueiy daarrovpévery, mporépouv gev Tod deiêar, Ti vó
úmroreiueroy, devrépou dé rf) ráéeu, Ti) duváge. dé
KupunTépou, ms à» duiv adro robro ras de dy
mw uebodwr rrnrôv yévorro, óuws é Rexidios
motov juév 1 dmrápye: Tô ÚbnÃdr Bd gupiwr dom
cos dyvooBor metpâmut deuvirar, vÔ de OU Grou rpó-
mou Tàs cavrdv púcers mpodyem ioxbomer dv eis
mooiy meyédous êmidoow, odx cid” ómws «is vdx
dvayraior smapédimer mAjy tows TovTori pév vou
+

êvôpa oUy obrws alriâodar róv Exhedemuéver,

às adrijs vis émwolas xai amovdijs détov dmruveir,
war, mel 5º êvexeledom iai Auôs vu mepl Wfous edvraws
iz2z
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
ON THE SUBLIME
1, You know, my dear Postumius Terentianus, that
when we were studying together Cecilius's 2 little
treatise on the Sublime we found it was too trivial
to satisfy the full demands of the subject and
omitted altogether to touch upon the main pointa,
and that consequently it does not render to its
readers very much of that assistance which should
be an authors chief aim, Moreover, in every
systematic treatise there are two requisites: the
author must first define his subject, and secondiy,
though this is really more important, he must show
us how and by what means of study we may reach
the goal ourselves. Cecilius, however, while assum-
ing our ignorance and endeavouring by a thousand
instances to demonstrate the nature oÉ the sublime,
apparently thought it unnecéssary to deal with the
means by which we may be enabled to educate our
natures to the proper pitch of elevation. Still, so
far as Cecilius is concemed, we ought perhaps rather
to praise him for the mere conception of such a treat-
ise and the trouble spent upon it than to blame him
for his omissions. But since you have now required
me in my turn to prepare some notes on the sublime
« A Sicilian rhetorician, in religion a Jew, who taught
at Rome in the time of Augustus,
128
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

eis ojv dropuquaricacta. xdpiv, dépe, el ti 87)

) A t rá (4 f ” 1

Soroiuer dyôpaou molurucois teDemwpniévar xpi-

cor, emorefiúncda. aros Sº úuiv, ércipe, Tá
émi uépovs, os mépuras mai Kabijxes, ouvemicpueis
E a)

dAnféorara: ed yáp d) O dropyráperos, Ti Deois

> L ” 4 A Lg > 4 fr a

euorv exouer, “edepyeciar” elmas “ xai dMj-

e

30crav ypipwr dé mpôs cé, didrare, Tv mardeios

EE) [4 1 N E F 1 z

emuorijpova, oxedov dmjAayas mal rod Std mmÃeró-

vesr mpoiiroribeodas, cs depórgs mai éfoy) ris
Adyewv êori Tá Ulm, Kal mom Te oÉ uépioToL nai
cvyypapécor ob dAhodev 7% enbévõe mobév émp-
f , ” A » LA 1 > A

vevcar Koi tais dawrddv mepréBador edxhcias vou

daidva. od yáp eis medi vods drpowuévovs dA
eis êxoracw áyer rã Drepfvã: mávrm dé ye cdr
ermAgÉe: TOO mibavod Kai T06 mpôs ydpuw dei Kparei
Tô Pavudosor, elye TO prév aridavóv cs TA moAÃd Ep
1 L ” A 1 1 R y A >

ui», rabra dé duvaoretov Kai Bia» duaxov mpoo-

dépovra mavrôs êrduew rod drpownéroy rabiorarar
Kat Tv ev êuteplar tis cúpécews ral qi TO
mpoypdrer táém ai oixovopniar our é évôs
ovo” ex Queiy, é dé TOU SÃov TÁdv Adycr Upous pólis
102 5 El * 1 e RA ” ! A 4

exparvonévm» dpmer, úlos Sé mov xatpiws cé-

evexbêv rá re mpáyuaro Sienr crnmrod aávra de
edópncer rat rijv 700 propos eúbds dbpoar êvedei-
furo dúvauv. Tara yãp oluas Kai Tá mapanhfora,
wmv. Tepevriavê mbiore, Kar aúrós dx meipas dpnyi-
gaLo.
2. Huiy 8º êxeivo draropnréor év dpxi), ei dorm

« This remark is attributed both to Pythagoras and to

Demosthenes,
124
 ON TRE SUBLIME, 1. 2-m, 1

purely for your own sake, let us then see whether

our views have any real value for public speakers ;
and in the details of our inquiry you yowselH, my
friend, will, [ am sure, do what duty and your
heart alike dictate and give me the benefit of your
unbiased judgement. For he spoke well who, in
answer to the question, “ What have we in common
with the gods?” said “ Kindness and Truth.”
Further, writing for a man of such learning and
culture as yourself, dear friend, 1 almost fecl freed
from the need of a lengthy preface showing how the
Sublime consists in a consummate excellence and
distinetion of language, and that this alone gave to
the greatest poets and historians their pre-eminence
and clothed them with immortal fame. For the
effect of genius is not to persuade the audience but
rather to transport them out of themselves. In-
variably what inspires wonder casts a spell upon us
and is always superior to what is merely convincing
and pleasing. For our convictions are usually under
our own control, while such passages exercise an
irresistible power of mastery and get the upper
hand with every member of the audience.
Again inventive skill and the due disposal and
marshalling of facts do not show themselves in one
or two touches: they gradually emerge from the
whole tissue of the composition, while, on the other
hand, a well-timed flash of sublimity scatters every-
thing before it hke a bolt of lightning and reveals
the full power of the speaker at a single stroke.
But, as 1 say, my dear Terentianus, these and other
such hints you with your experience could supply
yourself.
2. We must begin now by raising the question
125
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

dove ris 7) Bálove vréxum, êxrei vives ôdws olovra

denmariodas Tods TA roraira dyovras, eis TeExriKA,
mapayyédeas ara. yevvêras vdp, noi, Ta peyadopui
[2 E Será, Tapayiveros, nai pia Tex mpós
atbrá, vô mequicévos xeipw ve rá puourã épya,
é Os
olovrar, Kai TE marTi dethórepa rabiorara mais
Texvodoyimas Karasrekerevógeva. éyo Sê eley-
ho

xtjoeotar Toob” érépws Exov Ani, ei emoréfasrto

ves órt 1) púais, domep TA moAÃa év rois sralbnrucois
Kai dimpuévois aúróvopnor, obras odx eixaióv rt Káx
mavrós djuédodov elvar pulei" Kai Ort aúrm qév
mporór To Kob dpxérumor pevégems orouçetor émi
mdvreov ipéorqier, Tás de sTodÓTNTAS Kai Tou cp”
érdorou Kapór ér d6 Tp dmkavesrárny dorenaty
TE Kal xpiow ixavh mapopicor Kai cuveveyreiv %
nédodos: mal cos emuciwdnvórepa, abra ep” adrôry
dixa emtorúums doripicra ral dvepuáriora éa-
dévra Tà peyáda, mi pó, rã dopg joi dpuabei
ródum Aeirógera det vap wbrois cds Kévrpou moA-
3 Adkis, abro dé Kai xoAmod: ôreo yêp à Ampo-
odds émié rod noob ro SB pamor daropaiveras
Blov, péyroTOr pêro elvas TO áyabó» vô edruyeiy,
derreçor” de teai ox EXarror Tô e Bovievecbas,
ômep, ofs av [vi api) ouvarapet mdvreos Koi Dérepor,
robr dy rod émi ré Adi elmoner, cds 1 quer
púois qi ris eiruxgias rágm éEméxer, 1) Téxim de ie
ris eúovAias: Tô dé upuóraror, óri Koi aúrô Tô
elvai rua vp é Aóyois em pórm TH púce od
dMoBer fuãs 7) mapã ris réxims exuadeim dei" ai
& There seems no authority for taking this, as Pope does,
in the sense of “ alhos,” The adjective Bodas applied to
mental qualitics means * deep,” not “ low,
126
 ON THE SUBLIME, tr. 1-8

whether there is an art of sublimity or profundity,s

for some think those are wholly at fault who try to.
bring such matters under systematic rules. Genius,
it is said, is born and does not come of teaching,
and the only ark for producing it is nature. Works
of natural genius, so people think, are spoiled and
utterly demeaned by being reduced to the dry
bones of rule and precept. For my part 1 hold that
the opposite may be proved, if we consider that
while in lofty emotion Nature for the most part
knows no law, yet it is not the way of Nature to
work at random and whollg without system. In
all production Nature is the prime cause, the great
exemplar; but as to all questions of degree, of the
happy moment in each case, and again of the safest
rules of practice and use, such prescriptions are
the proper contribution of an art or system, We
must remember also that mere grandeur runs the
greater risk, if left to itself without the stay and
ballast of scientific method, and abandoned to the
impetus of uninstructed enterprise. For genius
needs the curb-as often as the spur. Speaking of
the common life of men Demosthenes ? declares
that the greatest of all blessings is good fortune, and
that next comes good judgement, which is indeed |
quite as important, since the lack of it often com-
pletely cancels the advantage of the former. We
may apply this to literature and say that Nature
filis the place of good fortune, Art that of good
judgement. And above all we must remember this :
the very fact that in literature some effects come
of natural genius alone can only be learnt from art.
+ Áristocrates, 8 113,

127
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

vaD0, ds Ebmv, êmoyivarro «ab? éavróv 6 vols

xpnoropabodow emma, oúx dp rt, poi dorcéd,
mepirrijy Kai dypncror TI» emb Tv mporeuévor
iyjcarro Dewpiar,
Word... Koi Kopivos oxdo uárioTor célas,
ei váp Tu coriobxor ôbouos póvov,
piav mapeipas mAckTávML verudppoov,
oréymr mupóceo rat Karaviparcdoouar
vôv 8º oU «érpayá mw Tô yervaior pédos.
ob rpayuca êr radra, MA maparpdyõe, ai mÃeR-
rávaL, Kal TO mpôs oúpardv efempeiv, nai TO TOM
Bopéar avAnriy moseiv, Kai à dAda ééijs: redóAoTaL
yôp rj bpácer rai rebopúlrar vais davracias
HEAov 7) dedeimwras, xdv ExaoTor aurddr mpôs adyás
dvaoromijs, êx 700 boBepod gar” SAiyor úmovoorei
mpôs Tô edxaradpdvmror. órou 8º é& rpayydig,
mpdypare dyrnpád qúoei Kal emdexonéva oróubor,
ôpuus TO mapa pedos oideiv doUyyuworov, cxodf Y
2 dv oluar Aóyois dAybuois dpuócerev. raúrm nai TÃ
ro8 Acorrivou Topylou yelâras ypapovros * Mép-
éns o rá» Hepody Zede,” nai “yômes Epuxor
rápos” nai viva rd” RaAliofévovs dura oby dmAd
CAMA jperéupa, mai ér; pão» vô RAeurdpyou
PÃowdôns ydp drmp nai puede Karã rór Boporhéa
Fuuxpois pêr abhioroo, bophesisS drep” rá ye po

a From Acschylus's Oreithyia, now lost. The speaker is

Borcas.
* As these words are not in the quotation, some of it is
presumably lost.
e A historian who flourished about 800 .c.
Ed * Historian of Alexander the Great, his contemporary.
128
 ON THE SUBLIME, 1. 3-1. 2

Xf then, I say, those who censure the students of

this art would lay these considerations to heart,
they would not, T faney, be any longer inclined to
consider the study of these subjects superfuous and
useless.
[Tmo pages of the us. are missing here
E PR

Yea, thongh they check: the chimney's towering flame.

For, if I spy one hearthholder alone,
VN weave one torrent coronal of flame
And five the steading to a heap of ash.
But not yet have I blown the noble strain.º

AM this has lost the tone of tragedy : it is pseudo-

tragie,—the “ coronals ” and “ spewing to heaven ”?
and making Boreas a flute-player and all the rest
ofit. The phrasing is turbid, while the images make
for confusion rather than intensity. Examine each
in the light of day and it gradually declines from
the terrible to the ridiculous, Now seeing that in
tragedy, which is essentially a majestic matter and
admits of bombast, misplaced tumidity is nons the
less unpardonable, surely it is not likely to suit real
speeches, Thus it is that people laugh at Gorgias of
Leontini for calling &erxes “the Persian Zeus,” and
vultures “ living sepulchres ” : also at certain phrases
of Callisthenes º which are not sublime but high-
falutin, and still more at some of Cleitarchus's ?
efforts, an affected creature, blowing, as Sophocles
says, “ on scrannel pipes, yet wasting all his wind,” *
* These lines, quoted in a fuller form by Cicero (dd det.
ij 16. 2), are probably from an Oreithyia by Sophocles.
“The gopficá was a cheeck-strap worn by pipers to check the
flow of breath. The coronal in 1 3 may be a blast of wind,
I29
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
"Audicpárovs rodra Kai 'Hygoiou Kai Múrpiãos-
monhaxod yáp evbovorãv éavrois Sorodures od
3 Baryevovor dMha maltovow. dAws 3” Correr elvar
Tô oideiv é» Tots pudor dvopulartórarov. qúger
vão dmares oi jeyédous ediéueror, pedyovres
dobeveias mai Empórmros rardyrmow, odx ais”
ómus émri rob” dmropépovra, meibómevor vó
180. “ ueydAm» dmolobaivem Quis edyeves dudprqua
4 Kool dê ôykor Koi Emi owjuirwv KoL Abymr ob
xaúro. Kai dralibes ral uúmore mepuorávres
Wjuãs eis rodvarTiov oúder ydp, daul, Enpórepor
va period.
“AMA Tô ev oidodv drepaipew Boleros ra úlm,
Tô dE uetpaxidões dvrucpus Úrevavriov rois ueye-
Deo ramewôv yáp SÉ dhov Kai pecpójuyor «ai ré
ôvri raxôv dyevréorarov. Ti mor odv Tô perpa-
nunes corw; 7) OijÃov «Os ayoÃaoriKi) vónois, úmo
mepiepyios Ayovea eis Puxpórgra; dArcbaivovor
eis Toro TO yévos dpeyópiero. uêv TOU mepurrod
Kai memormpévou Kai púlicTa TOS mdéos, émoréA-
5 Aovres dé eis TO prwmicôr Kal raxóiniov. roúra
mapéreiras mpirau Tu racias eidos ev, rois mabn-
rucots, ômep à Qeádeupos mapérbvpooy Exddes, gr
Bé mdbos dxapor Kai revdr Evba pum) de7 máluus, 1)
âpuerpov Evda, perpiou dei. modda vãp domep, é
mébys tuwês eis TÃ junkéri TOO mpéyuaros, (dia

3 Amphicrates of Athens (first century n.c.), Hegesias of

Magnesia (third century s.c.), Matris of Thches ( second
century 8.0.), were rhetoricians of the bombastie “ Asiatiç ”
school,
» dúros means “trash,” trumpery ares.
* Theodorus was a Gadarene rhetoriciam of the frst
130
 ON THE SUBLIME, 1x, 2-5

You find the same sort of thing in Amphicrates too,

and in Hegesias and Matriss For often when they
think themselves inspired, their supposed ecstasy
is merely childish folly. Speaking generally, tumidity
seems one of the hardest faults to guard against.
For all who aim at grandeur, in trying to avoid the
charge of being feeble and arid, fall somehow into
this fault, pinning their faith to the maxim that
“to miss a high aim is to fail without shame.”
Tumours axe bad things whether in books or bodies,
those empty inflations, void of sincerity, as Blkely as
not producing the opposite to the effect mtended,
For, as they say, “ there's naughi so dry as dropsy.”
Tumidity then comes of trying to outdo the
sublime. Puerility, on the other hand, is the exact
opposite of grandeur ; utterly abject, mean-spirited,
and in fact the most ignoble of faults. What then
is puerility ? Is it not obviously the academic atti-
tude, where over-elaboration ends in frigid failure ?
Writers fall into this fault through trying to be
uncommon and exquisite, and above all to please,
and founder instead upon the tinsel ? reefs of aífecta-
tion. Closely allied to this is a third kind of fault
-peculiar to emotional passages, what Theodorus
used ta call “ Parenthyrson” e This is emotion
misplaced and pointless where none is needed, or
unrestrained where restraint is required. For
writers often behave as if they were drunk and
give way to outbursts of emotion which the subject
no longer warrants. Such emotion is purely sub-
century 2.0., one of whose pupils was the Emperor Tiberius.
Parenthyrson means the Doing in of the thyrsus ai the
wrong time, i.e. the affectation of Bacchanalian fury where
no fury need be (Saintsbury)e
181
 DIONYSUS OR LONGINUS

cavróiv Kai oyoAxa mapapépovrar maly: eira mpôs

oder memovboras drpoarás daxyyuovodoim, elxórus,
cicoryxóres mpôs oúx efeormnóras. Amy epi '
pév rr malyrecódv dAÃos muiv daróreitos rórros.
4 Qarépov de dy eimoper, Adyw dé TOS buypod,
mAipys é Tiuaros, dvhp vã uév dAda ixavôs roi
mpôs Aóywr eviore uéyedos ot ápopos, moluiorwp,
Emivonricós, many dor picum ev CAeyicrucáraros
dpaprqudrer, dveralobnros dé tdi, Urô dé Epm-
18ir. ros rod gévas vojoeis det rueiy mroAÃdKis dxmrisrray
eis Tô mosdapuudéoraror. mapalbjooua. dé ravôpos
»

év 3) duo, red TA mheiw mpoéhaBer O Rercidios,

ema» "Alééavdpor vóv uéyor “Bs tijy "Agiar
ôAnv ” dmoiv “ év Exdrroa mapédafiev 7) doors Tôv
úmép rod mpôs Ilépoas moléuos mumyupucêy Adyov
Tooxpdrms Expaber” Pavuaori ve rod Maxeddros
7 mpôs róv coprriy cuyeprors: ôijÃor vip, &
Timare, cs oi Agxedamório: da robro moAd rod
“Iooxpdrovs nar" dvôpetar dAeimovro, émeid) oé uév
rprdnovra êrem Meco mapélafov, d dé Tóu
3 mamyupicôr ér póvois dera ourerdgaro. role dê
“Abmvatos dAoBum epi Xuceliov viva tpósmor
êmpwvei; ôm “eis vóv Epuiy doeBjcavres ab
mepróbavres abrod vá dydAnara, Bd robr” ESwicay
Sir oby fntora 8 Eva dvôpa,ôs diro rodmapanopm-
Bévros Sia marépwr dv, Epporpáry vóv Eppvos.”
dore Pavudlem pe, Vepevriave pôrre, mids 0% nal
eis Arorúcior ypágpei róv ripavvov “émei yãp el
“ Seg chap. iii, 8 4
» A Sicilian historian at the end of the fourth century B.0.
Ke vas sa critical that he was nicknamed 'Bririuacos, * fault-
inder.”
132
 ON THE SUBLIME, ma. 5-17. 3

jective and consequently tedious, so that to am

audience which feels none of it their behaviour looks
unscemly. And naturally so, for while they are in
ecstasy, the audience are not. However we have
reserved another place in which to treat of emotional
passages.
4. The second fault of which we spoke above * is
Frigidity, of -which there are many examples in
Timaeus,» in other respects a capable writer and
sometimes far from barren in greatness of síyle,
learned, and full of ideas. Yet while keenly critical
of others” faults, he is blind and deaf to his own, and
his insatiable passion for starting strange conceiis
often lands him in the most puerile bathos. 1 will
only quote one or two examples from Timaeus, as
Cecilius has forestalled me with most of them. In
his eulogy of Alexander the Great he speaks of
“one who subdued the whole of Ásia in fewer
years than Isocrates took to write his Panegyric
urging war on Persia,” Surely this is an odd com-
parison of the Macedonian to the sophist, for it is ob-
vious, friend Timaeus, that on this showing Isocrates
was a far better man than the Spartans, since
they spent thirty years in subduing Messene,
while he composed his Paregyric in no more than
ten! Again, take his denunciativn of the Athenian
prisoners in Sicily: “ Having committed sacrilege
against Hermes and mutilated his statues they were
therefore punished, mainly owing to the action of a
single man, who was kin on his father's side to the
injured deity, Hermocrates the son of Hermon,”
This makes me wonder, my dear Terentianus, why
he does not write of the tyrant Dionysius that

138
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

rôv Ai nai vóv Hpaxhéa Bucoeêis eyévero, Sd

robr” abro Alwuv ral Hparhecidns vis rupaveidos
agbeihovro” «é Bei wepl Teualov Aéyeiy, ómou ye
E

Kai ot ipwes êxcivoL, Eevopédrra Aéye rat HAdrwra,

Kairomyve éx vis Bwrpárovs ôvres mulalorpas,
ôues 8d TÁ oUTWS Kpoxapi) ToTE Eavró Extdau-
Odvorrar; O juév ye év tj Aaxedaquoriwr ypáger
modela: “ exelvmwr pév polr irrov pév dr qem
dxcodoais 7) Tóiv MDivay, ijrrov 5º dr ôupara orpé-
iv. thais 7) TOV xadrôy, alônpoveorépovs O dr adrods
iyúcaro mai aúrdy rr év rois dpBaduois map-
Bévor” "Audicpárer rai ob Eevopórri Empexe
vãs é» vols opbaduois muy Kópas Aéyew maplévovs
aidjuovas: otor dé “Hpdideis TO TOS dmdrrmr céis
rópus aloxyuvrndas eivar memeiofar, ómov bagiy
oudevi oúrus evonpaiveodar viu tum dyaideray
às éy rois êpbauois: irauór “ olvoBapés, ruvôs
êupar êxmr” noir. O qévror Típatos, «ig
mn

Awpiov ruwôs epamrógeros, ovde rodro Bevopópri

Tô Wuxpor rarédumer. fnai yobr émi rod. 'Ayados
nAéovs nará vô iv dvelrdv érépw dedopévr êx
to dvaralurrnpiw dprácarra ameNdeir, “ O ris dy
exoimuer é» dpbaluois rópas, um mópras Exu;
g ri dé d rÃAa Geios IlAdrwv; vás déATous Ber
elareiv “ ypdibuvtes” dyoip “ éy rois iepois Dijvovoww
rumapirrivas pvpuas "+ ral arádiy Cmrepl 06 Teddy,
& Méyilde, yo Evpepoiumv dv ri Brmdprm Tô
º Since the genitive of Zeus is Acós, this ironically supplies
a concei which matches Timaeus's play an ** Hermes ” and
“ Hermocrates the son of Hermon.”
» The pupil of the eye, since it reflects a doll-like image
of one who looks close into it, was called «ópy, à maiden,
Hence the conceit. Oddly enough our text of Senophon
134
 ON THE SUBLIMF, rv. 3-8

“ Having shown impiety towards Zeus and Heracles,

he was therefore deprived of his tyranny by Dion*
and Heracleides.” But why speak of Timaeus
when those very demi-gods, Senophon and Plato,
for all their training in the school of Socrates, yet
sometimes forget. themselves in their fondness' for
such cheap effects. In his Constiluiion of Sparta
Xenophon says, “ Certainly you would hear as little
speech from these Spartans as from marble statues,
and could as easily catch the eye of a bronze figure;
indeed you might well think them as modest as the
maidens in their eyes.” 2 Itwould have better suited
Amphicrates than Xenophon to speak of the pupils
in our eyes as modest maidens. And fancy believ-
ing that every single man of them had madest
pupils, when they say that people show their im-
modesty in nothing so much as their eyes! Why,
an impudent fellow is called “ Heavy with wine,
with the eyes of a dog.” º However, Timaeus, laying
hands as it were on stolen goods, could not leave
even this frigid conceit to Xenophon. For example,
speaking of Agathocles when he carried off his
cousin from the unveiling ceremony º although she
had been given in marriage to another, he says,
“Who could have done such a thing, had he not
harlots instead of maidens in his eyes?” And what
of the otherwise divine Plato? “They will inscribe
and store im the temples,” he says, “ cypress
memoriais,” * meaning wooden tablets: and again,
“ As for walls, Megillus, 1 would consent with Sparta
reads “ maidens in their chambers” vôr é vols Ouhdgors
mapfévwr, Xen. De re publica Laced, 3 5.
* Hom. fl. i. 225,
& i.e, the third day of the marriage ceremonies.
º* Las, v. 741 e.
135
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
nadevdem dv é vi vi Karaxeineva TÁ reixm
7 not um) emavioraodar.” «at rô “Hpodórerv od
móppto, Tô Gdvai Tês Kalaás yuvainas “ dyndóvas
dpoaAnidr” rairomye exer tiva mapanvbiar, of
vão map” abr rauri Adyovrés elow oi BápBapos Kai
ev guéln, GAN odS” êx rotobrar mpocwmev Sá
parpofuyiar Kadóv Roxynpoveiv mpôs Tóv aiira,
5. "Agavra pévros TÃ olrws dueuvo dd ptar
euqueras rois Adyors airioy, Bd TÔ mepi TAS vojoeis
rouvógmavdov, wepl 8 9% uáliora ropuBavrudou
182 1. oiviv. dp” dv yãp quiv Tapada, axeddv dar” adráiy
Tobrwv mai rã naxd yevvãodar fuel. Dev emi-
Popor eis cuvrayudreor Karóplmaw TÁ TE KdAAm TAS
epumveias xai TO Ulm Kai mpôs Tovrois ai idoral,
Kat abra vara, Kabâmep vis êmmuxias, odrws
dpxai Kal tmobéceis Kai ródv Evavriwy Kabiorarros,
votoróv mus Kai at peraBoda: Kai UmrepfBoAaL mai ra
mAnluvrind deléopev &” éu rois Emevra TOv Kivôuror,
ôv Exeiy éolracw. Biórep dvayraiov Hon diamopeiy
Kat úrorideodar, dB Orou Tpómou Tás dvarerpané-
vas manias vols WnÃois Expeúyemw Buvancio.
8. “Eor: dé, & dihos, eb Tira mepirormoaluel
é» mpúrois ralapãr rod Kar” dAúberar úibous ésm-
ori «ob émimprom, abro Tô mpâypga Bios
Apmrov À yôp véi Aóyor rplois moAhfs dot
melpas Tedevrator emyémnnar od no GAR, cos
eimeiv êv mapoyyéduars, evrebbeév mobev laws mijy
Iidyrwow adródy odx ddúvaror mopiteobas.
7. Eidévas vpi, Plhrare, dtóre, rabdrep nãv vQ
now Biwp ovdev brápyer péya, 00 Tô reradpoveiy
º Laws, vi. TIB D. Px. ia,
* Chapters xxiil. and xxxviii.
136
 ON THE SUBLIME, xy. 6-vr. 1

to let the walls lie slumbering on the ground and

never rise again”* Herodotus's phrase for fair
women is not much better: “ eye torture ” he calls
them Yet he has some excuse, for in Herodotus
this is said by the barbarians, who are, moreover,
in their cups. Yei even in the mouths of such
characters as these it is not right to display an
unscemly triviality before an audience of all the
ages.
5, However, all these impropricties in literature
are weeds sprung from the same seed, namely that
passion for novel ideas which is the prevalent craze
of the present day. For our virtues and vices spring
from much the same sources. And so while beauty
of style, sublime expression, yes, and agreeable
phasing all contribute to successful composition, yet
these very graces are the source and groundwork no
less of failure than of success And we must say
the same, I suppose, about variety of construction
and the use of exaggeration and the idiomatie plural,
But we will show later º the danger which they seem
to us to involve. We are, then, bound at once to
raise the question and to suggest how we can avoid
the faults that go so closely with the elevated style.
6. And this, my friend, is the way. To obtain
first of all a clear knowledge and appreciation of
what is really sublime. And yet that is no easy
task. For judgement in literature is the last fruit
of ripe experience, However, if 1 must speak by
precept, it is not impossible perhaps that a true
discernment in such matters may be derived from
some such considerations as these.
7. We must realize, dear friend, that as ín our
everyday hfe nothing is really great which it is a
187
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
doriy uéya, olov imÃodros Tiga Sdêa. ruparviões
nai doa 89) dAXa Exer 70Ad vó EGwber mpoorpaypõod-
pevov obx Cv TD ye bpovium dóferev dyadã drep-
BáMdovra, dv atrô 7ô mepuppoveiv dyador od pé-
mprov: Bavudlovor yodv Té exórrar aúrã pãMor
ros duvanévous Eye sal dk peyudofuyiar dmrep-
opódpras: rijdE mov Kai émi Tódv Ompuéveor é» mom
pao tal Aóyois Ertorentéor, ui tua peyédovs par
Bav. raolay ExoL ToLaÚTNM, 7) TOÃU mpócikerros TO eiij
mpocnvaminrróuevov, dvarrurrógievoa dé GAMws
eúpiorormro xaúva, dv vo) Gavudlemw Tó epi
2 dpoveiv ebyevéorepov. qÚcer yáp mus vô rdAndods
ifovs êmaiperal ve uv W buy) Koi yalpóv me
dvdoryua Aanfdvovoa mAnpolrar yapãs rol peya-
auxias, Os abr) vevrjcaca Ómep dkovoer. Srar
Soip Um dyBpôs Eubpovos Kal êumeipou Adyewy
moMÂdms diovóuerór T% mpôs geyodobpocUnmo mim
Puxir pi cuvôaridG uno” exraradeim ri diavoia
mAciov rob Aeyopévou Tô dralempoúpevov, mizTy
8, dy cd Tô ouvexes émoxonis, eis dmadégow,
oi dv E” dAmbês dos eim péxpi uórms ris dicoiis
cwlógevov. Tobro yãp TO ôwri péya, OU mOAM) pev
7 dvadedpncis, BúorcoÃos dé, gãMor 8" dddvaros
7 roregovdoraçes, loyupã Sé 7) uvíum Ku Buceé-
a dheumros. dAws dé radã vómile Um mai dAnbiva
rã Sd mavrôs dpéoxovra Kal mêcimw. órar yáp rois
dmô dapópwv emurydevuirar Blov Cdr jAueudy

“ Or “if its appeal is only to the ear”

188
 ON THE SUBLIME, vm. 1-4

mark of greatness to despise, 1 mean, for instance,

wealth, position, reputation, sovereignty, and all
the other things which possess a deal of theatrical
attraction, and yet to a wise man would not seem
supremely good, since contempt for them is itself
eminently good-—certainly men feel less admiration
for those who have these things than for those who
could have them but are big enough to slight them—
well, so it is with the grand style in poetry and
prose. We must consider whether some of these
passages have merely some such outward show of
grandeur with a rich moulding of casual aceretions,
and whether, if all this is peeled off, they may not
tum out to be empty bombast which ít is more
noble to despise than to admire? For the true
sublime, by some virtue of its nature, elevates us :
uplifted with a sense of proud possession, we are
filled with joyful pride, as if we had ourselves pro-
duced the very thing we heard. If, then, a man of
sense, well-versed in literature, after hearing a
passage several times finds that it does not affect
bim with a sense of sublimity, and does not leave
behind in his mind more food for thought than the
mere words at first suggest, but rather that on
careful consideration it sinks in his esteem, then it
cannot really be the true sublime, if its effect does
not outlast the moment of ulteranco.: For what is
truly great gives abundant food for thought: it is
ixksome, nay, impossible, to resist its effect: the
memory of it is stubbomn and indelible. To speak
generally, you should consider that to be truly
beautiful and sublime which pleases all people at all
times. For when men who differ in their habits, their
lives, their tastes, their ages, their dates, all agree
139
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

xpóvey! Ev 71 cai raúrór dua epi Tó abr draw

dorf, 700º 1 CE dovpdevuv cds kpios Kal oup-
Koráleos vv Emi TO Bavpaloudvo aiori toxupir
AauBdves rat dvaupiderntor.
8. “Emei de qévre, ds dy elxmor mis, amyal TivéS
cio al tis dpyopias vorpuraraL, mpotmo-
nemévms cdomep edupous ruvôs rowad rails arévre
raúross idéais Ts Ev TO Aéyeiy Duvápeos, FS dMWS
xwpis otdév, mpórorv pév sai Kpárioror rô mepi Tàs
vonceis dSperBoÃov, cus Kdy Trois mepi Herobólpros
cprráueda devrepor de Td apodpdv rai evbovcia-
oricov mábos: dAX? ai uév Bio adrar TOS Wbous rarã
Tô mÃéov adbiyeveis avordoens, ai Aourai O 17jôm nai
dd TÉxIMS, À) TE mOLA Tó» cxmudrew mAdois — Loud
dé mov Tabra, rã uév vojoemws, Buúrepa dé Adfews
émi dé roúrois 1 yervaia Ppdois, Às pépm dA óvo-
ár TE ExÃoyM) Kai À) Tpomii) iai memompévm
Aégus* méuirtm dé peyédous airia Kai ouyriciovoa
rã mpô éauris dsavra, À é» déLúuar nai Bidpoes
ourbeoes. épe Om) TA Eumepiexdueva nad” exdormr
idéav roúrwv Emorefúueda, TocolTor ampoeuróvres,
ór. vp mévre mopiwv O Keridtos êorw & map-
éxumer, cos wub vô mábos duéder. dAX ei pév cs
od

é» tu rair” duo, Tó re Úbos Kai vó malyrenóv,

rol ddoéev aúrd advrm cuvurdpyew te dAAjÃos
Koi oupmepuiévar, Orugapráver. «al ydp mábm
mivê Doródra Úfovs Kai rosmemá eúpioneras, Kad»
1 vpórwr H. Richards for Aóywr P.
“ ddpós means “solid,” “robust”? and is used in literary
criticism in a sense similar to dewós, “ vcbement.” + Weighty
and solid thought ” is the meaning. The book on Kenophon
is lost; perhaps he means merely “ remarks on Renophon”
in some other treatise,
140
 ON THE SUBLIME, vir. 4-vrr 2

together in holding one and the same view about

the same writings, then the unanimous verdict, as it
were, of such discordant judges makes our faith in
the admired passage strong and indisputable,
8. There are, one may say, some five genuine
sources of the sublime in literature, the common
groundsork, as it were, of all five being a natural
faculty of expression, without which nothing can be
done. The first and most powerful is the command
of full-blooded ideasº—lI have defined this in my
book on Xenophon—and the second is the inspira-
tion of vehement emotion. These two constituents
of the sublime are for the most part congenital,
But the other three come partly of art, namely the
proper construction of figures—these being probably
oftwo kinds, figures of thonght and fgures of speech-—
and, over and above these, nobility of phrase, which
again may be resolved into choice of words and the
use of metaphor and elaborated diction. The ffth
cause of grandeur, which embraces all those already
mentioned, is the general effect of dignity and
elevation) Let us then consider all that is involved
under each of these heads, merely prefacing this,
that Cecilius has omitted some of these five classes,
one obvious omission being that of emotion. Now
if he thought that sublimity and emotion were the
same thing, and that one always essentially involved
the other, he is wrong. For one can find emotion
that ig mean and devoid of sublimity, for instance
» The five “sources” are (1) the command of full-blooded
ideas; (2) emotion; (3) the proper use of “figures”; (4)
nobility of phrase: (5) general effect. In chapter xxxix.
eupgeo:s means the arrangement of words. Here the phrase
seems to mean the putting together of the words and clauses
into a total effect of grandeur, making a whots of them. 14
FR
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

tirrep olkror Abras poBos, mai eumadev coa jm

Sixa smádous, cds mpôs uuplois dAÃors nai Tô epi
rois "Alwddas TO morri mwapareroAumuévra:
“Oooar é” OdAúum péuacar Oéuer: abráp ém
“Qcon
Hjhor eirocifguAdov, by” odparôs duBaros eim!
O) 1 £ Ea a 2 4,
KGt TO TOVTOLS ETL peitor Emubepónevov
, Z E
KOL VU Key eleréegoar.

amapá ye uy tois propor Tá evo sai TÁ

mOLITUKA Kal emideictina vóv pev ôyrov ral vô
ÚilmAdv EE diavros mepiéxer, málovs dé xmpeúer
Kara Tó mAcioror dber TjrioTa rádv pyróper oi mepi-
mabeis eyrmpuaorinol À) êpstady of êmameriol
a mepuradeis. ei d' ad mddw SÉ ólov wi) evópicer O
Kexikios Tô eumades <és> ra Ulm more auuredeiy
nai Bd tor ody jyjoaro prjums dé, sdvu
dinmáryrar Bappr váp dpoproaium dv, cds obder
olruws cis TO yervator sóálos, Evba xp, meyad-
úyopov, domep Úro pavias rivÔs Kai mreúguaros
evPouriaoTiKis drmrdov xai oiovel pobálor rods
Aóyous.
9. Ob uojr AN êmei vv Kparioryr poipar émréxet
Tó» dMAwr tô npódror, Aéyo dé vô ueyadogués,
xP nivraddo, Kal ei Peparêr Tô mpáyua pior
9 sryróv, ôuuws Kab" dvov oldv Te Tás fuxás dra
rpépew mrpôs TÃ peyédm rob Gomep eyxúgovas dei
2 molciv yevvniou mapaorijuaros. viva, Púceis, tpó-
mov; yéypapá mov sai érépei tô rorodrar úbos
º Homer, Od. xi. 815,
142
 ON THE SUBLIME, vnr. Qsx, 2

feelings of commiseration, annoyance, and fear, Onthe

other hand, many sublime passages are quite apart
from emotion. There are thousands of examples, for
instance, the poet's daring lines about the Aloadae :º
Ossa then up on Olympus they sirove to set, then upon Ossa
Pelion, ashiver with leaves, to build them a ladder to Heaven ;
and the still greater conception thai follows,
Yea and indeed they had done it.
Then again in the orators their eulogies and
ceremonial speeches and show pieces throughout in-
clude touches of dignity and sublimity, yet are
usually void of emotion, The result is that emotional
orators excel least in eulogy, while panegyrists
equally lack emotion. H, on the other hand, it
never entered Cecilius's head that emotion some-
times contributes towards sublimity, and he therefore
omitted it as undeserving of mention, then great
indeed is his mistake. 1 would confidentiy lay it
down that nothing makes so much for grandeur as
genuine emotion in the right place. It inspires the
words as it were with a line frenzy and fills them
with divine afliatus.
9. Now, since the first, 1 mean natural gentus)
plays a greater part than all the others, here too,
although it is rather a gift than an acquired quality,
we should still do our utmost to train our minds
into sympathy with what is noble and, as it were,
impregnate them again and again with lofty in-
spiration. “ How?“ you willask. Well, elsewhere
1 have written something like this, “ Sublimity is
» This is apparentiy a synonym for “the command of
full-blooded ideas,” stated in the last chapter to be the irst
souree of the sublime.
143
 DIONTSIUS OR LONGINUS
peyadodpocivys dexa. Ger mai duvis Siya
z a 4 od

Bauudlerai more Juh) nad” Eavriy 7) Ervora BE adro

70 peyadódpov, cs 1) v00 Alavros é» Nervig cum)
1 ms

auéya Kai mavrós ibnhórepor Adyou. mpidror odr Tô

éÉ oô pivera, mpoimorifeodo mdvrws drayxator,
ws Eye
e Ed õ
dei rôv dAnÓM) púropa um) romeno dpdvmna
a A ZA 8n 4 4 1 Eq

Koi dyevrés. oúde ydp olóv Te pucpá Kai dovÃo-

1 3 t 2Q1 A PL A N

mperi) fpovolvras «al exumpdevorvras map” Shov

rôv Blov Gavpaoróv TL Kai ToU morrôs aiúros
Egeveyieiv dtov' peyddo: de ot Adyos Toúrm» rará
4 7ô A eixôs
244
O»e à»4) euBpudeis
3 [3] E)
cdow
EN
ai e Evvorar. Taúrm
EA
cal 1
eis rods pádicro dporuarias ejumimrer TA Urepa
quê ó vãp ro Iepueviwr doam: “ey pév
nprécônr « «o

eva TO ém oparór dxô vis ddormua: «ai

vodr” dy elmo: ris od uaAÃov ris “Epidos 7) “Ouipou
,
unérpov. Ée drómordv
24 4
ye Tó 1. ra
Toródeor 24
exi rigA
E]
5 'Axdios, elye Hordou mai rjy "Aomida Deréor,
“
a The metaphor is from a bell which “rings true” when
struck, At the stroke of circumstance the noble mind
gives the truc note. Cf R.L.S. “Bright is the ring of
words, when the right man rings them” and Newman's
“ Style is the shadow of a personality.”
5 Od. xi. 548-467. Ajax, summoned from Hades, keeps
a grim silence, still incensed at the award of Achilles” arms
to Odysseus, an affront which caused his suicide,
144
 ON THE SUBLIME, 1x. 2-5

the true ring of a noble mind” º And so even

withont being spoken the bare idea often of itself
wins admiration for its inherent genius. How
grand, for instance, is the silence of Ajax in the
Summoning of the Ghosts,” more sublime than any
speech. In the first place, then, it is absolutely
necessary to suggest its souree and to show that the
mind of the gennine orator must be neither small
nor ignoble. For it is impossible that those whose
thoughts and habits all their lives long are petty
and servile should flash out anything wonderful,
worthy of immortal life. No, a great style is the
natural outcome of weighty thoughts, and sublime
sayings naturally fall to men of spirit. Alexander's
answer to Parmenio «when he said “For my part
1 bad been content”...
[Six pages of the ms. are lost here.)
«. » the distance between earth and heaven? One
might say too that this measured the stature not
of Strife only but of Homer. Quite unhke this is
Hesiod's description of Gloom, if indeed we are
right in adding the Shield to the list of Hesiod's
works :
* “The story runs that Parmenio said to Alexander that
had he been Alexander he would have been content to have
brought the war to an end on the terms offered without ven
tnring further, and that Alexander replied he would have
done so himself, had he been Parmenio,” Arrian ii. 25, 2.
é When lhe us. resumes Longinus is evidently discussing
the description of Strife in Jliad, iv. 448 +—
“ Small is the crest thai she rears at the first, but behold her
thereafter
Planting her head in the sisies, while she treads with her feet
en the earth.”
145
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
ris êéx pév fôr uúto péor
oUq vão Bervôr émoince vô eldtwÃor, GAMA puontTór,
6 Sé ds peyelúve. TÁ Ocuuóvia;
docov 5º depocides dymp idev dplaApotorw,
úuevos év aromifj, Aeúcowr éxi olvoma móvrov
rdocor émbpoorovor der dibmydes irmos.
+mv Opjuijr abrir roouind diaoriuare Kauraperpei.
vis op odx dy eixóres Bia ip úmepBoki» Tod
ueyédovs emplévéaro, óru dv dis ess asopu-
owaw oi rádv Dediv imo, oúiéb" edpijoouom é
6 xócuem Tómor; dmeppvã xai TO exi vis Oeopaxias
parráouara:
dubi 3” dodAmyter uéyas opavôs OlAuumos Te.
2 1 29 ! EA kJ A A t

éddcicer 8 úmrevephev dvaé evépeov Atdwveds,

Eá as Z EA EM > as Ed

Seivas 8º Ex Opóvou dAro Kai laxe, ui) ob Emerra

yatay Evappúsee Hocerdácor Evocixlar,
oixia de Ovnroiar Kai dlavároro: pavein,
cuepõalé eúpoerra, TÁ ve oruyéovos Beoi mep.
êmibhémes, ératpe, ds drappnyrunévms qév ex
BB pam vis, aúrob de yupvoupévou TRpTÉpOU,
dvarpomy d 6hov Kal Judoraciy Tod ócuoy
AnuBavovros, mdb? ápa, oúpavós dons, TA Prgrã
rã dddvara, na rj róre = supurodegei Kai cuy-
7 auvôuvedes uóxas, dA abra poBepã quér, mi
dMAes, ei jm) nam” , Nem yopiar Aaufávorro, mavTá-
mao ábea Koi ob cqlovra Tô mpémov. “Oumpos
váp poi doxei mapudidods rpaúpara Dedy orágeis
“ Hesiod, Shield of Heracles, 267. * Had, v. TO,
e À conflation of two theomachies, (a) Il. xxi. 988 (confused
in quotation with v. 750), and (d) JL, xx. 61-65.
146
 ON THE SUBLIME, wx. 5-7

Rheum from her nostrils was running.*

He has not made the image terrible, but offensive.

But see how Homer magnifies the powers of heaven:
Far as a man can see with his eyes in the shadowy distance,
Keeping his watch on a hil-top, agaze o'e: the vwine-dark
ocean,
So far leap at a bound the high-neighing horses of heaven,»

He makes their stride as far as the East is from

the West. So supreme is the grandeur of this, one
might well say that if the horses of heaven take
two consecutive strides there will then be no place
found for them in the world, Again he shows the
imagination of genius in his Battle of the Gods:
Gan then to trumpet around the firmament vastand Olympus;
Shuddering down in the depths, the king of the dead,
Aidonens,
Sprang from his throne with a shuddering cry, for fear the
earthshaker, Poseidon,
Soon hereafter asunder should splinter the earth, and his
mansions
Clear to the eyes of immortals and mortals alike should be
opened
Grim and dreary and dank, which the very gods see with
abhorrence.?

You see, friend, how the earth is split to its

foundations, hell itself laid bave, the whole universe
sundered and turned upside down; and meanwhile
everything, heaven and hell, mortal and immortal
alike, shares in the confiict and danger of that battle.
Terrible as these passages are, all the same, unless
one takes them allegorically, they are utterly
irreligious and show no sense of what is fitting. |
feel indeed that in recording as he does the wounding
tar
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

Tuuupias ddipua decua mabn ráugvpra TOUS fts

mi rédv “Diarcódy dvbpúmovs ôgov émi Ti) duváguer
Beods memounnévos, rode Beods dé dvbpomovs. dAM
iuto per dvodauovo dom dmórevra Aruy Keucédo Í
fávaros, róv Peidy 3" od tiy púow, dA rip &-
S vuxiar êmoincev aicômor. modd dé Tódv mepi mv
Beopaxior ápueúnco rã dga Gxparróv rt Kab péya qô
dauróvior «de àdnbéds a drparov mapiormow,
ola, (roAois dé pô ijjudoy é Tómos efeipyasrat) TA
émi rob oceróivos*
vpéue S” obpea papá, Koi An
ob ropupal Tpocoy re mólis Kai víes “Axauddy
mocoiy dar” dbavdroro Hoseiddwvos fóvros.
É
8% 5º êXday éml rimar”, dradde Sé nro” dm” adrod
mávrobev dx Kevbudv, ovS” dyvoincer dvarto!
ynBocvrm dé BdAgooa Sitoraro, roi dé mérovro.
9 rara Kai 6 ródv ovôalwv Decuobérms oix ó
Tux darip, êmeidm mv rod Below Súvaum Korá mir
délay Excópnce náfednver, cubos év Tã siopoAi
vpáxbas ro vópeov “elmrev 6 Dede, doi: vis É ye
vécta ds, Kal eyévero: yerécdo vi, mai Eyém
vero.”
10 Ode dxAmpós dv loms, éraipe, Bota, é Er
To8 momrob xai ré dvBpwmivuv mapalêuevros rod
pobeiv vdow, ds els rá mpeviica. pueyébm guvep-
Baivemy éliger dxAds dguem sab voé Gimropos abr
rir rór Eur êxéxer péxmo” évla By O Alas
s A reminiscence of a lost passage in Aeschylus much
quoted io antiqnity.
” Another eoullntion : Tliad, xiii, 18; xx. 60; xiii. 10,27-29,
* See Additional Note, p. 254
148
 ON THE SUBLIME, 1x. 7-10

of the gods, their quarrels, vengeance, tears, im-

prisenment, and all their manifold passions Homer
has done his best to make the men in the Jhad gods
and the gods men. Yet, if we mortals are un-
happy, death is the “ appointed harbour from our
sea of troubles,” * whereas Homer has given the
gods not only immortal natures but immortal
sorrows. The Battle of the Gods, however, is far
surpassed by those passages which represent the
divine nature in its true attributes, pure, majestic,
and unique, Take, for instance, the lines about
Poseidon, though they have been treated fully
enough by others before us:
Then were the woods and the long-lyingranges a-tremble,
Aye, and the peaks and the city of Troy and the ships of
Achaia
Neath the immortal feet and the oncoming march of Poseidon.
He set him to drive o'er the swell of the sea, and the whales
at his coming
Capering leapt from the deep and greeted the voice of their
master,
Then the sea parted her waves for joy, and they few on the
journey.”
So, too, the lawgiver of the Jews, no ordinary man,
having formed a worthy conception of divine power,
gave expression to it at the very threshold of his
Laos where he says: “ God said ”—whar? “Let
there be light, and there was light. “Let there
be earth,” and there was earth.” €
I need not fear to weary you, my friend, if I insert
here another passage from the Poet, one that
treats of human affairs, to show you his habit of
entering into the sublimity of his heroie theme,
Suddenly he plunges the battle of the Grecks into
mist and helpless night, At his wits' end Ajax cries:
r2 149
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

dpnyavo CZeb márep,” dmotr, CAMA od Pão

> Doi E Ro

var” iépos vias "Axyasóv, moinoov 5º aibpyy, dos 8

1887, opladnoiom idécdor ev de qer xai dAcogor.
3 En FENDA ha 1 4 + Ea 3,

dor cos dAnios 76 mwábos Alavros, od yãp Liy

euxerar (jv yáp TO alrmpna Tod Tpwos ramewórepor),
dAA” meio) év Ampere oxóreL mijy dvôpelar eis
2 ” 3 q 7 > 4 Eq Y 3 f k]

oder vevvaiov elye dtabéodar, diã radr, dyavar-

vv ôre mpôs Tv uáxmr dpyei, POs êr ráxuora
aireira, «Os mdvrws Ts dperis epijowr errado
nN déov, xãp abr Zeds dvruráreijras AMA vip
“Qunpos pév éxbdde oúprs cuveumve? trois dydow
«oi our dAÃo TE adrôs wémovõev à)

paiveras, cos 67" "Apms Eyyécmrados 7) dÃoov môp

f € 2.3 +) t ns ) o)

oupeor palvras, Babéms év Tápheor UAns,

aphoonuôs dé epi orógua iyverar

deievoor &º ôpws did vis *Odvoceias (ral vãp

raúra mohAdr évera mpocembewpnréorv), Ori jue-
váAns púceus vropeponévys om iióy éorw é»
12 vjpa Tô prduvêor, Sijhos váp é molAr re Amy
cupredercas ralryy devrépar rir dródeow, árap
dm xde rod Acúpava tó "Idiacódr mabnuáror dd
ris "Odvogelas os ererodda [riva rod Tomwirob
mohéuor]" arpoveretopépemw mai vi) À! ex rob rês
dhogupoers Kai robs otkTous «is mia: mou spo-
exruopévous rois Tpeaw évradla mpocamodidávar
oi vãp SAX 5) ris “lAddos emihoyós dar q "Qdvo-
4 A Ed 24 ma Z 2 4 > . 3

geia*
1 The bracketed words spoil the sense and are presumably
a mistaken note. Remnants of the Jal are used as
episodes of the Odyssey,
150
 ON THE SUBLIME, 1x. 10-12
Zeus Father, reseue from out of the mist the sons of
Achaia,
Brighten the heaven with sunshine, grant us the sight of
our eyes.
So it be but in daylight, destroy us.”

These are the true feelings of an Ajax. He does

not plead for his life: such a prayer would demean
the hero: but since the ineffectual darkness robbed
his courage of all noble use, therefore, distressed
to be idle in battle, he prays for light on the instant,
hoping thus at the worst to find a burial worthy of
his courage, even though Zeus be ranged against
him. Here indeed Homer is swept away by the whirl-
wind of the batile and so affected by it that he too
Stormily raves, as the War-god, the spearman, or Five, the
destroyer,
Stormily raves on the hills in the deep-lying thickets of
wocdland ;
Fringed are his lips with the foam-froth
Yet throughout the Odyssey, which for many reasons
we must not exclude from our consideration,
Homer shows that, as genius ebbs, it is the love
of romance that characterizes old age. There are
indeed many indications that he composed this
after the Jliad beside the fact that throughout the
Odyssey he introduces as episodes remnants of the
adventures at Ilium; yes, and does he not in this
poem render to his heroes their meed of lamentation
as jf it were a debt long due? In fact the Odyssey
may be called an epilogue to the Jiad :
S Iliad, xvii, 645. * Hiad, xy, 805.
151
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

évda per Alas eira áprios, évla 3º "Axiddedo,

évdo, dé IárporÃos, Beódiv pjorwp àrádavros,
évia 3º euôs gihos vide.
13 &m0 dé vis aúrijs aírias, oiuas, TÍjS ev “TAuddos
185 v. YPapopévms ev du) mreúgaros, dAov TO cwpurior
Spapariçôv mreorijgaro «ai evaydrior, rãs dé
"OBvogeias rô mAéor dmynarinor, ômep ido
vipws. ô0ev év Tê, "Odvoceig mapecáca rs dy
raradvonévm Tor “Opmpor ÁAico, cê Bixo rãs
cpodpórpros mapagéves Tô néye os. oU ydp éru
rois Tdvancots Eleivors
é movíuaouwy ioow evraúla oeler
rôv róvor, ovo eEcopadiagéva rã dubm eai Ujpara,
Lndauos AapBdvovra, ovdE rijv mpóxgvor polar rd
emaMAjAwr ruby, ovde TO Ayyiorpopor Kai arodt-
mucdr ob rails er vis dAnbeias darracias rara-
memucvwpevor, dAX” olov Umoywpodvros eis Eauroy
"Queavod ral sept Tá ida uéTea uepoupévout Tô
Aotmrôr baivovrar 709 peyédovs durrides ray rois
14 pubesdeo rob dmioros mAdvos. Ayer de abr”
oúx emAéAgonar vó» év Th "OBvoceig xenucórey
Koi ródv mepi vóv Kick teoé rev AM, dAa,
vipas dumyodpua, vipas
y 8º ôuws “Ouojpou- mA éé
duo. rovrows ééis TOD mpextucol parei vô
puuluedv.
HapegeB E eis Tu0b”, os Ego, iva deifaigu,
às eis Afiporéeviore Pãoror iearã, riu dimaqujo rã
pueyodoguij maparpémreras, ola Tá mepi Tou dodv
noi vods é Kipreys ovopoppovpévovs, vos à Zevikos
3 iuepovuézov Rubnken for epynonuérou P.

3 Odyssey, il. 1028-118, Nestor is telling Telemachus of

the days at Troy.
158
 ON THE SUBLIME, 1x. I-i4
There then Ajax hes, great warrior ; there lies Achilles;
There, too, Patroclus Hes, the peer of the gods in counsely
There, too, mine own dear son.º

It was, 1 imagine, for the same reason that, writing

the Jlad in the heyday of his genius he made the
whole piece lively with dramatic action, whereas in
the Odyssey narrative predominates, the character-
istic of old age. So in the Odyssey one may liken
Homer to the setting sun; the grandeur remains
without the intensity. For no longer does he
preserve the sustained energy of the great Jhad
lays, the consistent sublimity which never sinks into
fatness, the flood of moving incidents in quick
succession, the versatile rapidity and actuality,
brimful of images drawn from real life, Itis rather
as though the Ocean had shrunk into its lair and lay
becalmed within its own confines. Henceforth we
see the ebbing tide of Homer's greatness, as he
wanders in the incredible regions of romance. In
saying this 1 have not forgotten the storms in the
Odyssey and such incidents as that of the Cyelops—
I am describing old age, but the old age of a Homer
yet the fact is that in every one of these passages
reality is worsted by-romance.
I have been led into this digression to show
you, as É said, that natural genius with the decline
of vigou: often falls very easily into garrulity—
there is the story of the wine-skin? and the men
whom Circe turned into swine—Zoilus º called them
* Od. x Itwasin a wineskin that Acolus imprisoned
for Odysseus the adyerse winds, which his meddlesome
companions released,
* À grammarian—probably of the fourth century n.c.—
who was known as Homer's Scourge,
158
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

em xorpidsa xAatovra, ai Tóv Úrô Toy melerdidwy

cs veogoor maporpepópgevor Áia mai TOv émi qoô
vavayiov déxy úuépas dorror Tá TE mepi my prm-
ornpoporiav difava. ti yãp dv GM Giomar
rabra 3) TO dura rod Átds éxómria;
lã Aevrépou dé elvera mpociaropeisde T& Kara rip
tar, "Oddocerar, ômus 7) co yrópior, cos 7 dama)
rob mábovs év Trois peydÃos auyypadedo: «ai
morais eis bos ExAderas. totaira yáp nov rá
mepi vir rod "Oducoêws bicos adrp Brodoyoi-
pera oixiay, otovel rwpunôta tis EoTuw m0oÃoyonuérm.
10. Dépe vir, ei tu Kal érepor êxoruer ÚlmAods
moteiy Tods Adyovs duváueror, emorebcpicda.
otxofy émeido) mão vols mpayuaos. pÚcer ouvv-
cdpever tua mópia rails vais cuvurdpxorra, cÉ
dudyens yévorr” dv jutr tous abrar sô vó
eupepopéver exAéyerv dei vá raspuirara xKai radra
Tf wpôs &AnÃa emouvbéce. ralárep é r4 códpa
moteiy ôdvacdar O uev yãp TH Exhoyi TOv dxpoarijp
róv Anuudrwr, O dé Ti trunvúces rOv dxAedeyuéror
mpocdyeraL. olov 9 Bampi rá oupbaivovra vais
cpwrucais pavicus malipara êx rode maperopévesy
Kai êx vis dAglcias aúris éxâorore AauBáver.
mad dé rr dperijy drodeievurar; Óre ra depa adráy
Kai dmepreropéva deum) xai êxhééos Kai eis dAAnÃo
curôioar.
a There is possibly in Od. xii. 63 an allusion to the tale
that Zeus, hiding in Crete from his father Chronos, was fed
154
 ON THE SUBLIME, 1x. 14-x. 1

“ porkers in tears "—thexe is the nurturing of Zeus

like a nestling by the doves, Odysseus's ten-days'
fast on the wrecked ship,” and the incredible story of
the suitors” slaying.? Can one call these aught but
veritable dreams of Zeus ? * :
There is another justification for our considering
the Odyssey as well as the Jiod. Y wanted you to
realize how with the decline of their emotional power
great writers and poets give way to character-
study. For instance, his character-sketches of the
daily life in Odyssens's household are in the style
of some comedy of character.
10, Well, then, let us see further whether we could
find anything else that can make style sublime. Since
with all things there are associated certain elements,
essentially inherent in their substance, it follows
that we shall find one factor of sublimity in a con-
sistently happy choice of these constituent elements,
and in the power of combining them together as it
were into an organic whole, One writer for instance
attracts the reader by the selection of ideas, another
by the soldering of these selected. Sappho, for in-
stance, never fails to take the emotions incident to the
passion of love from the symptoms which accompany
it in real life. And wherein does she show her ex-
cellence ? In the skill with which she selects and com-
bines the most striking and intense of those symptoms.
by doves. Odysseus's ten-days' swim without food comes
ai the end of the same book,
0d. xxii.
* Dreams—divine indeed —but idle in our eritic's eyes
when compared with the “lively dramaiic action” of the
Hiad. Besides, the Iliad describes real fighting, the serious
business of life; the Odyssey is but a divine tale. A typical
“ancient” point of view. They decricd Romance,
155
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

palverai or tivos ioos Beotow

eunsy” drijp, doTiS evavrios Tor
ildver cai mÂnoior ddU qwveú-
cus ÚrakodeL
Kai yedáicas iuendev, TÓ gor Oy
hi ERRA x 4 4 3

xapôiau é grjfeom ênróager.

ds ve vàp idw Bpoxéws pe fúvas
oder em eles
dA Ka pêr vAgioca ênye: Aemróu à
abrica xpio nip úmadedpóarev
dmmáreoo: 3º ovder Son, Empóu- ,

Beror 3º xovar
àSédé wu” Soo ,
dps rayéeror, :
rpógos sêdé
pá t
moicav dypei, xAwporépa dé goias
184 y, emu" rebvisemr O dAiye “mdeins
* t L S.A WA > 4

patronos . a
tata wavródparorv, êmel Kal mévgrat
200 favuáleis, cds, ÚmcO TO> adro Thv buxijr Tô
códua Tás dxods Th» yADecar vás dibeis rijv xpdar,
móvê cos AAhórpua dioryógera. emtinrei mai ra” im
evarruioeis áua dúxeras Kderar, dÃoprorel! fpover
(d yãp Pobira? à map" dAiyov rélimnen) iva pm) Ey
Ti wepi absijy málios palvyrar, mal de oúvodos.
mávTA é» TOLITA piveTaL Epi ToUs eplivras,
Amis 6º ds Efmv ródv depor xai 9 els raúro
cuvaipeois dreipydoaro rijv EFoxir. drmrep olpuas
e

Kai em rOv xewyubvur Tpómou O momris él-

Aauféve. vv maparoAovlodvrmr TÁ yademedraro.
£o ger vão vá "Apendomem svonjoas éxeiva olera

* dioyerei Manutius for dkoyrori P.

? dogãra Rothstein for qogsira P.
 ON TIE SUBLIME, x. 2-4
| think hins God's peer that sits near thee face to face, and
listens to thy sweet speech and lovely laupihter,
“Tis this that makes my heart flutter in my breast, IFI
see thee but for a little, my voice comes no more and
my tongue is broken.
At once a delicate fame runs through my limbs; my eyes
are blinded and my cars thunder.
The swcat pours down: shivers hunt me all over. Í am
grown paler than grass, and very near to death 1 feels

Is it not wonderful how she summons at the same

time, soul, body, hearing, tongue, sight, colour, all
as though they had wandered of” apart ftom her-
self? She feels contradictory sensations, Íreezes,
burns, raves, reasons-—for one that is at the point
of death is clearly beside herself. She wants to
display not a single emotion, but a whole congress
of emotions. Lovers all show such symptoms as
these, but what gives supreme merit to her art às,
as E said, the skill with which she chooses the most
striking and combines them into a single whole,
Kt is, 1 fancy, much in the same way that the poet
in describing storms picks out the most alarming
eircumstances. The author of the Arimaspeia,P to
be sure, thinks these lines awe-inspiring :

“ Y could neither find nor contrive any tolerable verse

translation of this.
» Aristeas of Proconnesus, who wrote an epic in three
hooks on the Arimaspi of the farthest north. Herodotus
(iv. 27) says their name was derived from Seythian words,
erima=" one” and spou=" eye”
157
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
A :
Paim jul» Kai rodro péya Ppecir úerépnom,
dvôpes Vowp valovaw do xDovôs éu meldyecor
k 2

;
dvoravoi riwés ciow, Exovar ydpvu Epya movnpd,;
êupar év dorporor, buy 5” évi móvry Exovow.
7 mou molã deoio. pidas ava xeipas Exovres
> A ” 4 E a ”

eúxovras gmAdyyvoro! raxds dvaBaMÃopévoro.

mavri ouas dÃov, ds mAdov ávdos Exei Tã Aeyónera
+ Es E € Ea Ea ” A A Eu

7 Séos. O dé “Oumpos ms; (Ev yáp dó moMAB

6 Aeyéode)
é3 8º 0»Emeo”,3 bse Ore
“a
ria
Er) fa)
Boi)a évx vmi de méonos
L

AdBpor úmal vepéwy dvenporpepés, 7) dé TE não

f e 1 z 3 E € 8 2 Col

êxim Urerpúply, dvégoro dé derros dantas

Es c 4 2.! 1 X E

igriy êuBpéueras, Tpojéovor dé TE Gpeéva vadrar

desdróres: rurêov yãp úmêx Daváror pépovrar.
6 exexeipncer nai O “Áparos Tô adrô vodro puer-
eveyreir,

1857. ódiyor Sé did Evhov did” epúicer

mv juuepôv adrô nai yÃapupop éemoinoer dpri
A Ay TN 1 AA k) F 3 A]

goBepod: Eri dé mapúpioe rôr rivôvvor eimedv “ Edlor

mos 1 ER 1 E 3 £ tá +

dio” dmeipyer”” oúody dmeipyer: é dé roms odx

eis dimaé mapopiter rô demór, dAMA rods del ral
3 Ly q 1 f 3 A A E 1

Hovovouyl Karà mê» KÔga moAhdais dmoAupévovs

eixopoypadei, xai ur Três mpoléceis dguvérovs
oloas ovvarayrácas mapô púviy Kai eis dAMjÃas
cvubimolneros “ úréx Bavároro " rd uêy ovvep-
t e. t L Mm e 1

º Og. xv. 624 * Phaenomena, 299,

158
 ON THE SUBLIME, x, 4-6
Here is another thing also that fils us with feelings of
«wonder,
Men that dwell in the water, away from the earth, on the
ocean.
Sorrowful wretches they are, and theirs is a grievous employ-
ment:
Ever they rivet their eyes on the stars, their thoughts en
the waters.
Often, E ween, to the gods they ft up their hands and
they pray s
Ever their innermost paris are terribly tossed to and fro.
Anyone can see, É fancy, that this is more fowery
than fearful, But how does Homer do it? Let us
take one example of many :
He fellon the host as a wave of the sea on a hurrying vessel,
Rising up under the clouds, a boisterous son of the storm-
wind.
The good ship is lost in tbe shroud of the foam, and the
breath of the tempest
Terribly roars in the sails; and the sailors for fear are a-
tremble, .
By the breadth cf a hand swept out from under the jaws of
destruetion.s
Aratus, too, tried to adapt this same idea:
*Tis but the tiniest planlz that bars them from bitter destrue-
tion.»

But he has demeaned the idea and made it clegant

instead of awe-inspiring. Morcover, he defines the
danger when he says, “ A plank keeps off destrue-
tion,” Why then, it does keep àt off. Homer, on
the other hand, instead of defining the danger once
and for all, depicts the sailors as being all the lime,
again and again, with every wave on the very brink
of death. Morecover, in the phrase “ out from under
the jaws of destruction,” by forcing into an abnowmal
union prepositions not usually compounded he has
159
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

nimrove, máder TO êxos ópolws EBacávicer, tj dê

rod émous ouvblific, TO mádos âxpws dmemÂdoaro
Kai póvor odk everózwoey 77) AéÉes TOU riwBbvov vô
Sino “mer Bavároo pépovras.” cdr dAws É
“q

"Apxikoxos êmi Tod vavayiov, Kai émi T% mpocay-

veria 6 Anpocbévms: “ comépa pév vão qu” dyoiv.
dAÃd rãs cfoxds cs «<dv> elmo. tus dprorivônv
excaliparres emovrédncav, oúdev qhoudões 1
doepuvov 7) oxohucdv eyrararárrovres Bd puégou.
Auuaiveras yóp raúra TO dÃov, deavel frúyuara
à dpanigara eumorbrra, <rã> eyébn cuvorko-
vopouera Ti) <re> mpôs dAAgÃa oxéceL ouvrerer-
xoéva.
11, Exvvedpós eori Tais mpoexkensévais dperi Kai
a waÃofouw avénour, óray dexopévor Tóv mpay-
párewv «ai dycvwv rarô mcepódovs dpyds Te
mwoMds «ai dvamaddas érepa érépois exeio-
xurioÚpero peyédn cuvexôs êxerodynras Kara émi-
2ragw: volto dé elre did romnyopiay, clre deivo-
cu, À mpayudrar 7) Karaonevôiv êmippworw, eim
16v emommovoniar Epyorv 7) mad (uupia yãp idea
rá adfijcenr) vivorro, xp) puwokemw ôuws TO
piropa, cós oúdev dv robregy read" auro ouorain
xowpis úbous rEderor, mA» ei um) é» Olrors Epa vi)
à emtracy Wilamowitz for ixiguci P.

* There are two existing fragments of Archilochus to

which this might possibly refer: lorg Kar! uy” aúuarós re
udvéuou, “ he stood on the razor-edge of wave and wind,”
or fuxês Exovres rupdrauv éy dryrálos, “ their hearts lay locked
in the waves! embrace,”
> De corona, $ 169. Demosthenes describes the alarm at
Athens caused by the news that Philip of Macedon had
captured and fortified Elateia, 389 n.c.
160
 ON THE SUBLIME, x. 6-xr. &

tortured his language into conformity with the im-

pending disaster, magnificently figured the disaster
by the compression of his language and almost
stamped on the diction the form and feature of the
danger—“ swept out from under the jaws of destrue-
tion.” Comparable to this is the passage of Archi-
lochus about the shipwreck “ and the description of
the arrival of the news in Demosthenes.? “Now it
was evening,” etc. What they have done is to make
2 clean sweep, as it were, of all the main points by
order of merit, and to bring them together, alowing
nothing affected or undignified or pedantic to inter-
vene. For all such irrelevancies are like the intro-
duction of gaps or open tracery º in architecture :
they utterly spoil the effect of sublime ideas, yell
ordered and built into one coherent structure.é
11. Closely allied to the merits distinguished above
is what is called “ amplification.” * Whenever the
subject matter and the issues from section to section
admit of several fresh starts and halting-places,
then one great phrase after another is wheeled on
to the stage with increasing force. This may be
done either by the development of a commonplace,
or by exaggeration, or by laying stress on events or
arguments/ or by careful hushbandry of facts or
feelings. There ave indeed ten thousand kinds of
amplification. Still the speaker must recognize that
without sublimity none of these methods by itself can
form a perfect whole. One may indeed very well
* Literally “ perforations,” cf. soci, 5.
4 This sentence has been infinitely emended without much
Penehit. 1 take rã ney. as object of Nvu. and vô Shor as ad-
verbial. The general sense is that Homer's ideas are al] solid
masonry. * Effect of accumulation, “ piling it on.”
7 it, tours de force,
161
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

Aia à) é edredopois, vódr 5º Mar atfmrucidy

drou srep dv 7ô difmnÃdv apédns, cs ihvyi eEarpijoers
cegaros: edbds vp drovei ral Kevobrar TO jm
mparrov adrédv ui) rois Deo cuvemppauvrógevor,
“s

à pévror Brapéper TOS dpriws elpyuévou va vôv map-

ayyeMAdueva (meprypadr páp tis dy éxeivo Tódv
dxpwv Anupdreaov kal eis evórnra odvragis) Kai
Tiv: rabódov vó adéjoewmv mapadhdrre. vó Ulm,
ris capnvelas adris évera ouvrógws Bioproréov.
12. “O uér odv Tódv Texvoypádewr ôpos êxory” ob
dpeorós. aléncis dor, fact, Aóyos juéyelos mepi-
vubeis rois Úmoxeqévors: dúvarar yap duéde: roi
Útous Kal mdfous ral rpómwy elvas ros obros
ópos, éreidm) ráxeiva TD Adyp meprriônci wotór
r4 uéyedos. êuol dé qaiverar vradra GAMjAmy
mwapolâdrrem, À) «eira TO uêv dios é» Ordpuarr,
% O adémois Kal é» mhjde O O neivo uer xáv
2 voijuar évi moAddiis, 1) de mávios perá mogóruros
. Kal veprvolas rTuwôs vÚpiorarar. «ral êory 1
atónois, ds rómp mepiapeiv, curAmpwotrs dio
móvrar red» êubeponéxur trois mpáyuaos popiwr
Kai Tómewrv, ioxuporordoa q émuori TO war-
eoxsuaouéror, Taúry Tg miorews Sieordoa, óru
7 pêv TO Entoúuevor darodeickvuom>
mor + « TÃoUCUÓTATA, Kaldmep vi médoyos, eis dvar
3 merramévor réxuror woMaxh uéyedos. Gler oipos
rarã Adyor O uér púrwp dre mabyrucirepos 10h)

3 + Whereas amplification serves to enhance convietion ":

so our anthor presumabiy continued and then proceeded
to illusivate Plato's skill in amplification and to compare
his style with that of Demosthenes. It is of Plato that he
is speaking when the ms. resumes.
162
 ON THE SUBLIME, x1. 2-x11, 3

make an exception where the effect required is one

of commiscration or depreciation, butin allother forms
of amplification to remove the touch of sublimity is
like taking soul ftom body. Tor they lose their
vigour at once and hecome nerveless and hollow
without the tonic effect of the sublime. However,
mere clarity demands that I should briefiy define the
difference between my present precepts and that
of which I spoke above (the delimitation of the main
points and their arrangement so as to form a single
whole) and show generally in what respect sublimity
is distinct from these effects of amplification.
12. The definition given in the text-books does
not satisfy me. Amplification, they say, is language
which invests the subject with grandeur. Now that
definition could obviously serve just as well for the
sublime, the emotional and the metaphorical style,
since these also invest the language with some
quality of grandeur. But in my view they axe each
distinct. Sublimity lhes in elevation, amplification
rather in amount ; and so you often find sublimity
in a single idea, whereas amplification always goes
with quantity and a certain degree of redundance,
To give a rough definition, amplification consists in
accumulating all the aspects and topics inherent in
the subject and thus strengthening the argument,
by dwelling upon it. Therein it differs from procf,
which demonstrates the required point...
[Two pages are here lost.)
«+ - very rich indeed: Hke a sea, often flooding
a vast expanse of grandeur. 1 should say then
that in point of style the orator? being more
* Demosthenes.
168
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

Tô diámupor êxer ral Ovpunôs explevóuevor, d

de xadeoros év ôykw Kal geyahomperel cepvó-
murt od euros pév, dA oby obTus Emaorpúgrer.!
40) Kar” da dé teva 7) Taúra, ExoL doxet, dikrare
Teperriavé, (Aéym Dé, cei> nai úuiv ds Enow
ébeirai rt pwwonem) Kai o Recépeuv vo Amuo-
gfévous év rois peyébeo: vapadhdrres É pév yãp
év per 70 mÃéov drorógi, O de Rixépwy év yúcer
Kai O uév muérepos Bi TO pera Bias Exaora exi dé
Táxovs pedpims dervóriros olov «alem re dua Kai
diapráley oryurá rw mapercdlosm dy 7) Kepavvo
o dé Recépor os dudodis TIS Eumpnouôs oluas
mdvrm végeror Kai dveileiros, vOoAD Exwr Kal émi-
povor dei TÔ Kaiov xai StarAnpovopoúnevor &Mor
dois év aúrád ad Kari dudoxds dvarpepógeror,
5 dd raúra pêv úueis dv Apuerwov Eruepivorre, após
dé roê AmpooDevicod pêv dfovs Kai úmepreranévou
év re rais devúgeos Kai Trois opoôpois mádeo:, Kal
evda Bei vov dxpoariju Tô aúvodor demhiêa, ris
dé xúcews, ômov xp) KaTavTAiom Tompyopiars Te
vôp Kai Emulóyois Kara vô mAéov Kai mapafdoer
nai rois Ppaorucois drao. Kai emdeneriroio,
ioropiais Te Kai Gfuotodoyiars, Kal od dAlyors
EMÃos pépeowy Apuódios.
13. “Ori pévror À MAdrwy (Emáveus vdp) rord-
tor Tp rui xeduar: dibodmri peu oddév ijrrov jueye-
Bverar, dveyveoros vã dy vi) Molireig vóu
tumor odx dyvoeis. “oi dpa dpovjcews,” doi,
“ ral Aperijs darespor edewyiars dE Kal rois rorwbros
dei guvórres Kármo &s doce fépovrar nob vara
? áraorpdare Bentley for eréorparru P,

164
 ON THE SUBLIME, xr. 3-xmm, 1 -

emotional, has abundant warmth and passionate glow,

whereas Plato, stcady in his majestic and stately
dignity, is far from cold, yet does not flash such fire,
1% is in the very same respect-—-so 1 feel, my dear
Terentianus, if indeed we Grecks may be allowed
an opinion—that Cicero differs from Demosthenes
in his grand effects. Demosthenes” strength is
usually in rugged sublimity, Cicero's in diffusion.
Our countryman with his violence, yes, and his
speed, his force, his terrific power of rhetorie, burns,as
it were, and scatters everything before him, and may
therefore be compared to a flash of lightning or
à thunder-bolt. Cicero seems to me like a wide-
spread conflagration, rolling along and devouring
all axound it: his is a strong and steady fire, its
flames duly distributed, now here, now there, and
fed by relays of fuel. You Romans, of course, can
form a better judgement on this question, but clearly
the opportunity for Demosthenes' sublimity and
nervous force comes in his intensity and violent
emotion, and in passages where he has utterly to
dumbfounder the audience; whereas difuseness is
in place when you need to overwhelm them with a
flood of rhetorie. The latter then mostly suits the
treatment of a commonplace, a peroration, a
digression, and all descriptive and “ show “ passages,
history, too, and natural philosophy as well as
various other kinds of literature.
18. However, to return to Plato, despite his
noiseless current, he none the less attains greatness.
You have read the Republic and you know his style.
“Those who have then no experience,” he says, “ of
wisdom. or of goodness, living always amid banquets
and other such festivities, are seemingly carried
e 165
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

mAcvódvras Sd. Biov, após dé TO dAnbes dv obr

dvéPhefar mumore air” arvéxôncar oúdê BeBaiou
re «ai robapãs jdovijs eyevcavro, AA Bogumn-
dr» Stenv Kdrw dei BAémovres «ai xerubóres
eis, vir teai eis pamélas Bógiorra xoprabógevor
nai Oxedovres, Kai évera ris roúreuv mÃcovetias
Anritovres Kai «upirrovtes dAMjÃovs crômpois
répao: Kai ómdais dmorruwvdovor SU amAmoriav,”
2 “Evôeinvora, 5º úpiv obros drnp, ei Bovoiueda
1) Karodiyopeir, os Kai dAAy TIS mapã ra elpn-
uéva dddós émi Tà úlmAd reiver. soia dé Kai ris
atm; vv Eumpocher peyidwr cvyypapémwr ai
mor uiumois TE Kai LyAwaiS. Kai ye TOUTOU,
dihrare, dmplê Excdueda vob oxomod: noMoi vãp
dAorpiw Deobopolvrar mueúuart Tóv adróv rpómov,
6v roi riv Ivbiay Adyos Exer rpimodi mânadlovoar,
êvla piyuá dor; vis dvamvéov! ws paow druôr
êvicov, abróder eyrúmova ris Camoriov mab-
coranémy Buvágews mopavrixa xpnoueõer rar
êmimvomar curws áàrô ris tó» dpyalur peyado-
putas eis vás vdv Enhovprmy éxeivous fruyas ds
rr dó iepy cropiwr dmrdppowi tuves déporrar, Uh
dv émimveduevo. ral oi um) Alar poacriueol TA
3érépwy ouvevlovordor peyéder. uóvos Hpódoros
'Qumypiecraros eyévero; Ernoixopos Er: mpórepor
ô re "Apyihoxos, mdvrewv dé Tovrmr uádtora 6
2 dramvéor Manutius for drumveio P,

“ Republio, ix. 586 A, with slight omissions.

* He seems to play om the two meanings of crómior,
the mouth of a prophet and the mouth or rifL im the rocky
floor in the Priestess's chamber at Delphi, ont of which there
rose an intoxicating vapour.
166 º
 ON THE SUBLIME, xr. 1-8

downwards and there they wander all their lives.

They have never yet raised their eyes to the
truth, never been carried upwards, never tasted
true, abiding pleasure. They are like so many
cattle; stooping downwards, with their eyes always
bent on the earth and on their dinner tables, they
feed and fatten and breed, and so greedy are they
for these enjoyments that they kick and butt with
hooves and horns of iron and kill cach other for
insatiate desire.” à
Here is an author who shows us, if we will con-
descend to see, that there is another road, besides
those we have mentioned, which leads to sublimity.
What and what manner of road is this? Zealous
imitation of the great historians and poeis of the
past. That is the aim, dear friend, and we must
hold to it with all our might. For many are carried
away by the inspiration of another, just as the story
runs that the Pythian priestess on approaching the
tripod where there is, they say, “a rift in the earth
upbreathing steam divine,” becomes thereby im-
pregnated with the divime power and is at once
inspired to utter oracles ; so, too, from the natural
genius of those old writers there flows into the
hearts of their admirers as it were an emanation
from the mouth of holiness.* Inspired by this, even
those wha axe not easily moved by the divine aflatus
share the enthusiasm of these others” grandeur.
Was Herodotus alone “ Homerie in the highest”?
No, there was Stesichorus at a still earlier date and
Archilochus too,” and above all others Plato, who
* Quintilian calls Stesichorus a “lyric Homer,” and Archi-
lochus, the iambie satirist, was regardeú as one of the great
originals. They both belong to the seventh century n.€.
167
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

Iláruwv, àmô vod “Oumpixod xeivov váparos eis

aúróv pupias ôgas iaparponás: Aroxerevodpevos,
Kai iocos mudo dmodeléewr Eder, el pi) TA Em” Eidovs
Hai oi mepi “Apupucóvios Exdégavres dvéypahar.
4 dor 8º od dom Tô Tpóyua, dAX? eis digó tea
Woo! À mAaopudray 9 Ompuovpyyudre dmorómo-
aus. cat oUd dv ETaKuÁGaL OL dorcei Tnhucadrá
rua rois vijs Puocopias dóypagr Hai eis morte
nás údas moMaxod ouvepBipvas Kar Ppáceis, ei um)
mepi mpemeley vm Aia may Buu pós "Ounpor,
cs dvraywraris véos mpos, 7ên TeDavpac|evor,
ioews pé Pihoverórepov Kai oiorei Siadoparilo-
pevos, ob civeopeNódo 3” ópws dunproredero. ni dyas
87, yãp rara voy “Hoiodov “Epis mde Bporoior.”
Kai TD dvri KadOs obros Kai détovióTaros elicheias
dycv re Kai orépavos, é» & Kai Tô ijrrãodar ray
mpoyeveorépwv our ddogov.
14: Odxody Hai Wuês, qui à Simovôper
dlmyopias Tu Kai peyaÃodpooúvms dedpuevor, Kaddy
dvamAdrrecda vais uxais, rs êiy ei TÚXOL vadro
vobb” “Oumpos clmey, ms E op» IlDáreor 7) Ámuo-
abévas “leucar 7)7 é» ioropia Bovrvdidns. mpoo-
mimrovra vãp duty raró, EjÃor Exeiva
é vã mpócwma,
187v. Kai olov drampérovra Tás tuxas, droiges mos pôs
ará fiveidedosroroúeva pérpar ér, dé gEAov, ei
Káxeivo TÍ davoia. mpocumoypddorer, mós dv ride
rt dm” Euol deyóguevor Tapes “Ogimpos drovoer 7)
Ampocbévms, É) móg a» éml robry Brerélincar ;
T5 yãp ôvri péya TO dyovicua, rotodror Drroride-
1 Most editors read elB0r “forms”: 900» is the reading:
of P. Ihave changed the 3 which follows it intojEA
º* A pupil of Aristarchus who took over his school at
168
 ON THE SUBLIME, xi. 3-xx. £

has irrigated his style with ten thousand runnels

from the great Homerie spring. We might need
to give instances, had not Ammonius* and his
pupils drawyn vp a classified selection. Such borrow-
ing is no theft; it is rather like taking an impression
frôm fine characters as one does from moulded
figures or other works of art. Plato would never
have reared so many of these flowers to bloom
among his philosophic tenets, never have wandered
so often with Homer into the regions and phrases
of poetry, had he not striven, yea with heart and
soul, to contest the prize with Homer like a young
antagonist with one who had already won his spurs,
perhaps in too keen emulation, longing as it were
to break a spear, and yet always to good purpose.
For, as Hesiod says, “ Good is this strife for man-
kind.” Fair indeed is the crown, and the fight for
fame well worth the winning, where even to be
worsted by our forerunners is not without glory.
14, We too, then, when we are working at some
passage that demands sublimity of thought and
expression, should do well to form in our heaxts the
question, “ How perchance would Homer have said
this, how would Plato or Demosthenes have made
it sublime or Thucydides in his history?” Emula-
tion will bring those great characters before our eyes,
and like guidimg stars they will lead our lhoughts
to the ideal standards of perfection. Still more
will this be so, if we give our minds the further hint,
“How would Homer or Demosthenes, had either
been present, have listened to this passage of mine ?
How would it have affected them ? ” Great indeed
e
Alexandria. He composed a work on “Plato's debt to
Homer.”
169
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

cla: róv iBicov Aóyeuy Bueaoripiov ai Oéarpov Kai

é» rnAmovrois Mpwol prrais Te Kai uápruorm
3 óméxeim ródv ypabopévev eúbivas memraixbos. mAéor
dé rodreuv mapopugrikóv, ei mpooribeiys, môs dy
êuol vadra ypdipavros O per” êuê rs diovcerer
aitiv; ei dé tus alróder poboiro, um) Tod idiov Biou
roi xpóvov Gléyéciro T+ Úmepiuepor, dráyrm
rat vã cuMauBavóngera Úmo tis robrou ibuxis
dredj xai tupÃa dorep dupbhododos., mpós ro»
ris vorepobnuias dAws ul) Teleopopoúpera xpóvor.
15. "Oyrov nai peyalmyopias mal dyódros és
TOÚTOIS, (O veavia, Kai ai pavraciar mapacikeva-
crueraras oúrw yolv <rós> eldmwomoiias abrás
évior Adyovar. «adeirar per vYap Koivós parragia,
mãv 70 Omwoadv evvónga yevenriucôr Aóyou maprorá-
pevor, 10m 8º Emi roúrmwr Kexpúrnkev Tolvopga, dra
à Aéyers vm evbovoracnod noi máflove Bhémew
=

doxjs ral dm” dy mudis rois axovovow. ds 3º

êrepdv q: 1) dnropuei pavravia Boúleras Kal Erepor
9 mapã morais, odx àv Addo ce, 008 Ore vis
1887 pév êv monjoei redos oriv ExmAnêis, rijs 8” év Adyois
évápyeia, aupórepar 5º dps voiró ve! êminrodas
Kai Tô cuyrerumpévor.
& nírep, ixereúco ce, ui)1 “miceé pos
Tàs cigaremods Kai Spaxorriders mópas*
aúrar yáp, abra mincior Bpúsnovol gov.
Kai
! volro Gennadius for vó re P,
170
 ON THE SUBLIME, xrv. 2-xv. 2

is the ordeal, if we propose such a jury aud

audience as this to listen to our own utterances and
make believe that we are submitting our work to
the serutiny of such superhuman witnesses and
judges. Even more stimulating would it be to adá,
“ TÉI write this, how would all posterity receive it?”
But if a man shrinks at the very thought of saying
anything that exceeds the comprehension of his own
time, then must all the conceptions of that man's
nature be like some blind, halfformed embryo, all
too abortive for the life of posthumous fame,
15. Weight, grandeur, and energy in writing are
very largely produced, dear pupil, by the use of
“images.” (That at least is what some people call
the actual mental pictures.) For the term Imagina-
tion is applied in general to an idea which enters
the mind from any source and engenders speech,
but the word has now come to be used predominantly
of passages where, inspired by strong emotion, you
seem to see what you describe and bring it vividly
before the eyes of your audience, That imagination
means one thing in oratory and another in poetry
you will yourself detect, and also that the objeet of
poetry is to enthral,? of prose writing to present
things vividiy, though both indeed aim at this latter
and at excited feeling.
Mother, 1 beg thee tarre not on against me
These snakke-lke hags with silent bloody feet,
Seethere! Seethere! They leap upon me close,
And
“ êrminis means starting people out of their vwits,
emotional ilusion.
* Enrip. Or. 255. Orestes on his sick-bed in a fit ef
mania sees Clytaemnestra setting the Puries at him,
ra
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

oluor, wTavei per mol Púym;

ExtaDO” O mommTis adrós eidev “Epivias, êé dé Epor-
táobn tuspod deiv Dedoaada Kai TOUS dxovovras
3 mjrdyracer. dor név ouv pomowiraros é Evpr-
miôns dvo ravri sábm, povias TE xob Epwras, se
TpAywBnoa, xáv ToúTOLS cos od oia” et Tuot éré-

pois EmTuyéoraros, od pp dA sai vais “Maus

exiribeodas parracias ode (froAnos. iiorá vé
rot Heyadoduis av ópuus ri ubrôs avrod púou
év moMois yevéodos Tpayitp mpoonváyrager Kal
map” Exaora émi vô peyebido, &s O momris,
ovpi de mAevpás TE nai ioytov duporépwbler
uacrieras, éé O” aúróv êmorpúves poxecantas,
4 rô yodv Daélovr, mapadidods vás ivias O "HAios
éda dé uire AtBuxôv aibép” eloBaAdy
Kpãom yáp Úypãr odx Exwuv dafido oi
Kai Stjoer . «+
foi, cio” céis
ler 6º ed" enrã Fileddewv Exuv Bpónov.
rocair” dxoúcas ais enapifer ijuias”
Kpoúoas de mÃeupã, mrepopóptr exmuáre
mebijcen, aé O” Emravr” em suibépos arúxas.
marmp 8º ômabe vóra ceupiou, Befiis
imreve maída vouberádo êxcio” Ea,
vide orpéd” dpua, vide.
188v do” odx dp elxors, Ori À buy?) rod ypúporros ovv-
+ 3 mn CA Eq € a Fed 4

à xattor Richards for «área P,

“ Eurip. 2.7, 291. A herdsman deseribing to Iphigencia
how he saw Orestes im a fit of madúess on the shore, quotes
this as one of his wild utterances,
172
 ON THE SUBLIME, xv. 2-4
Ah, she will slay me, whither shall 1 flee ? «

In these passages the poet himself had Puries

before his eyes and almost compelled the audience
to see what he imagined, Now Euripides spends
his fondest efforts in presenting these two emotions,
madness and love, in tragie guise, and suceeeds more
brillantly with these emotions than, 1 think, with
any others; not that he lacks enterprise to attack
other forms of imagination as well While his
natural genius is certainly not sublime, yet in
many places he forces it into the tragic mould
and invariably in his grand passages, as the poet
says,
His tail at his ribs and his fanks now lashes on this, now
on that side,
Ever he spurs himself on to share in the joys of the battle,?
Tor instance, when Helios hands over the reins to
Phagthon -—
“ And see thou drive not to the Libyan clime.
Tis torrid air with no damp humour tempered
Wall fire thy wheel and melt it,”
And he goes on,
“ But for the seven Pleiads shape thy course.”
This heard, vomg Phatthon caught vp the reins,
Slashed atibe tianks of his wing-warled team,
And Junnched them fivingr to the cloudy coembs.
Behind, his sire, astríde the Dog-star's back,
Rode, schooling thus his sor. “Now, drive thon there,
Now this way “wheel thy car, this way.” *
Would you not say that the writer's feelings are
d Iliad, xx. 170, The simile is a wounded lion, to which
Homer compares Achilles preparing to fight with Aeneas.
* These passages are from the lost Platthon.
a
178
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

emibalve. rob dpuaros Kai cuyriwôuvevovoa. Trois

irmos cuventépwras; ob yáp dv, el um Trois olpa-
viors êxeivors Epyois icodpogotoa Epépero, Tomb”
d» more êparrdcdn. ôpoia xai rá émi ris Rao-
cdvôpas abrá)
dA O Pidummo: Tpões.
a7o6 5º Aioyidov davragiars émeroduidvros Ápwis
roráras, domep nal <o>
4 VA Y ç €
“Enrã éri Qfas map
A 24 Eq a

adré
dvôpes (Pnciv) éra, Boúpror Aoxayérat,
Tavpocpayodvres eis peldvderoy cdeas
xoi Oryydvorres xepoi ravpetov góvor
“Apm 7 "Erva cal praiuaror DóBor
dpropórmoar
rôv iBiov móridv mpós dAMÃovs dixa oletov gur-
ouvipevor bdvaror, eviore uévTOL dxaTepydoTous
Kai olovel moicosideis rãs éxvolas ral dualdrrTovs
dépovros, êuws éegvrôv é Edpuridms ráxeivors drô
6 Grorinios rois xivôbvois mpocBiBáter. al mapa
unêv Aloyódy mapadótos vá 700 Avrodpyou
Pasideia sorã vip êmpdveror vod Arvisou
Beopopeiras,
erbovarã à) dúpa, Baryedes oréym'
d 8º Edpuriôys vô abró roib? érépus ebybúvas
Ecepdvipce,
174
 ON THE SUBLIME, xv. 4-8

aboard the car, sharing the perilous flight of those

winged horses? Never could he have shown such
imagination, had he not run neck and neck with
those celestial doings. You find the same in his
Cassandra's speech beginning
Nay, Trojans, lovers of horse flesh,:

Aeschylus ventures upon imaginative passages of

the true heroic mould. For instance he says of his
Seven. against Thebes :
Seven resistless captains o'er a shield
Black-bound with hide have slit a bullock's throat,
And dipped their fingers in the bullock's blood,
Swearing a mighty cath by War and Havoe
And Panie, bloodashed's lover—

where they all pledge themselves to each other to

die “apart from pity? Sometimes, however, he
introduces rough ideas, all woolly, as it were, and
ragged, and yet Euripides emulation leads him to
embark on the same perilous path, Aeschylus nses
a startling phrase of Lycurgus's palace, magically
possessed at the appearance of Dionysus,
The house brealhes ecstasy, the ronf-tree revels.*

Euripides expressed the same idea diferentiy,

softening it down,
“ From a lost play, perhaps the dlezander.
* Septem, 42-46; “apart from pity” is a reminiscence of
16,
* duokdarovs=Ut, “untauned," Le, raw, crude. -
º From the lost trilogy, which deal with Dionysus's
coming to Thrace, Lycurgus's resistance and the final estab-
lshment of the Dionysian religion in Thrace.
175
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
wãv dé ouveBdryev” ôpos.
7áxpws de Kai é Bopoxhis émi rod Brjonovras
Oibimov «Kai éuvrôry perã dronneias rTvôS Bdm-
TovTOS mepdrTaoTaL, Kal mard 7Ov dmómiouw ródv
“Elgror émi mr Axihkéos mpobaropévou Tois ar-
ayouévors Úmêp rod ragov, iv obx old ei tis du
my e 1 A! 4 A KA pe Ed ” Es

êvapyéorepor eidwhomoinoe Zupueuvidou mdvra Sº

Sámixavor maparibecdu. od jjv dAMA vó ev
189z. gapã Tois momrais uubicarTépar êxer tv Úmep-
éxmTwow, ds Edy, Kal mdvm TO moTor Úrep-
aipovoar, ris Sé pyropucis pavracias rdAlLoror del
Tô Eusrparror Kai érdAndes. dewai Sé Kai éxpuÃo
ai mapaBáces, vi” dv 7 momrinôv rod Adyou
Kai uvbóddes vô mAdopa Kai eis wôy mpocextimror
Tô ddúvarov, ds Won vi) Áia xal oi rob” újuãs
detvol piropes, ruldmep oi rpaywlo, Bhérovow
"Epurias mai oUBé éreivo pabeiv oi yervaior dUvarrar,
ór à Aéywv "Opéoras
peles: pi” obca vó êuidv "Epivómr
gécov p' ôxuáleis, cds Bins é táprapov
darrálerar tado” dr palveras.
8 Ti or 7 fyropreiy bavracia duvarar; qroMá
ney Íows Kai âMa rois Adyois évayúvia. Kai Eumralr
mpocerapéper, nara praévm uévroL Tais mpay-
paricaisas emixepúgecw ou mei ; mov dxpoariy
póvor dAdã mal Sovholra, rel iv eb tis,”
ómoiv, “adrixa 37 pdÃa. epavyis axovoeie mpô voy
º Bacchue, 726. A messenger is describing to Pentheus
how he saw the Bacchanals on Mt, Cithaeron-—
mês O cureBánxev” Upos
Kel Oipes, oldêr O fr dxipyrar dpóua.
176
 ON THE SUBLIME, xv. 6-9
And all the mountain felt
And worshipped with them.”

Sophocles describes with superb imagination the

dying Oedipus, conducting his own burial amid
strange portents in the sky ;? and Achilles at the de-
parture of the Greeks, when he appears above his
tomb to those embarking; a scene which nobody
perhaps has depicted so vividly as Simonides. Butto
give all the instances would be endless. However, as
1 said, these examples from poetry show a romantie
exaggeration, far exceeding the limits of credibility,
whereas the most perfect effect of imagination in
oratory is always one of reality and truth. The
exceptions to this rule bave a strange, outlandish
air, when the texture of the speech is poetical and
romantic and deviates into all sorts of impossibilíties
For instance, our wonderful modem orators—save
the mark !—-are like so many tragedians in seeing
Furies, and the fine fellows cannot even understand
that when Orestes says,
Avaunt! Of mine own Furies art thon one
That clip my waist to cast re down to Hell,

he only imagines that, because he is mad. What

then is the use of imagination in rhetoric? Tt
may be said generally to introduce a great deal of
vigou and emotion into one's speeches, but when
combined with argumentative treatment it not only
convinces the audience, it positively masters them.
Take Demosthenes: “And yet, suppose thai at
this very moment we were to hear an uproar in
? Bee Oed. Col, 1586-1606.
o Ta his lost Polgeena., º Eurip. Orestes, Z6t
7
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
daormplau,
= 4
elr” na
eixo,
EA
tis, os e
dréprera,
> F
70 1

decuwrápror, oi Sé Secpddras debyovory, oúbeis

oúrems obre vépwy oure véos dAiywpós eorw, és
obxi Bonbjas: ral” Sgov Suvarar ei dé Om tis elmror
2, EA 3 e 8 z, . a dé 8 EA ”

mapedfdr, cs O Tobrous ágeis odrós e

eoruy, obdé
; Tuxdv
Aóyou x p
mapavri” dp dmóloro” cds vi)à
10 Aia noi à Yepiôns Karnyopoúueros, éreid) rode
+! 4 e ey Tá A > 1 )

Sovhovs jerã vir drrav êxevbépovs ebybicaro,

rodro 70 ibiprpa,” elmev, “ody d pjroup Eypater
. Lo ) EA ERA [41 7 see Ea

dAX à ev Kospeveig pix água vãp TO mpoy-

3 + Ea

paris emiyerpetv O púrevp mepdvracraL, did ral

róv To8 meidew ôpov vrepBéBrer TO Adupare.
Hóvúce dé mus é» rois rotbros &racw del rod
189 v. Kpeirrovos drovoner, óPer aàmô 1 TodE) dmoderericod a
mepieArógelo, eis rô Karà pavraciav ExmÂniruco,
É Tô mpayparixôr eyepúrreros epihagmópuevor,
nai vobr” ode dmeórus adoxoner Sue váp
ourarropévmr Up” êv dei Tó apeirrov eis éauró
+ A

riv Onrépov Súvany mepromã.

12 Tocadra mepi rd rarã ras vojaeis dm» ral
drô ueyadodpocóvas <> mujoewsZ
7)" davracias
droyevrupnéveov dpréger.
18. Adrddi pévror Kai O epi cynpdrwr êbebis
rérairas Tóros" Kai yãp rar”, dv O» dei oxevdénras
Tpómov, cós Ebyv, ou dv 7) ruxodoa peyédovs eim € A

uepis. ob pijy CAN émei vó móvra SraxpiBody

molvepyov é» TD mapóvrr, pidhov 5º dmepidpraror,
Eat 2, E

3 Timocrates, 208.
? Plutarch tells how after Philip's victory at Chaeroneia
(388 8.0.) which ended the freedom of Athens, Demosthenes'
178
 ON THE SUBLIME, xv. S-xvr 1

front of the law courts and someone were to tell

us, “The prison has been broken open and the
prisoners are escaping,' there is no man, old or
young, so careless that he would not rum to give
allthe assistance in his power. But suppose someone
were to come and actually tell us that this was the
man who set them free, he would be killed on the
moment without a hearing." * And then, to be sure,
there is Hypereides on his trial, when he had moved
the enfranchisement of the slaves after the Athenian
reverse. “It was not the speaker that framed this
measure, but the battle of Chaeroneia.”» There,
besides developing his technical argument the orator
uses his imagination and consequently his conception
far exceeds the limits of mere persuasion. In all
such cases the stronger accenis seem naturally to
catch our ears, so that our attention is drawn from
the reasoning to the enthralling effect of the imagina-
tion, and the technique is concealed in a halo of
brilliance. And this effect on us is natural enough ;
set two forces side by side and the stronger always
borrows the virtues of the other,
This must suffice for our treatment of sublimity
inideas, as produced by nobility of mind or imitation é
or imagination. .
16. The topic of figures next claims atten-
tion, for these too, if rightly handled, may be,
as [ said an important element in the sublime.
However, since it would be a long and indeed an
interminable tasks to treat them all in detatl at this
supporter, Eypereides, propesed in panic an illegal extension
nf the franchise and, when subsequentiy impeached, said
“The arms of Macedon obscured my vision. ItyrasnotI
that made the proposal; it was the battle of Chaeroneia.”
* See Chapter xiii. $2. “ Chapter vil.
179
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
n4
dAiva a doa
ródv a na dsoreleoruca Vo
peyalnyopias To
morúwgacta: Tô mpoxeiuevor évera Kai d7) Oréguner.
dmódeém O Anuocêérms dep Tv memodirev-
3 4 r Ed CA A
ty

never elupéper.
E > /
tis O L >
jr À Kará guow xpiois
P U 1 4 o

adris; “olx úudprere, O <ávôpes "Abyraios,

qôv úmep
À . X
vis tr
2” Fal “ERA
Eldgvwv f
eeulepias
EM 9 f
dyára
3 E

dpáperor Exere dé oixeia Tovrou mapadeiyara:

oudé yãp oi é» Mapadidm. Muapror oU8” oé ev Eadam
uive ovo” ot é» Ilharatais.” dAM émeidr rabámep
eumvevobeis éfaipims dirô Deod Kai oiovei porBó-
Ammros yevógevos TOv TOv Aprorémwr tis 'EMd-
8
os ópror E
ecepvmoe
k) EA “€
“ode dorm
> »”
órusEa
dudo-
e 4

rere, uã rods é» Mapaldr: mpoxwdvrevoarras,

o) +

190 v. Palverar St évôs Tod duorucoU axiuaros, ômep

êvbdde dmoorpopiv éyid Kad, Tods per impoyóvous
2 A 3 1 2 h a A 1 Z

dmodedoas, ôri dei rods otrws amobuvóvras ds

Beods duvúvas maprordvewr, rois dé Kpivovai Tó Tp
êxet mporwôvvevodrrar évrileis dpóvmua, mv dé
ris dmodeifews qpiow pedeorarús eis úrep-
BdMor dos nai addos Kai Eévuv Kal dmeppudr
IÃA. e N 18 ] f s e ms

óprwr déromorioy, ral duo manciveidv Tua Kah

dAcêubdouaror eis Tàs buxàs vó drovórrar
nabteis Aóvor, «bs Kovpulonévous dó rdv Eyre
under EXarror rj) uáxm TH mpôs Dikemiror 7) Ex rois
1 sz” e f o bh) f Moss e

rarã Mepadiiva cai Eodauiva vicyrnpios map-

ioracõas fpoveiy ols mão: Tods dxpoarãs dd Tod
cxnuaTionoo ovvoprácas cixero. kairor mapd
w

+ EdmóAid: rod Gprov Tó cmrépua paotr edpiodm

180
 ON THE SUBLIME, xvyvr. 1-8

point, we will by way of strengthening our position

merely run through a few of those which make for
grandeur. To proceed then, Demosthenes is pro-
ducing an argument in favour of his policy.” What
was the natural way to treat it? “You were not
wrong, men of Athens, in undertaking that struggle
for the freedom of Greece, and you have proof of
this near home, for neither were the men at Mara-
thon misguided nor those at Salamis nor those at
Plataea.” But when in a sudden moment of inspira-
tion, as if possessed by the divine afilatus, he utters
his great oath about the champions of Greece, “It
cannot be that you were wrong; no, by thase who
bore the brunt at Marathon,” then you feel that by
employing the single figure of adjuration—swhich T
here call apostrophe—he has deificd his ancestors
by suggesting that one should ewear by men who
met such a death, as if they were gods: he has
filled his judges with the spirit of those who bore
the brunt there: he has transformed his argument
into a passage of transcendent sublimity and emotion,
giving it the power of conviction that lies in sa
strange and startling an oath : and at the same time
his words have administered to his hcarers a remedy
and an antidote, with the result that, relieved by
his eulogy, they come to feel as proud of the war
with Philip as of their victories at Marathon and
Salamis. In all this by the use of the figure he is
enabled to carry the audience away with him,
True he is said to have found the germ of the oath
in Eupolis :
a De corona, 208. Demosthenes is defending against
Aeschines his aggressive policy, which had led to the
disastrous defeat at Chaeroneia. Fe appcals to past history
to prove that it was sound, however unsuccessful.
qq isi
 DIONYSIUS OR LONCINUS

o vãp pá vv Mapabóv ij Eur pdxgr

2 y A À Ea) s 3 A f

xciper TIS adrédv Todudv alyuvel «éap.

dor: 8" od Tô ómwoodv Tivô ôuócar uéya, vô dé mod
” td ka Ae A, y 2 4 Lg 1 A a

Kai ms Kai ED” div Kocpv Kai tivos Evera. dA

êxel mê ovdér éor ei um) Ôpros, mai mpôs ed-
ruxodrras ÉTL Kal oU deouévovs mapnyopias Tods
“Ab
mralous: +
ért 8” odyi robs dvôpas dradavaricas
a” 8 2, 4 ” 5) 2 8 f

O momris uocer, la vis o

exeluwr 2
dperis El
Tols E

24
dxovovar
as
evrérm
,
Adyor
y
dor,
ap
GAMA
2
do
a
Tó
mporiwôuvevodrrar êm vó dfuyor amemmnibn,
rio pdxynr. mapã dé TO Ammonléve mempay-
purevrar mpôs Wrrmévoos O Ópros, «Os jm) NSau-
poverav é "Abgvaios drixua Goiveofar, rei
; ; A
rabróv, &s Edmv, Spa amódeéis Cori rod under
190 v.
imaprqnévar, mvapádeyua, Cprwv mioris, éy-
KúpiOL, TPOTpOmT). tinedirep Umijvra TA pirops
m

“ éyers frrav modurevodgevos, eira vikas Ouvúeis

did radb” eis ravovize: mai d dopadeias dyer
À Sos fia , 1 > 2 ft Es

nai óvópara, Bidorwv ori xãr Baryeúpaos

Ed

vipem drayrotov. “robs mpoxivôwvedoarras,”

a” Ea

ónot, “ Mapafóvi mai rods Badapivi mai er” " Apre-

pci vavpuxdoartas «al tTods é» IÃaraais
maparaganévovs.” oúdagod “vinhcarras” elgev,
da adyrm TO Tod Télovs Biaxérdoder ôdvopa,
> A ! X A + E 2

émeidimep dy elruxês nai rols rará Xaprúvear

”, 4 A a

úrevarriov, Orórep Kai Tôrv dipoariy dOdrmr

4 A

3 From the Demi of the comedian Eupolis, a contemporary

of Aristophanes.
? The reference to Hamlet ur. ii. may be justified by the
author's reminiscence of Euripides! Bacchae, 317-—
182
 ON THE SUBLIME, xvr, 3-4
Nay, by the fight 1 fought at Marathon,
No one of them shall scatheless vex my heart.s
But the mere swearing of an oath is not sublime ;
we must consider the place, the manner, the circum-
stançces, the motive. In Eupolis there is nothing
but an oath, and that addressed to Athens, when still
in prosperity and necding no encouragement,
Moreover, the poet's oath does not immortalize the
men so as to beget in the audience a true opinion
of their worth, but instead he wanders from those
who bore the brunt to an inanimate object, namely
“the Aght.” In Demosthenes the oath is carefully
designed to suit the feelings of defeated men, so
thatthe Atheniansshould no longer regard Chaeroneia
as a disaster; and it is, as 1 said, at the same time
a proof that no mistake has been made, an example,
a sworn confirmation, a culogy, and a stimulus. The
orator was faced with the objection, “ You are
speaking of a reverse due to your policy and then
you go swearing by victories,” and therefore in the
sequel he proceeds to measure his every word and
keeps on the safe side, inculcating the lesson that
“im the very whirlwind of passion you must beget
a temperance.”? “ Those who bore the brunt,” he
says, “at Marathon and those who fought on ship-
board at Salamis and Artemisium and those who
faced the Persians at Plataca “never “ those who
won the victory.” Throughout he cunningly avoids
naming the result, because it was successful and the
opposite of what happened at Chaeroneia, So
before his hearers can raise the objection he promptly
rel vão é» Sarxedgaçi
oba! | ye cugasr od Gragpdapfoera,
In the wildest rite
Cometh no stain to her whose heart is white.
153
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

eubis úmopépei: “obs dmavras Edaje Onpooia”

dnoiv “1 módis, Aloxivn, obxi Tods raropfascavras
póvovs.
17. Odx déiov êmi Toúrou TOD sómou mapalumeiy
é me vv úuiv rebewpnnévor, dikrure, corar Bê
mdvy cUvrogor, Ôri Qúoer mus cuupaxel TE Tó
úer rá oxiuara mal mdAmy dvrivunayeira: dava
pacrós Um adrod. mi dé nai ms; éya dpáom.
Úmonróv doriv idtws TO did oxnutTov marovpyeiy
Kai mpocBdihov úmórorar evédpas empovAis mapa-
Aoyropod, «ai raDb” ôrav 7) mpôs Kpuriv rúprr d
Adyos, uádiora dE mpôs Tupávvors Baoiléas tye-
póvas é» Úmepoxais: Ayavarrei yãp edbús, el ds
mais dbpwv úrd rexvirov propos oxmjparios
191 r, raracopileror, «ai eis rarappórmow éavrod Aug-
Bávev rêv mapahoyionor éviore juev dmobnpid-
rea Tô cúroÃor, Kdv émueparmon dé roi dupod,
mpôs vi medo vu Adywv vávrws dyridiarideras.
Biómep nai Tóre Aprov Boxel Tô oxíjua, draw
aúrô robro diadarôdym dru oxijuá éoriv. Tô rolvoy
t»

úbos rat mddos ris émi TA cynuarilemw úrovolas

dAéénna Kai Oavpaori vis êmovpia nadioraras,
mai tres mepioupleioa dj 700 maroupyeir réxim
rois wdAÃco: mai peyédecs vó Avimôrv déduker xai
mãcav Umopiav demépevyev. ixavór dê rerujpror vô
mpocipnuévor “ud tobs év Mapabdm” vim váp
errado” O púrwp dsréxpuhe Tô oxiuas Igor óru
O duri our, oxedór vãp dorep kal Tiuvipá
déyym evapavitera: TE PAi meprvyoúnera, oúreo
1 meprhaupócica Bury for rapaxpplcicars P,
184
 ON THE SUBLIME, xvr. &-xvrr. 2

adds, “ To all of these the conntry gave a publie

funeral, Aeschines, not only to those who were
successful,”
17. While on this topic 1 must not omit to mention
a view of my own, dear friend, which E will state,
however, quite concisely. Figures seem to be
natural alles of the sublime and to draw in tum
marvellous reinforeement from the aliance, Where
and how? 1 will tell you. There is an inevitable
suspicion attaching to the unconscionable use of
figures. It gives a suggestion of treachery, craft,
fallacy, especially wheu your speech is addressed
to a judge with absolute authority, or still more to a
despot, a King, or a ruler in high place. He is
promptly put out, if he is treated like a simple child
and outwitted by the figures of a sophisticated
speaker. Construing the fallacy as a personal
affront, he sometimes turns absolutely savage ; and
even if he controls his feelings, he becomes wholly
hostile to the reasoning of the speech. So we find
that a figure is always most effective when it conceals
the very fact of its being a figure. The sublimity
and the effect on the emotions are a wonderfully
helpful antidote against the suspicion that ae-
companies the use of figures. The effvontery of the
artífice is somehow lost in its brilliant setting of
beauty and grandeur : it is no longer obvious, and
thus avoids all suspicion. A sufficient instance is
that mentioned above, “ By those at Marathon,”
Tn that case how did the orator conceal the figure ?
Obviously by its very briliance.? Much in the same
way that dimmer lights vanish in the surrounding
a Of. Ch. xv. 8 11

185
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

rã vis Pnropucijs copiouara efapaupo? mepiyulév

3 mávrobev Tô péyedos. oU móppw 35º laws obrou
Koi émi vis Cwypagpias ri crupatver: émi yãp rod
aúrod reuévev émumédou mapadAgÃor év gpa
ris oxtãs Te «ai Toi Gurós, ôuws mpolmavtã ve
rô póds vais decr xai oU póvor éBoxor dA. ral
eyyurépe mapã imo) qaivera. ouro rat rdy
Adywy Tà múbm nai rá Um, rails fuxais Gudv éy-
yurép reiueva, Old TE duauejy Tira cuyyéverar
Kai dà Aaumpórmro dei qóiv cxmuáTov mpoeu-
gavileras ral vir té adrôv dmooxdle: Kai
olov év rarasranipe. qnpel.
18 Ti 9º êxeiva dúpuev, Tàs meloers te «Kal
dmoxpicers'; dpa obx aúrais Tais Ty oxnudre
1 ve. eidomoriais mapã z0Ãd ejpartórepa «ai copa-
púrepa oupreiver rá Aeyópera y “3 Boúleade, cimé
pos, mepiióvres Xau muvbdvecdau- Aéyerai q
Kamóv; TÍ yôp dv yévorro Tobrov Kalórepor
Mexcdov dvip raramoleur iv EMdda; ré-
denxe Didimmos; ob uá AP dAM dobever. vi 3
dpiv Biapéper; Koi vap dv obrós ri mal, raxéws
úmeis érepor Dikummov monjoere” ai dA
Cadémper em Marcedoviav,)” Gmail. “ot 5
mpocopprovueda; peró res. eúpioer TÃà capa Tó
Diimmov mpapuárur adros O mólenos.” du 8
dmrÃós pyfév vó mpâyua TO mavri raradedorepor,
vuvi dé TO Evbouv Kai déúpporor ris meúgems nai
dmomploews xal vô mpôs cavrôv «is mpôs Erepoy
dvbumavrãv oU móvor imAórepor éxolnoe TO
2 áxoxpicas seems necessary: P's douráces is probably
a mistake,

186
 ON THE SUBLIME, xvir. 2-xvm. 1

radiance of the sun, so the all-embracing atmosphere

of grandeur obseures the rhetorical devices. We see
something of the same kind in painting. Though
the high lights and shadows lie side by side in the
same plane, yet the high lights spring to the eye
and seem not only to stand out but to be actually
much nearer. Soitisin writing. What is sublime
and moving lies nearer to our hearts, and thus,
parily from a natural afinity, parily from brillianec
of effect, it always strikes the eye long before the
figures, thus throwing their art into the shade and
keeping it hid as it were under a bushel,
18, Now what are we to say of our next example,
the figures of question and answer? Is it not just
their appeal to the imagination which braces his €
language into greater vigour and rapidity? “Tel
me, my friend, do you all want to go round asking
each other “ Is there any news?” For what stranger
news could there be than this of a Macedonian
conquering Greece? “ Is Philip dead?” “ No, not
dead butill? What difference does it make to you?
Whatever happens to him, you will soon manufacture
another Philip for yourselves,” * Or again: “ Let
us sail to Macedon. Someone asks me, ' Where on
earth shall we land?" Why, the mere comse of
the war will find out the weak spots in Philip's
fortunes.”* Here a bare statement would have
been utterly inadequate, As it is, the inspiration
and quick play of the question and answer, and his
way of meeting his own words as if they were
someone else's, make the passage, through his use
e je. Dêmosthenes, who in the Greek is the implied
subject af the verb.
* Phil. i. 8 10, slightly altered,
e Phil. i. 5 44, slightly altered, 87
!
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

2 oXNHOTIOND TO Pndêv dAMA Kal miorórepov. dye

yap Tê mabnruea róre naMou, êrar aúrá foirpra
um) êmrndevem adrós é Adr dAda pervêv O após,
à O êpergois À eis EavTOv Kai ÚÓKpLOIS ueeiras
rod múbous rô erixaspor. oxedor yãp ds oi Up
érépur êpwreduevos mapoguviévres Ele roõ mapa
xe mpôs TO Aeybev evaywviws xai dm” aúrie
vis dAnbeias dvbumartádowm, obrws TO oxiua vis
medoews «ai diokpicews eis TO Soxeiy elagror
Tó» êoxeuéveur dé dmoyiou rexufodal TE nai
Aéyecdo rôr dkpoariy dardyor Kai mapadoyiteras,
êrm volvuv (év ydp v% vó dnÃorármwr TO “Ipo-
Sóreiwr memiorevtar) ei olruws é

mer 19... .<i>mÃona exminrer Kai olovel vpo-

EA > L 1 ç 1

xeira: vã Jeyópeva, Odiyov deiy fldvovra cai

auróv rôv Ayorra. “ral ovuBadóvres,” bmoiv é
Bevopóv, “ràs dormidas êuboivro Eudyovro dm-
2 éxreivov dmébvnorov:” sai Tá To8 Edpulóyou
mAboper, os dxédeves, dvd Ôpoud, paid
“OBucoed.
cidoner év Búcono: reruypéra dwmara add.
rã yãp dAMjAwr Srerounéva Kai oúdér focov
rareorevonuévo pépei tis dyevias Eudacy dua
Kal eumodilodons Tt Koi cuvômrovans. rodo”
6 mommis cêmreyne dd vv dowBérmr.
20. “Arpws Bê rai 7 Emi TadrO oúvodos ródv vym-
udrav clube mueiv, órar ôvo 7 Tpia olov Kará
cuupoplav draxprápeva dNMjÃos Eparitm my
« The subject is now the figure Asyndeton, omission of
conjunctive particles,
188
 ON THE SUBLIME, xvrr. 2-xx. 1

ofthe figure, not only loftier but also more convincin ge

For emotion is always more telling when it seems
not to be premeditated by the speaker but to be
born of the moment; and this way of questioning
and answering one's self counterfeits spontaneous
emotion. People who are cross-questioned by others
in the heat of the moment reply forcibly and with
utter candour; and in much the same way the
figure of question and answer misleads the audience
into supposing that cach carefully premeditated argu-
ment is aroused in the mind and put into words on
the spur ofthe moment. Moreover—for this passage
of Flerodotus has always been reckoned one of the
most sublime—ifin this way ...
[Duo pages of the us. are here missing.)
19... .“ the phrases drop out unconnected in a
sort of spate, almost too quick for the speaker
himself, “ And locking their shields,” says Keno-
phon, “ they pushed, fonght, slew, fell” And take
the words of Eurylochus,* :
We came, as thou badest us come, through the oak-coppice,
shining Odysseus.
Builded in thickets we saw habitations of wonderful beauty.
The phrases being disconnected and yet none the
less rapid give the idea of an agitation which
both checks the utterance and at the same time
hounds it on. Something of this kind the Poet has
expressed by his use of asyndeton.
20. The combination of several of these figures
often has a supremely moving effect, when two or
three co-operate as it were together to contribute
* In 0d. 251. The words are slightly different from
those of our text.
189
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

loxdv viy meidO vó rdAdos, órola wa rá eis rdv

Media, vais drapopois do nai 7%) dtarumádces
cuvavamenheypéva Tá dovvdera. “olha yãp ày
motjwerev 6 rómrwv, dv O mala évia ovo dy
araypyeido: dúvuro érépy, TO oxúuare TO
2 BAéupare, vi pur” eib iva pr) Emi TÓV abrir
fel a S, 3 a :) a

d Aóyos im» orf (ê» ordoe. vp Tô dpepodr, é»

€ 4 3a oo 3, f A A 2 Ea >

ns ar
dratia dé vó mádos, Erei popa puxijs ai cryrirmois
dorm), edbis em dAda jelijdaro doúvõera rai
a EA

emavapopds: “TO oxjuaro TO Bheuuaro, qi

LJ o

a h PS a
duvf, órar cg ÚBpilam, drav es exbpós, órar
4 w Se SoBlor.” 3Sév ENO Bá Z
rovôvÃoss, Orar cos dotÃov.” oúdér dAÃo dd TOUT
6 dirwp 7) ômep 6 TÚnTWr Epydieras, Tv OtdvoLay
Sróv dixaorár Th emaldjAp mijrrer dopã. eim
erredev mdAy ds aí rarayides dAAgv motod-
pv. geros EuBodip “ drav rovôúdars, órav êmi sóppns”
gnoir “radra mwei, vaira eflornow avbpemous,
dsjdes ôvras rob mpomnÃacilecda oúdeis <dy>
radra drayyédhmy Búvarro TO Sewov mapaorioa
oUxodv iv név qvor rdv emavapopóv mai dovy-
Bérmv mávrn uldrres rj) ouvexel peraBori: obrems
air nai À Táéis draxtor Kai Eutadiy 1 áragia
mori» mepilauBáves váéw.
21, Dépe ody, mpócdes rods cuvôémmuoss, ei Dedors,
&s mordow oi Iooxpáreror “kal uijy ovdê Todro
xp mapadimeir, «ds moAÃA dp mojucer 6 Tónrear,
wpobror uév O oxúuari, eira d€ TO BAeupari,
cirá ye ui abri tj dovi,” ral elon xará vo
éEijs oúrws mapaypapwr, cs Tod mádouvs TO our
a gra.
* This last elause is not in our texts of the Meidias. There
are a few other less important alterations.
190
 ON THE SUBLIME, xx. I-xxr. 1

force, conviction, beauty. Thus, for instance,in the

specch against Meidias º the asyndeta are interwoven
with the figures of repetition and vivid presentation,
“ For the aggressor may do many injuries, some of
which the victim could not even describe to anyone
else—by his manner, his looks, his voice.” Then to
prevent the speech running on in the same groove-—
for monotony expresses quiet, while emotion, being
a violent upheaval of the soul, demands disorder-—
he leaps at once into further asyndeta and repeti-
tions, “By his manner, his looks, his voice, when
he stuikes with insult, when he strikes like an enemy,
when he strikes with his knuckles, when he strikes
you like a slave.” > Here the orator does just the
same as the aggressor, he belabours the minds of
the jury with blow after blow. Then at this point
he proceeds to make another whirlwind onslaught.
“When it's with his knuckles, when it's a slap
ou the face,” he says, “this rouses, this maddens
a man who is not aceustomed to insult. Nobody
by describing this could convey its effect.” Thus
all the time he preserves the essence of his ve-
petitions and asyndeta through continual varia-
tion, so that his very order is disordered and
equally his disorder implies a certain element of
order.
21. Now insert the connecting particles, if you care
to do so,in the style of Isocrates and his school: “And
yet one must not overlook this too, that the aggressox
may do much, first by his manner, then by his looks,
and then again by his mere voice” If you thus
paraphrase it sentence by sentence you will see
* Isaeus, FEypereides, Theopompus, eic.

im
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

3eSiwypévor rai dmorpaxuvógevor, édv Tots our-

Bécmors eéopadions eis Aeiórnra, drevrpóv Te
9 mpoominre. Kai edbis êopeorar. «Domep yáp ei ris
cuvôjoee vv Dedvrwr Tã cupmara Tv bopau
air dbúpnrar ouros «al TO málos Úmo vóv
curbéouov «ol vor dAwr mpocêncir Ejrode-
tdueror dyavarrei: rijy yãp eeudepiar diroAÂÚes
rot Bpduou Kai Tó «os dm” dpyávou tivos dpicodar.
22. Ts Sé aúris idéas xai rã úmepBora Deréov.
éoriy Bê Adéewy 1) vocemwy Ex Tod Kar” âxodouliay
Kertwyuévm tóêiS Kai olovel xaparrip evayeviou
mdfovs dAgbéoraros. is yáp oi TO Geri dp-
yilógevos 7 PoBoduevor 7 ayavarroivres ) viro
Endorurias 9) Umô Mov twós (moA vãp Kai dy-
ar. apibunra mdb Kai ovô dy eixeiv tes Omdca Búvarro)
éxdorore mapuminrovres àAÃa mpobégevor soA-
Adris é" dAÃa perampôdor, uéca rua mopeupa-
Advres dAdyws, elr” aúbis êmi rá mpódra dvaruxÃodv=
TES Kai mavim mpôs tis aymvias, os bm” darárou
mvedparos, TijdE «áxeice dyyrpódos duri-
omúuevo. Tãs Adgeis TAS vojdelS TI E TOU raTá
pÚciy eipuoU mavrolws pós mupias rporas eu-
alddrrovor Tdéi, oúrm mapã Trois dpiorors cuy-
ypapedo. da róiv drrepBerdy À piumois êxi sá vis
dúcems êpya déperau. tóre vOp 1 TÉXIM Tédeios,
qui” dv quars elvar Soxi, À O ad pvois emiruyis,
ôrav Aovbdvovoar epidym Tv réximr. diorep
Aéyer O Damaeds Atovúcios mapá TO Hpolórp:
“ em Evpod yãp dis Exeras juiv TA mpáyuara,
dvôpes “Leves, elvar Edevbépors 7) BoúÃois Kai vod-
ros ds Sparérgow. vor dv dueis dy pêv Boú-
Agabe tadumupias êvdéxecdar, mapaxpíua év
192
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxr. I-xxrr, 1

that if the rush and ruggedness of the cmotion is

fined down and smoothed out by the use of connect-
ing partieles, it falls flat and immediately loses all
its point and fire. For just as you deprive runners
of their speed if you tie them together, emotion
equally resents being hampered by connecting
particles and other such appendages. Tt loses its
freedom of motion and its effect of coming like a
bolt from a catapult,
22. In the same category we must place Inversion,
This figure consists in arranging words and thoughts
out of the natural sequence, and bears, so to speale,
the genuine stamp of vchement emotion. Just as
people who are really angry or frightened or worried
or are carried away from time to time by jealousy or
any other feeling —there are countless emotions, more
than one can say—often put forward one point
and then spring off to another with various illogical
interpolations, and then wheel round again to their
original position, while, under the stress of their excite-
ment, like a ship before a veering wind, they lay their
words and thoughts first on one tack then another,
and keep altering the natural order of sequence
into innumerable variations —so, too, the best
prose-writers by the use of inversions imitate
nature and achieve the same effect. For art is
only perfect when it looks like nature and Nature
sueceeds only by concealing art about her person.
Take the speech of Dionysius, the Phocacan, in
Herodotus.e “Indeed our fortunes stand upon a
razor's edge, men of Ionia, whether we be free men
or slaves, aye, and runaway slaves. Now, therefore
if you axe willing to endure hardship, at the moment
& vi lie
198
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

móvos duty, oloi re dé Eoeobe úrepfiadéolm rods

2 moleniovs” êvradb' ju Tô nará ráior “cd dvBpes
“Luves, vôv roipós êoriv duty móvovs êmdéxecdar
Emi ÉvpoB yãp denis êxeras Tjuiv TA mpáyuara.”
ó Sé vô uér “dvôpes "Luves” dmepeBiBacer:
mpocioéBader ody edbds dmo Toi dófou, es und"
doxi Gldvwv mpôs Tô edeorws Béos mpos-
ayopedoa. rods deovorras: Exeira de Tijy TÁdv von-
párwv dméorpebe rdéw' mpô yáp rob dijoai óru
aúrods dei moveiy (robro ydp éoriy O mapaxedede-
ru) Eumpocbev dmodidwor Try airiay dv ju mover
18sv det, “émi Évpod denis” divas “éxerar muiv TA
mpdypara,” ws pm) doxeiv eornepuuéva Adyemm GA”
3jvayraguéva. ért dE uaMÃor O Govrvdiôns «ai
rã qúce. mávros Trwpnéva rai dàdaréuntTa Ópuws
rais úrepBdcecw dm dAApAwv dyeiy dewóraros.
ó dé Amuaolévms ody obrws per aúldôys domep
oôros, mávrev 6 év TO yéveL ToúTp rarTanopéoraros
«ai mohd vô dywrorirôr é rod dmepbibalem nai
Eri vi Ala Tô é Droylou Adyem ouvenpaivauv
Kai mpôs Tobrois eis TO” Kivôvvor TOM parpôrv
4 ÚmrepBaródy rods dxovorras ouvemomuperos' moA-
Adxis yáp vov vor é cpuncer eixreiv dvanpendoas
Kai peraéi must eis GAlóguiov Kai dmeoucuiar
rágiy GAN ém dAors dd uécov nai êBwbév grober
emeronvchd» eis poor eufaddy rôv dipoariy
&s émi wavredei rob Adyov Siarráces ral our-
amorimônvedemr br” dyuvias Tb Aéyorri quravay-
Kácas, eira mapalóyos dà parpod Tô dA
Enroújuevov elxaipws émi TéXes mou mpocamodois,
avr TA xarã às úrepBáces mapaBódp ai
1 usragó mus Wilamowitz for verbo ws P,
194
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxrr. 1-4
there is toil for you, but you will be able to over-
come your enemies.” Here the natural order was,
“O men of Ionia, now is the time for you to endue
toil, for our fortunes stand upon a razor's edge.”
He has transposed the “men of Ionia ” and started
at once with his fears; so pressing was the danger
that he would not even address the audience first.
He has, moreover, inverted the order of ideas.
Before saying that they must toil-for that is the
point of his exhortation—he first gives the reason
why they must toil, by saying, “ Our fortunes stand
upon a razor's edge.” The result is that his words do
not seem premeditated but rather wrung from him.
Thucydides is still cleverer at using inversions to
separate ideas which are naturally one and indivisible.
Demosthenes, though not indeed so wilful as
Thucydides, is the most insatiable of all in this kind
of use and not only employs inversions to give a
great effect of vebemence, and. also, if you please,
of improvisation, but even drags his audience along
with him to share the peril of his long inversions,
For he often hangs up the sense which he has begm
to express, and meanwhile manages to wheel on to
the empty stage one extraneous idea after another
in a strange and unlikely order, making the audience
terrified for the total collapse of the sentence and
compelling them from sheer excitêment to share the
speaker's risk: then unexpectedly, afier a great
interval, the longlost phrase turns up pat at the
eng, so that be astounds them all the more by the

195
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

dxpoogalei soh) pãMov ermhjrrer. peido de rn

mapaderyudrev Eorw did vô nÃijos.
23. Tó ye pijy moliarwra Aepógueva, dbpoionol
Kai perofohoL Kai cAjuares, mávu dywraTucá, cds
coisa, Kócuov TE Kai mavros dous roi mábovs
ourepyá. qi dé ai Tv aTdcemv xpóvmwor impoocrry
dpbuiv yeridv evalddéeis, ns more nara-
& mocciAÃovoL Kal êmeyeipovor Tá Epuqrevrirá; fui
141. dé rr Kar rods dpifnods od uóva rTabra xooueiv,
óxdca reis rórois évira ôvra qjj Burger Kara
rip dvadedpnow mAnfvrruca edpiorerar
abrixa (noi) Aaós dmeipor 3.7 r A > 4

Búvvor êém ióvecor Buorágevo: reldôncar

dA” éeiva uaMhov maparnpjosws déia, óri 200”
ômov mpocmimrei vô mAndvvTica ueyadoppyuoré-
oTepa roi abra Bogoromodvra Téd ôxAm Tod apiduod.
es

roira mapã TO MopoxÃci rà émi Tod Oldimou"

É YánOL VÉMOL,
edvcal” fuôs nai furevoavres md
3 z :i € a 1 + 4

dvcire rubro orépua námedeifare

marépos adeApoús maidas, aim Eudúlior,
vúudas yuvalxas unrTépas ve xúnóca
+ E

aioxior” é» dvbpuúmoow êpya viyreras.

s a

mávra vão rabra Ev ôvoud dorm, Oibimovs, émi dé

A A Fe) “ EA 1.3 VIGA 54 "

Barépov “lordory, dA" Suas yudeis eis vá mAy-

“ Stricily this means the use of more than one case

(rrôois) of the same word, e.g. “ Haeret pede pes, densusque
viro vir,” but it seems here to cover also rheforical changes
of tense, person, number, or gender,
196
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxrr. 4-xxir. 8

mere reckless audacity of his inversions. But there

are so many examples that E must stay my hand.
23. Again, accumulation, variation, and. climax,
the so-called “ figures of many cases," º are, 28 you
know, a most eflective aid in giving ornament and
every kind of sublime and emotional effect. And
consider, too, what variety and líveliness is lent to
the exposition by changes of case, tense, person,
number, gender. Now in the category of number
not only are those uses ornamental where the
singular form is found on consideration to signify a
plural—take the lines :
And zhiray a retrberless people
Seaiter the length of the beavl'o + “the Tunny,
the Tonny!"
—hbut it is still more worthy of notice that the
plural sounds more fulkmouthed, while the very
idea of multitude which the plural number conveys
is itself impressive. This is the case with Sophocles”
lines about Oedipus :
Curse on the marriages
That gave us birth and having given birth
Flung forth the self-same sced again and showed
Fathers and sons and brothers all blood-kin,
And brides and vives and mothers, all the shame
Of all the foulest deeds that men have done.

These all mean one person, Oedipus, and on the

other side Jocasta, but the expansion into the plural
» Author unknown. To the inhabitants of Sicily and S.
Italy the tunny-fish was as important as the herring is to us.
A “Took-out” was stationed an a high place to signal the
approach of a shoal, Here “ numberless people ” is presura-
ably hyperbole for a crowd of fishermen.
e OF. 1408.
197
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

Ouvrixã o dprbuos ouvenijlvoe Kai Tàs drugias

1 e > 1 EA 1 Ny E) F ,

roi «dy êxeiva memÃcóvaoras

céAdov “Extopés TE Kal Baprydóves*
Em ,

4
Kai vó Iareuóv, é nal érépeubi mapereleiucda,
4 éri róv
sa
"Abyvaiwy
El
ou yãp
a
Ilélomes5 cúde
z a “é 3 A H À, 1) 1

Kddgos oid” Aiyumroi te rai Aaraol - odo”a dMoL

moMÃo: gúve. BdpBapor auvoncotow muiv, GAN
aúroi "EdAmves, od putoBdpBapor oirvôuer ”* iai
:) voe 5 A 3 - ERA N

rã ééijs. qúcer yãp efaxoverar TA mpáyuero rop

mumdécrTepa dyendov obrems Tó dvopudremv Exuruva
vubeneéveov. oU pévror dei moreiv abrô é” àAMemy
ei ui) EP” div Déxerar TOA úmoxeipeva alynow d
mAnduv 7) UmrepBodijy 9) mddos, év Tu ToÚrmr 7) TÁ
mheciova, Emei ToL Tô mavraxoD núdmwvas eénpla
Aiay coprrucór,
mv. 24 “AMO rj” Kai TodvarTiov TA Ex TEM mAm-
Gvvrindiv eis va verá Emovvapóngera éviore UilmÃo-
gavéorara. “Emei? 1 Ilehoróvinoos áraca dum
2 ”
erre,” dnoi.Po Gt, “rai VGA8 Dpvviyp
4 m
dpôua 4 ,
Milijrou
dAmaiw diddfavri eis daxpua Emrece To Dégrpor.'” qd
éx rr Bmpapéver eis Tá Wrupéva êmovorpélias
a A

B7dv dpiôuor ocwparosdéorepov, airov & em

dupoiv rod xócuou raúrôv oluar ômou re yãp
évixã úmxdpyer TA dvôpgara, vô moAÃa moteiv abra
rapa
” dotar
y

' Eptradoos, ômou

1

a ve mAnbuvrucd, TO els
3 Ea) “ L x >,

Ev Ti ebmxor cuyropupody rã mheiova dá my eis

Totpanrior peragtópbmow vó
3 ! 4 E
mpayudreoy év vp
1 2 a

mapadódye.
1 Emege Tô Génrpov Toll for Erecov oi Oeuero: P,
* Unicnown. * Menexenus, 245 D.
* See Additional Note, p, 254
De cor. 18,
198
 ON THEE SUBLIME, xxim, 3-xxry, 2

serves to make the misfortunes plural as well,

There is the same sense of multiplication in “ Forth
came Hectors and Sarpedons too,” 4 and in the
passage of Plato about the Athenians,) which we
have also quoted elsewhere: “ For no Pelopes nor
Cadmi nor Egypti and Danai nor any other hordes
of bom barbarians share our home, but we are pure
Grecks here, no semi-barbarians,” and so on. The
facts naturally sound more imposing from the
accumulation of names to signify groups instead
of individuals. This device should not, however,
be employed except where the subject invites heroics
or redundanee or exaggeration or emotion, either
one or more of these, To sound bellse in every
sentence would be unduly pretentious.
24, Yet again, the converse of this, the contraction
of plural to singular, sometimes gives a great cffectof
sublimity. “ Moreover, the whole Peloponnese was
split,” says Demosthenes! Again, “when Phry-
nichus produced his Capiure of Miletus the theatre
burst into tears.” * In the case of separate indivi-
duals to compress the number into the singular gives
more sense of a single whole. The ornamental effect
is due in both to the same cause. Where the words
are singular, to make them plural suggests untore-
seen emotion: where they are plural and you com-
bine a number of things into a well-sounding singular,
then this opposite change gives an effect of surprise,
* Herodotus, vi. 21: “The Athenians showed in many
ways their great distress at the capture of Miletus and when
Phrynichus wrote ard nendnçed his Capture of Miletus, the
theatre busst ARG - fned kim a thousand
drachmas for n W'« disaster which tonched
them nearly avú it «ac play should never be
produced again,”
199
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

25. "Orar ye uy rã mapelmAvlóra rois xpóvois

ciodyns Às yuwógeva Kai mapóvra, od drhynor êrs
rôv Aóyor EAN êxayumov mpâyua momaes. “xeg-
ares Dé ris, bnoiv é Ecvopór, “ úno vd Kúpou
im nal maroúpevos muie tj maxoipa eis vv
yasrépa róv immov 6 dé apadáimwy dmocelerar róv
Kopov, 6 8 mimres.” vorbros é» rois mAciorois
é Dovvôiôns.
26. "Evayários 8º duoiws Kal 9 TDV mpoowsrwrv
dyriserádeois Kal modAdkis Ev pégois TOÍS KivôÚpois
motdoa rôv drpouriy Boxeir orpépeodaL.
fains w' drpíjras xal dreipéas
dvrecb" é» moréun: Os êcoupévos Eudxorro.
Koi O “Aparos
um
Hm Keivo4 êvi unvi mepixÂvloio Baldoon.1
2 dé mov xai 5£ “Hpódoros: “4 “dad de "Ededavrivms
1957. 7ÓÃews dir mwAeúgeas, «Kai Emerra aApiér és mediov
Aciov: BrefeADav dé Tobro Tô xwplor adlis eis
érepov mAoior cuBds mhevoea: dU úuépas, émerra
úéeis és mó mneyáAnv, À ôvopa Mepón.” dpãs,
& ércipe, às mapadaBev cov mijv fuyjr did vv
rómewv dyer rHjv drojv db mordv; mávra dé rá
sotaira mpôs aúrã dimeperdógeva TÁ mpócwma ém
3 aúrôdy lorgo: Tôv dxpoarip Tó evepyoupérmr. rob
órar cos cú mpôs dmavras dA) os mpôs uóvor rd
AgAfis,
Toudeidy 8º odx dv yroins moréporo: pereim,
eumabéorepós re abrdv dua rol mpocerritirepor
E) , 4

º Cyrop. vil. 1. 97,

» DR. xv. 607. aMjhow is omitted after dreipéas.
200
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxv. I-xxvr. 3

25, Again, if you introduce events in past time

as happening at the present moment, the passage
will be transformed from a narrative into a vivid
actuality. “ Someone has fallen,” says Xenophon,s
“under Cyrus's horse and, being trodden under
foot, is striking the horse's belly with his dagger.
The horse rearing throws Cyrus and he falls.” Tiuey-
dides uses such effects as frequently as anybody.
26. Change of person gives an equaliy vivid effect,
and often makes the audience feel themselves set
in the thick of the danger.
«++ You would say that unworn and with temper undaunted
Each met the other in war, so headlong the rush of their
battle.»
And Avatus's line :
Be not thou in that month in the midst of the surge of the
ocean,

Herodotus does much the same: “ You will sai!

up from the eity of Elephanting and there come to a
smooth plain. And when you have passed through
that place you will board again another ship and
sail two days and then you will come to a great city,
the name of which is Meroé.”! You see, friend,
how he takes you along with him through the country
and tuns hearing into sight. All such passages
with a direct personal application set the hearer in
the centre of the action. By appearing to address
not the whole audience but a single individual
Of Tydeus' son thou couldst not have known with which
of the hosts he was fighting *—
you willmove him more and make him more attentive
* Phaen, 287,
4 Herod. ii. 29, eb» nei clchtr altered,
fo .
201
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

nei dyóvos Eumew» dmoredéveis, Tais eis Envrôv

mpocpwyigecwy efeverpégevor.
27. "Emi ye my éob” dre mepi mpoccimou dempoú-
pevos ó cuyypaçeds céaibrns mapevexdeis eis TÔ
abrompócuwsrov dpriuelioraras, Kai Eori TO ToLToL
eidos ExBoAm ris múlovs.
“Exrup dé Tprecomw éiéxÃero paxpóv digas
vquoiv êmogedeodas, dar 5º Evapa fporóevras
dv 8º dv exdy dardvevde vecir EdédovTA vous
abro oi Bávaror unTicopas.
otrotv rjv per dujynow dre mpérovoar 6 mommris
mpociper édavr, Tv dmóromor dmethny TÃ
Bvpid 108 myepuóvos eEamims ovder mpodnâwoas
mepiébyrev eróvero dp, el mapeverides “ EXeyer
de roiá viva xai rota o "Errwp,” vuvi S' Eblarer
dpro voy peraBairovroa À TOU Adyou perafagis.
280 xai À) mpóoxpyors! rod axjuaros róre, muix” à»
déds O rorpôs dv BranéAdew TO vpdpovr: ui) dd
196 v. dAM edbds emavayrdln peraBaivemy ex mpoocwmwr
eis mpóowma: «os Kai vapã vo Exaralw “ Kivé
dé raúra Sera amorwúpgevos aúrixa êxéleve TODS
“Elpaxheidas êmyóvovs exywpeiv od yãp úuir
3 Buvarós eim Apiyew. «ds ui) Ov aúrol re dmodceode
náue rpeúcere, és EMov rw ônuov dmoiyeode.” 6
Her vão Anpocêévms roer” &Ahov Tvd rpómov émi
rod "Apraroyeirovos êuirades Tô modumpdowsrov Kad
dyxiorpodor mopéorarer. “ral ocúdels udp
xo,” noir, “008” dpyiy Exav elpebijceras éh”
ois à Bôehupôs obros Kai dvadns Brdlerar, ôs, À
muaptrare dadyrwv, Kerhecouéms co vis map-
2? wpáoxpnois Manutius for mpóxpyois P.
202
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxvi. 3-xxvu. 3

and full of active interest, if you rouse him by these

personal appeals,
27. Again sometimes a writer, while speaking of
one of his characters, suddenly turns and changes
into the actual character. A figure of this kind is
a sort of outbreak of emotion :
Hector hfted his voice and cried afar to the Trojans
To haste them back to the galleys and leave the blood-
spattered booty.
Whomsoever 1 spy of his own will afar from the galleys,
Death for him there will 1 plan.

“There the poet has assigned to himself the narrative

as his proper share, and then suddenly without any
warning attached the abrupt threat to the angry
champion. To insert “ Hector said so and so”
would have been frigid. As it is, the change of
construction suddenly anticipates the change of
speaker. So this figure is useful, when a sudden
crisis will not let the writer wait, and forces him to
change at once ffom one character to another.
There is an instance in Hecataeus?: “ Ceyx took
this ill and immediately bade the younger descendants
of Heracles be gone. For I cannot help you. So
to prevent perishing yourselves and harting me,
away with you to some other people.” By a some-
what different method Demosthenes in the risto-
geitor has used the change of person to suggest the
quick play of emotion. “ And will none of you,”
he says, “ be found to feel indignation at the violence
of this shameless rascal, who — ch you most
accurstd of villaims, when you were cut of from

2 W, xv. 346,
* "Che Milesian historian, sixth century Ec,
Ros
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

pmaias od riyrdiow oddé Búpars, À Kai mapavoiger

duris ...* é dredei TO vA raxd diadddéas xe
udvor od piav Aééw
EA >
Ba n vóv Ovuov eis b duo Bra ,
4 À Es 8 A A 8 h! > 8 f 8

omácas mpócuma “ôs, O puapwrare” eira mpe

vô» "Apiroyeirora Tô» Adyor" àmoorpétas wc
dmodimeir Soridv, ópuws Ba Tod málovs moA
4 mAéov éméorpebev, oux dAAws ) Invelómy
x
Kipvê, '
rinre Bé , ce mpóecar
, a
uunorípes ,
ayavol;,
ciméguevor ôpuvfjow "Oducanos Belos
Epyav maúcacda, copio. 5º abrois Baira mévecda
Hm pmoredoartes, uno” AMP” dmAnoarres,
Úorara Kai múuara viv evOdde dermjocar,
oidBOdu" as
dyespógevor ,
Biorov ,
Karakeipere modo,;
ovdé mu warpr
úperépuv tv mpócdev dxovere, talões edures,
2. 4 a Eq > [4 :ê 2!

olos "OBvogeds Éoxe.

28. Kai pévro: mepibpaois ws oby dlimosoLóv
Wer. obdeis dv olmas dirrdocer. cds vp év povo;
did rév mapopivor ralovpévur O rúpios plóyyo
div dmoreleirar, olrws 1 mepippaois moAAdkr
cunpléyyera. rj KupioÃoyia Kai eis Kócuov ém
moA) cuvnxel, mal pálio, dv um) êxm puobdés 7
* Phas rôóv mpôs rôv "Aporoyetrova Abyor,
º dristog. à. 827.
» As the difficulty of “understanding” an object t
dxchrei: seems too great, 1 have folowed Toll's suggestior
that ais sperús es Írllen out of the text, The usual inter
pretation of the unamended ms. is “ turning off his speech
to-Aristogeiton and appesring to abandon him.” Bu
Demosthenes does the exact opposite. He has not previously
addressed his speech ta Aristogeiton.
* Od.iv. 681. The first part of 1. 687 (ergeuw Eylendxor
datgpovos) is omitted from the quotation.
204
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxvir, 3-xxvm. 1

free speech not by gates and doors which one might

very well open... ,Ӽ Leaving his sense ia-
complete he has made a sudden change and in his
indignation almost .split a single phrase between
two persons—“ who--oh you most accursêd "--and
thus, while swinging his speecb round on to Aristo-
geiton and appearing to abandon the jury, he has
yet by means of the emotion made his appeal to
them mueh more direct. Penelope does the same :
Herald, oh why have they sent thee hither, those high-bosn
suitors ?
Is ii to tell the hand-maidens that serve in the house of
Odysseus
To cease them now from their tasks and make ready a
feast for the suitors ?
Would that they never had wooed me nor ever met here in
our halls,
Would they might make in my house their last and latest
of banquets,
Ye that assemble together and woetully minish our substance !
«- nor e'er from your fathers
Heard ye ever at home long ago in the days of your child-
DO
What manner of man was Odysseus.
28. That periphrasis contributes to the sublime,
no one, I fancy, would question. Just as im music .
what we call ornament? enhances the beauty of
the main theme, so periphrasis often chimes in with
the Hteral expression of our meaning and gives it
a far richer note, especially if it is not bombastie
4 This word is used elsewhere of certain intervals which
were considered à mean between harmony and discord.
That meaning would not suit this passage. The sense of
musical ornament or embellishment is appropriate here and
etymologically probable. Saintsbury suggests “ the dominant
note is more sweetly brought out by accompanying trills
and harmonies.”
E 205
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

2 Kal duovoor 4AN moéws rexpanévor. ixavôs 8 A

rodro rexpupidoa «ai Hdr xará iv elo-

Body rod emragiou “ Epyyp uév tjtip oid! Exovos
Tà mpocijkorTa oplow avrois, dv tuxóvres qro-
pevovras Tip ciepquesray mopelay, mpomepplévres
nowij uêv úmo vis módews, ibia dé Exaoros bro
rr mpoonróvrwv” odkoiy róv Gúvaror elimey
ciuapuévmr mopetav, TÔ dE TeTuymKévOs Tódr voju-
Copévwv mporoumiy tua Ompociar úro Ts ra-
rpidos. dpa O) Toúrois perpiws yruce my
vóncur, W) July AaBev vi Aééiwv êuedonoinae
xobdmep dppoviar TA rip éx tis mepibpdcems
mepixeduevos cpéderav; ral Hevopódy “aóvor dé
“us

700 Liv nõéws nyeuóva vopilere, rdAAroror dé

mávrev Koi molepudraror Kríua eis TAS fbuxds
cuyrerópgiade: erawoúnevo. yáp uãMov 9) trois
dAhos mão: xatpere” dyri vob “aroveir Behere”
“aróvor Tyepóvo Tod Liv ndés moieiobe” eimdm
Kai rÃMA” óuoiws êmenreivas peydim TA êvvorar
Tô êmaivyp mpoorepivpioaro. al TO dpiuyrov
éxelvo rod 'Hpodórou: “rójy dé EreuBécov rois cuArj-
s Ea El ç - A “ Es a Ea

caow TO iepôv eveBadev 1) Beds OnÃeiar vobgoor."

29. "Erikmpor pévro. TO Tpyua, | Tepibpagis,
rd» Mov mAéor, el um) ouunérpos tuwi Agu-
Bávorro edbis yãp dfheuês mpoonimrei, Kovpo-
À 4 Eq 1 £ EO 4 1
r AOVLAS TE ô£ov Koi TaxuTATOP. OUev KOL Top
Hidrwva (dewôs vãp dei epi oxíjua Kdv qro
304 a
deaipws) év rois Nóuors Aéyorra “eis ore dp-
yupoiv dei mhobrov odre ypucofr é qódes iBpu-
pévor éày oixeiv” Biiydeudlovow, dr ei mpófara,
+ ES

* Menevenus, 286 D. * Cyrop. i. 5. 12.

206
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxvrm. 2-xx1x, 1

ox discordant but agreeably in harmony. A sufficient

proof of this is the opening of Plato's Funeral
Oration,º “ First then in deeds we have given them
their due reward, and, this won, they pass now along
the appointed path, escorted all in common by their
country and each man severally by his kinsmen.”
Here he calls death an appointed path and their en-
joyment of due rites a sort of public escort by their
country. Notice what a supreme dignity this gives to
the thought; bow he has taken the literal expression
and made it musical, lapping it, as it were, in the
tuneful harmonies of his periphrasis. Again Xeno-
phon says, “ You hold that hard work is a guide to
the pleasures of life and you have stored in your
hearts the best and most Imightly of ali treasures.
For nothing pleases you so much as praise”? By
saying “ You make hard work a guide to the pleasures
of life ” instead of “ You are willing to work hard,”
and by similarly expanding the rest of his sentence,
he has extended his eulogy to include a fine idea.
Then there is that inimitable phrase in Herodotus :
“Upon those Seythians that sacked her temple the
goddess sent a female malady." é
29. However it is a riskyº business, periphrasis,
more so than any of the other figures, unless used
with a due sense of proportion. For it soon falis
flat; emacks of triviality and slow wits. So that
crities have even made fun of Plato —always so
clever at a figure, sometimes unscasonably so —
for saying in bis Lams “that we should not let
silvern treasure nor golden settle and make a home
inacity.Ӽ Had he been forbidding people to possess
“5, 105, i.e, one that made them women. The goddess
was Apbrodite. & Lãt. “ perishable,” Hkely to go bad.
* Bee Additional Note, p. 254.
207
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

dncir, êxcihve rexrioda, BjÃov dr mpoBdrTeiv

dv ral Bócrov mAoirov EXeyev.
2 “AM yáp dus ómêp ris eis Tê dinda côr
oxnuárur ypjcems éx mapeviifrs Tocadra megilo-
Aoviodar, Vepevriarvê plArare: mávra yãp rara
mabnricwrépous Kal cuyrenumnévovs Amorele
rods Adyous: amados dé úous ueréxer TOGODTOP,
dmócor jbos ndovis.
30. "Exreido uévror À rob Adyov vómois % re
dpdois rã mieiw & éxarépou drimruxtas, Ub. dj,
dv 708 bpaorexod pépovs à) tiva Aourã Eri, mpoo-
emibeaodpeda. Ort per TOlvur À TDV Kvpiwr ral
peyadomperáv ovoudrov Exhoym) davpacráis dyes
Kat KartarnÃei TOUS dxovorTas ral cs mão. Tois
propor Kai ovyypadedo: Kar” &kpov extridevpa,
péyedos duo. dAdos ebriverar Bápos ioydr Kpáros
ér; Dé yáveoiv rua rois Adyors domep dydAudor
nuddiotos OS adris exavbeiv mapaorevdiovoa
Kal olovel uy tiva ToiS mpáyuoo. Puvmrucip
évrilcica, |4t) ad arepurrór 7) mpôs eisóras Orsévevas,
ds vp rD ôvre idov rod vod rd Kodd drópgara.
26 évio. ye Óykos aurêv oU vávim xperbôns,
émei Trois purpois mpaypuaríioss mrepuribévas peyada
Kai cera dvógara raúróv dv duivorro, cds eb TiS
rpayidr mpociwmeioy péya maio mepideim mio.
mA év pêv moLjoeL KaLL ...

1 d n 81... Operriciraror Kai yóvinor, Tô & *Ava-

s This may be explained by reference to what is said about
the Hiad and Odyssey in chapter be. The former, full of
emotional incidents, is sublime; he latter depends on
character study and is only agrecable.
é i,e. the mellowness of age, to be taken in close cunnexion
Ros
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxx. I-xexr. 1

sheep, says the critic, he sonld clearly have said

“ ovine and bovine treasure.”
But, my dear Terentianus, this digression must
suflice for our discussion of the use of figures as
factors in the sublime. Our conclusion is that they
all serve to lend emotion and excitement to the style,
But emotion is as much an element in the sublime,
as is the study of character in agrecable writing.*
30. Now, since thought and diction often explain
each other, we must further consider whether there
are any elements of style still left untouched. It
is probably superíluous to explain at length to those
who know, how the choice of the right word and the
fine word has a marvellously moving and seductive
effect upon an audience and how all orators and
historians make this their supreme object. For
this of itself gives to the style at once grandeur,
beauty, a classical favour? weight, force, strengih,
and a sort of ghttering charm, like the bloom on
the surface of the most beautiful bronzes, and
endues the facts as it were with a living voice.
Truly, beautiful words are the very light of thought.
However, their mujesty is not for common use,
since to attach great and stately words to trivial
. things would be like fastening a great tragic mask
on a simple child. However in poetry and. h(istory)

[Four pages of ihe us, are here lost.)

31... . is most illuminating “and typical; so, too,
with what he goes on to say about the mellowing effect of
time—probabiy through oxidization—on bronze statues.
“ Tát. “ gives abundant food for thought.” | Buta genitive
governed by these two adjectives may be lost: “ greatly
promoting the growth and yproductive of...” The
subject is now metaphor, as one kind of fine phrasing.
209
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

Kpéovros * “odréri Opquins emorpépona” taúry

Kai Tô 790 Oeomógmou Kaixros dir>roy emawero
da tô jiváhoyor émuos ve, onpavrucirara Exeum
doxeir ômep ó Kexidvos our is ómms reeraguejt=
dera. * “Bewvôs cry “ noiv, É 6. Didumrmos ávayio-
à
Gayiom mpóypora tor &p' O iBtoriouos
eviore xoõ rócuou mapa mod» cupavoricirepor
Emyivesonera vãp aúródev é 798 Kowod Blou, vô
de oúvmbes 89 morórepov. obicoUs émi tod tá
uioxpã nai pumapa TÂnuóves sai pe?” údovis
Evexa mheovegias raprepotvros Tô dvayropayeir
Tã mpóypara êvapyéorara mapellanrar, DOé tres
ac]

exe: nai rã 'Hpodóreia: “o KAecouérms,” dnoi,

“aveis Tàs éavrol odpras Erpidip rarérenev
eis demrá, éws dhov raraxopõeduv éavrór d-
éPBeper,” mai “ó Húbys éws rodde émi vijs vecss
euúxero, éms dmas narexpeovpyib.” vadra yôp
expôs mapagvei Tô» idubrmy, AN” abr idruredes
TÊ onpavrtirôs.
32. lepi de mAjdovs [nai] perapopóy é ué
Kexidios êouce ouyrararideodos rois ôdo 7) TO
mheioror Tpeis éml raúrod vopoberodos rárresOm-
é vãp AmpocBévns ópos eai Tor otoúrcov ó gs
xpeias dé Keupós, évla vê dBm xemudppou dire
Auúverar, Kai TI mokum Abe adróivy ds dvay-
xatar exvadla onvepédceras. “ dvBpwmo.,” doi,
+»

? vulro: frror emamerdy lannavakis for rai rôr emjreror P,

“ A metaphor for a young girl, not uncommon in Greek

na doLatin lyrics. Mid - Victorian humourists thus used
é Aristotle explains in his Poetics (Ch, xxi. 8 11) that a
large class of metaphors rest on an implied analogy, eg. we
g10
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxxr. l-xxxmr, 2

with Anacreon's “ No more care I for the Thracian

colt.s” In the same way the phrase used by Theo-
pompus, though less admirable, seems to me highly
expressive in virtue of the analogy implied,? though
Cecilius for some reason finds fault withit. “Philip,”
he says,“ had a wonderful faculty of stomaching
things.” Thus the vulgar phrase sometimes proves
far more enlightening than elegant language. Being
taken from our common Hfe it is immediately
recognized, and what is familiar is halfway to con-
viction. Applied to one whose greedy ambition
makes him glad to endure with patience what is
shameful and sordid, “ stomaching things ” forms a
very vivid phrase. It is much the same with Hero-
dotus's phrases: “In his madness,” be says,
“ Cleomenes cut his own flesh into strips with a
dagger, until he made mincemeat of himself and
perished,"c and “ Pythes went on fighting in the
ship until he was all cut into collopsӎ These
come perilously near to vulgarity, but are not vulgar
because they are so expressive.
82. As to the proper number of metaphors,
Cecilius seems on the side of those who lay down
a law that two or at the most three should be
used together. Demosthenes assuredly is the canon
in these matters too, And what deeides the occa-
sion for their use? Why, the right moment, when
emotion sweeps on Like a food and inevitably camies
themultitude of metaphors alongit. “ Men,”he says,
can call old age the evening of life, because old age: life:
evening: day. We might expound the analogy here as,
insults: Philip: : training breakfasts: ao oarsman, ie. they
are stomached ” for some ulterior motive. Theopompus of
Chios was a fourth-century historian.
* Herod. vi 75. 3 Herod. vii. 181.
aim
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

“ murpoi Kal KóÃares, PKpwTNpraopévOL TAS EauT dp

Exacto: marpidas, Tv éXevilepiav mporemewóres
mpórepor Dilimma, vuvi dé "Adefdvôpw, tj yaorpi
iwty. perpoúvres Koi Trois aloxiorois TYjy eddauoviar,
rip 8º eXevbepiav Kai Tô undéva êxew Secmóray, à
rois mpórepor “EAgow dpor Tó dyaddr joar ral
Kavóves, dvarerpopores.” evradda vid mÃjde TA
mpomixódv é Kar védy mpodorédv emempoodei roô
a púropos Quuós. dimep 6 pév "Aprororédys Kai O
Qeóbpagros ueidiypará paoi tva róv fpaveror
civas radra perapopódy, Tô “ cdomepei” fávar mai
“otovel” rob Celi xp) Tobror eixeiv rôv rpómor
4 ai “ei dei mapaxiwduvevtucorepor Acfa” | yêp
dmoriumois, paotr, livrar TÃ Tohunpd: êyuy de rai
raúra pêv amodéxono., óuuws dé mAmõous Kal TóAuNS
nerapopór, ómep Ebmr xámi Tv oxmudrev, TA
ebkospa «ai adodpã mdb Kai Tô yevraior Dios
eivai fu id viva dhefipápuara, óri TP poli ris
dapãs ravri mépuxev amarra TAM mapacúpew ral
mpowbeir, uãMÃov dé Kai «ds dvayroia máviws elo-
mpórrecla vá mapdBoda, Kai odx EG 7róv Expoarry
oxoAdiem epi TOv TOD mAijdous édeyyor Bá TO
ouverfovorãv vd Aéyovrt. GAMA io é ye tais
5 romnyopias mai draypapais od dAÃo TE obrems
raTaonpavriKor «cs oi ouvexeis «ral eEmáAAnho:
Tpómos. O cy Kai mapã Sevopóvri à rávOpwmivou
okijrous Graroum mvopmiméls Kal Ert pãMov dva-
Cwypogetras Deieus mapã vo Idem. iv méy
repaimy abrod fmow dapómoAm, lubudy dé pécor
, 3 Fel > , 5 + A Eq

dmprodopioda: meraéd TOU orijdous vêv abyéva,

oporbúious Te Umeornpixdai brow clov orpóduyyas

212
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxxrr. 2-5

“of evillife, flatterers who have each foully mutilated

their own country and pledged their liberty in a cup
of wine first to Philip and nowto Alexander, men who
measure happiness by their bellies and their basest
appetites, and have strewn in ruins that Eberty
and freedom from despotism which to Greeks of
older days was the canon and standard of all that
was good.”2 Here it is the orator's indignation
against the traitors which sereens the multitude of
metaphors. Accordingly, Aristotle and Theophrastus
say that bold metaphors are softened by insert-
ing Casif” or“as it were” or “if one may say
so” or “if one may risk the expression.” The
apology, they tell us, mitigates the audacity of the
language. | accept this, but at the same time, as I
said in speaking of “ figures,” the proper antidote
for a multitude of daring metaphors is strong and
timely emotion and genuine sublimity. These by
their nature sweep everything along in the forward
surge of their current, or rather they positively
demand bold imagery as essential to their effect,
and do not give the hearer time to examine how
many metaphors there are, because he shares the
excitement of the speaker.
Moreover in the treatment of a commonplace and
in descriptions there is nothing so expressive as à
sustained series of metaphors, It is thus that in
Xenophon * the anatomy of the human tabernace
is magnificently depicted, and still more divinely in
Plato: The head he calls the citadel of the body,
the neck is an isthmus built between the head and
chest, and the vertebrae, he says, are planted
“ De cor, 206. » Memorabilia, À, &, 5.
* Timaeus, 65 c-85x, The illustrations are selected from
passages in the Timaecus betxreen 65 c and 85 2,
H2 a8
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

198 r. KGL THV pév jdovip dvlposmrous elvas raraú Sedeap,

yAdocar dé yeúgems Soreipuou dvappia dé rá
pAeBódy rp”, Hapõiav nai mnvip rob mepupepopévou
opoBpids aipparos, sis A do peço pur otenarw
Kerareraypémr Tás de Siadpouds Té mópwv
ôvopuáber oTevwumols: “ri de imbijoel Tiis apôias
é rã TO dev mpocdorla reaú ri rod Bupod
êmeyépoer, red) dra mupôs * rs Emucoupiav gm
xavaperor,” dmoi, “ mir rod mÃeúovos dear
evepúrevoar, todas? Kai dvapov ai cipayyas
evrós êxouoar ómolov uádoypa, b ê Ovuôs órór
év górh Géon, muddica eis Pmeikor um) Aupuadomras
Kai T7v puev Tó êmbuuuddy oixnow mpogcimer cs
puvaticesviriy, Tijv Tod Bupod de osrep dvBpesviri
róu ve pap mira rédy évrós payelov, o ôbeu mAn-
poúperos Tó dmorabapopévoy uéyas . Kai úmrouÃos
avgerar “uerã dé rara capéi návra, “ nai,
Korecniagor, mpoBokijy er Emb rip cápica,
oiov Tá minar, mpobépevos.” voga dé capicdv
Ebn TO alua e ris de vpopijs éévera, “ not, |“Br
cxérevoar Tô cÓpa, TéuvorTES Somep év Kúrois
Oxeroús, «bs Ex rios váguuros émidvros, dposod
ôpros abhájvos Toõ cúparos, va ré SAeBedy péoL
vápara vina dé RA TeXevri) mapasrã, Aveobaul
noi Tá Ts Vurcis olovel vetos meiopuaTa, uebeiadai
TE abri evê épav. radra Kai rá mapamiia
6 pupi ârra éoriv Eis dmóxpn, Be rá dednAwpéva,
188v. &s eyádos re gúow eioi» ai Tpomiai, mai Às
dilgÃomoóv ai peradopai, Kal Sri oi vabiyrexoi Kai
Ppaotixol Kará Tô mÃecioror abrais xaipovor TóroL.

3 dá mrupós af. Plat, Tim, TO o 3 (Bumet) for Biáxupos P,

214
«
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxxrr, 5-6

beneath like hinges; pleasure is evil's bait for man,

and the tongue is the touchstone of taste. The
heart is a knot of veins and the source yhence the
blood runs vigoronsly round, and it has its station
in the guard-house of the body. The passage-ways
of the body he calls alleys, and “ for the leaping of
the heart in the expectation of danger or the arising
of wrath, since this was due to fiery heat, the gods
devised a support by implanting the lungs, making
them a sort of buffer, soft and bloodless and full of
pores inside, so that when anger boiled up in the heart
it might throb against a yielding surface and get
no damage.” The seat of the desires he compares
to the women's apartments and the seat of anger
to the men's. The spleen again is the napkin of
the entrails, “ whence it is filled with the offscourings
and becomes swollen and fetid.” “After this,” he
goes on, “they shrouded the whole in a covering
of flesh, like a felt mat, to shield it from the outer
world.” Blood he calls the fodder of the flesh, and
adds, “ For purposes of nutriment they irrigated
the body, cutting channels as one does in a garden,
and thus, the body being a conduit full of passages,s
the streams in the veins were able to fow as it
were from a running stream.” And when the end
comes, the soul, he says, is loosed like a ship from
its moorings and set free. These and thousands of
similar metaphors occur throughout. Those we have
pointed out suffice to show that figurative writing
has a natural grandeur and that metaphors make for
sublimity : also that emotional and descriptive
passages are most glad of them. However, that the
& Lit. perforated.
215
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
dr. pévros Kai ) xpiois ródv Tpómev, donep TAMa
q mávra Kadà é Aóyois, mpoaywyór dei mpós Tô
duerpor, diÃov Têm, Kdv dy um Aéym. éxi yáp
roúrois Kai vóv IAdruva odx mriara Siaoúpovo,
moAdris domep úro Baxyetas ruvôs Tv Adyawr eis
dxpárous nai dsmqueis perapopãs teaú eis GAAm-
yopucóv oróuor exdepópuevor. “od vão pádiov
extvoeiv,;” Gmoiv, “ori módm elvar <dei> Sinyy
aparipos Kexepaouévmv, oô porógevos gev olvos
exxexopnéros Lei, rodalópevos O” úrô mipovros
érépou Beod xa” rowwviav Aafiov dyalor mópua
roi pérprv dmepyólerar.” úbovra ydp, Pai,
Beór 1ó Vmp Aéyew», Kódaow dé Tip Kpãom, mom-
rod tuwos TD Our, odyi viiporrós dart. vols ToioU-
&

ros darrúpaoiw emixepddv Gus adró ai O

Kexihos é trois úmép Avoiov cuyypdupasi
dmefáponcer TO mavri Avolar âueivw IlAáremwvos
dodrvacdar, duoi mwábleor xpncágeros axpirois
Pulddy yãp róv Avoiav ds ovo” adrôs adróv, óuos
H6Aor proel Tg mavri IAdrwva 7) Avotar quÃer.
mi» obros ger drnô drhovecxias ovde Tà Béuara
duodoyoúpera, raldrep jbn. «is yáp dvaudpraror
Kai rabapór vov púropa mpobéper moAÃaxi demuap-
empévou 708 IlAdrevos: TO 6" dv dpa odyi Totobror,
ovde ddiyou det.
33. Dépe dj, AdBwuer TO dura rabapóv mma
2997. uvyypapéa Kai dvéyrigtov. dp obr déidv or
Prmopioas mepi abrod roúrou gabolucãs, mórepór
more Kpeirrov év momuao, mai Aóyois péyebos év
évios Ompaprmnévors 7) Tô cúuperpov pév év vols
Karopbeuacw úysês de wdvrm Koi ddudimrewrov; «ai

216
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxxm. 6-xxmr. 1

use of metaphor, like all the other beauties of style,

always tempts writers to excess is obvious without
my stating it. Indeed it is for these passages in
particular that crities pull Plato to pieces, on the
ground that he is often carried away by the intosica-
tion of his language into harsh and intemperate meta-
phor and allegorical bombast. “It is by no means
casy to see,” he says, “that a city needs mixing like a
wine-bowl, where the mad wine seethes as it is poured
in, but is chastened by another and a sober god
and finding good company makes an excellent and
temperate drink.” « To call water “a sober god ”
and mixing “ chastisement,” say the erities, is the
language of a poet who is far from sober.
Cecilius, too, laying his ânger on such defecis as
this, has actually had the face to declare in his writings
in praise of Lysias that Lysias is altogether superior
to Plato. Here he has given way to two uncritical
impulses: for though he loves Lysias even better
than himself, yet his hatred for Plato altogether
outweighs his love for Lysias. However he is the
victim of prejudice and even his premisses are not, ag
he supposed, admitted. For he prefers his orator on
the ground that he is immaculate and never makes
a mistake, whereas Plato is full of mistakes. But the
truth, we find, is different, very different indeed.
38. Suppose we illustrate this by taking some
altogether immaculate and unimpeachable writer,
must we not in this very connexion raise lhe general
question: Which is the better in poetry and in
prose, grandeur with a few flaws or correct com-
position of mediocre quality, yet entirely sound and
impeccable? Yes, and we must surely ask the
2 Laws, vi VT3 6.
217
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

Eru vi) Alo, mórepóv more ai mieiovs dperal Tô

mpwreiav év Adyors 7) ai peibous Siradws dy Péporwro;
or; yáp rar” olxeia Tois mepi Ubovs oxéuuara Kai
êmixpicems É dmavros Deópeva, éyi 5º oida pér,
o

às ai úrepueyédes qúceis quora rafapai! vó

vãp é» mavti dxpiBes wivôvvos jurcpórgros, ev Dé
mois meyéveci, Comep év trois áyar mhAoúrois,
elval tt xP Koi mapokympoúuevor ujmore de
rodro Kai dvayrafov À, TÔ TAS ev Tamends Kai
uévas púceis dá TO undant mapariwbuvedew unde
epicoba. vó dxpor dvapaprirovs «os émi Tô moAd
noi dopadeorépas Sraévewr, rã dé peyáda eim
ogai du abrô yivecdar vO péyedos. GAMA pijv oúdé
to

êxeivo dyvod Tô debrepor, Ori Gúcer máura rá

dvBpemero. dsrô 7ob xeipovos dei pãMov Emuyivid-
ckeras Kai Tv pév Guapryudrev dveidÃcimTos 1
prúum mapopéver, Tr KoAddv dé Taxéws daroppet.
4 maparebeuévos O at GAiya Kai aúrós duapripara
nai “Opijpou nai Tv dAAwv ôgor péyroToL, rob
fera Trois raio quam ipeoxduevos, ôpeos de odx
Guapripara HEMov aúra éxodoia KaAGy 7) map-
opdpara de djrédevay elxij mou xob cós Eruxer brô
197, Heyadopulas dvemorTáros mapevryveyuéva, couber
frrov oluar vs peilovas dperás, ci mal ju) é» nãos
BiopadiLorer, vm Tod mpwreiou iijbor uáMov del
pépeodar, Kdv ei um O evOs Erépou, ris peyodo-
dpocúms adris évexa: êmeirome Koi darwros ó
“AgoMros év rolo "Apyovaúross momris «dy
vais Bovrolimois mA» dAiyov vv EEmler o Qeó-
Kpuros émuyéoraros: dp" odv "Oumpos dv pao à)
“AgoAAvios Edédos perévlas; Ti dé "Eparoofévms

218
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxanr. 1-4

further question whether in literature the first place

is rightly due to the largest number of merits or
to the merits that are greatest in themselves.
These inquiries ave proper to a treatise on the
sublime and on every ground demand decision.
Now 1 am well aware that the greatest natures are
least immaculate. Perfect precision runs the risk
of triviality, whereas in great writing as in great
wealth there must needs be something overlooked.
Perhaps it is inevitable that the humble, mediocre
natures, because they never run any risks, never aim at
the heights, should remain to a large extent safe from
error, while in great natures their very greatness spelis
danger. Notindeed that Lam ignorant of this second
point, that whatever men do is always inevitably
regarded from the worst side: faults make an in-
eradicable impression, but beauties soon slip from our
memory, Ihave myself noted a good many faulis in
Homer and the other greatest authors, and though
these slips certainly offend my taste, yet 1 prefer
to call them not wilful mistakes but careless over-
sights, let in casually almost and at random by
the heedlessness of genius. In spite, then, of these
faults 1 still think that great excellence, even if
it is not sustained throughout at the same level,
should always be voted the first place, if for nothing
else, for its inherent nobility, Apollonius, for
instance, in his Argonautica is an impeceable poet
and Theccritus—except in a few extraneous matters
—is supremely successful in his pastorals. Yet
would you not rather be Homer than Apollonius ?
And what of Eratosthenes º in his Erigone? Wholy
à Versatile scholar of the third century s.€., who wrote
history, geography, astronomy, literary criticism, and other
poems besides the elegy here mentioned.
eiy
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

5 é ri" Hpryóvy (Bid mdvrwv yáp duciumrov 7ô moun-

páriov) "Apytádyou moAÃ Kai dvoreovóumra mapa-
oúpovros, xdreims ris êxBoxis 108 Samoviou
mveduaros dv úrô vóuor ráéa, dvckoÃov, dpa d)
mello momris; v48'; év uédeo: poor àp efvas
Banyvidys éXoro 7) Ilivôapos «ai é rpaypdia
"luv 6 Kios 7) ») Ála BopoxAis; exe) oi per
aBidarero. Kai é td yÃaduph mdvrm renal
vpaguuévos, O dé Ilivôapos wai à BopoxAiis óre per
El a À EA , r Ee SA 1

oiov mávra exupléyovor rj dopã, oBévrvrros 8

dAdyws moAAdris «al mimtovow druyéorara. 1)
oúdeis dv ed Ppovóv évôs Bpúparos, Tod Oidimodos,
eis raúrô ouvbeis rá “Iuvos dururunhoarro éEfs.
34. Ei 5 dplui, um) TO meyéder Kpivorro Tá
raropbouara, ourews dv ral mepiôns TO mari
mpoéyor Anuoobévovs. Eoriy yãp abrob sodv-
demórepos mai mhciovs Gperós Exwr, nai oxedor
Úmarpos é mão ws O mévraldos, dore TCdv ev
mpurelwv év dimrao: Tv dAdwv dywviaróv Aei-
emecba, mpwredey Sé TV IST. O uév ye
mor, Vrepiôys mpôs rp mávra EEw ye Ts cuvbécems
gupeiodas rã Amuocõévera raropêciuara Kal Tás
Avorarôs x meperrob mepreiânder áperás Te ral
xápiras: meo vãp Aaei Hera úpedeias, Eva Xp,
Kai od múvra éfis Kal mgovorórus, «is O Anuo-
cbévms Aéyerar, TO TE NÚLKOr Exei pero, yAveiTnTOS
vi Ata” Arrôs epnduvópieror: dparoi re mepi avróv
1») Ala Richards for qdo P.

2 Lit. ill-arvanged, undigested matter.

* Bach of the five contests of the Pentathlon would
doubtless be won by a different specialist, but the all-round
220
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxxm. 5-xxxyv. 2

blameless as the little poem is, do you therefore

think him a greater poet than Archilochus with all
the manifold irrelevance” he carries on his flood;
greater than those outbursts of divine inspiration,
which are so troublesome to bring under any rule ?
In lyries, again, would you choose to be Bacehylides
xather than Pindar, or in tragedy Ton of Chios rather
than (save the mark !) Sophocies? In both cases the
former is impeceable and a master of elegance in
the smooth style. On the other hand Pindar and
Sophocles sometimes seem to fire the whole land-
scape as they sweep across it, while often their fire
is unaccountably quenched and they fall miserably
fiat. Yet would anyone in his senses give the single
tragedy of Oedipus for al) the works of Ion in a row?
34, If excellence were to be judged by the number
of merits and not by greatness, Hypereides would then
be altogether superior to Demosthenes. He has more
strings to his lute and his merits are more numerous.
He may almost be said to come a good second in every
competition, like the winner of the Pentathlon. In
each contest he loses to the professional champion,
but comes first of the amateurs” Besides re-
producing al the virtues of Demosthenes, except
his skill im arrangement, Hypereides has, moreover,
embraced all the merits and graces of Lysias. He
talks plainly, where necessary, does not make all
his points in a monotonous series, as Demosthenes
is said to do, and has the power of characterization,
seasoned moreover (Heaven knows)by simplicity and
charm. Then he has an untold store of polished
athlete who was second in esch contest would win the
ie “ composition” ín the sense in which art-critics use
the word,
221
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

ciow doreionoi, uurrdp molitiucóraros, edyérera,

Tô xará tás eipeuveias elndAmorpor, cxdupara
cx duovoa ovo” dviywya, xarã rode "Arricods
êxeivous dhas! émuxeipevra, dracupjós Te emdeELOS
Kai moÃd vô KowpuKÓv Kal ueTO madiãs edoróxou
révrpoy, dpuiunrov dé eimeip TO év não, ToúToMS
êmabpóbirow olxricanõal Te mpocóvécraros, Ext
Sé uuboloyioa rexupéros Kai év dypú mveúnar
Biegodedoar, érs edxajumis dxpws, corep duédes
rã juêv mepi riy AnTo momriirepa, rôr O égt-
rápiov êmdeceriKds, cs ob oid ei TiS dos,
3 Siédero. à de Aquoodérms dvgfomointos AdLáyvros,
nora úypós 1 Emideuerucós, dardvrey és ródv
mpocpnuéve» Karã TO mAcov dmoipos, évda quer
veloios efvaz Prdlerar Kai doreios, oU védwra
sivel pãAÃov 7) Karayedâras, ôrav ds eyyitew BéAn
rO êmixapis elvar, Tóre mAdor âpioraras. Tó yé
mor mepi Dpúvms 7) "Alyvoyévous Aoyidior Emiyery-
cas ypúgem Er; peMov dv Trepiônv auvéornger.
LA emerdúmep, oimas, Tá per Barépor xKadá, nai
ei moMa ôuws dueyéln, KapSin vúgporros dpyã nai
rôv dxpoariv dpejeiv édivra (oúdeis voir Ymepi-
mv drayiwdoruwv doBeirar), O dé éubev Exa rod
Heyodopueorárov xai ém dxpor dperás ouvrere-
mov. Acguévas, Ulmyopias rTóvor, eupuxa mály, mepr-
avoiar dyxivorar ráxos, évla dm) raiprov,;* rir daracey
1 das Tucker for daN P,
2 valor Richards for vópior P,
s In his Deliacos, in which he upheld Athens” claim to
the presidency of the Delian temple.
* A copy of the speech against Athenogenes was dug up
in Egypt in 1888. The defence of Phryne, famous for the
story of her disrobing in court, is lost,
R22
 ON THE SUBLIME, wuav. 2-4

wit, urbane sarcasm, well-bred elegance, supple

turns of irony, jests neither tasteless nor ill-bred,
apposite according to the best models of Attic wit,
clever satire, plenty of pointed ridicule and well-
directed fun, and therewithal what I may call an
inimitable fascination. Nature endowed him fully
with the power of evoking pity and also of telling
a tale fiuently and winding his way through a
description with facile inspiration, while he is also
admirably versatile. His story of Leto, for instance,
is highly poetical and his Funeral Oration an almost
unsurpassed example ofa show piece. Demosthenes,
on the other hand, has no gift of characterization
or of fueney, is far from facile and no show orator.
Speaking generally, Re has no part in any one of
the merits we have just mentioned. When he is
forced into attempting a jest or a wiity passage,
he rather raises the laugh against himself; and when
he tries to achieve something like charm, he is
farthex from it than ever, If he had tried to write
the little speech on Phryne or Athenogenes,» he
would have recommended Hypereides still further
to our praise. But nevertheless I feel that the
besuties of Hypereides, many as they are, yet
lack grandeur; they are dispassionate, born of
sober sense, and do not trouble the peace of the
audience. No one, for instance, is panic-stricken
while reading Hypereides. But Demasthenes no
sooner “takes up the tale” º than he shows the
merits of great genius in their most consummate
form, sublime intensity, living emotion, redundance,
readiness, speed—where speed is in season—and
* A Homerie phrase used of one minstrel taking up the
tale where the other dropped it.
288
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

dmpógirou Sewórura «ai dUvaiv, émeid) taúra,

mpi, cds deómepmra derva dwpijuara lo vãp
eimeiv Bepuurorv drôpcómeva.) dbpéa és éavrór êoma-
ceu, dá rodro ole Exes radois dmavras dei vurg Kal
úrép div olx éxes morepei raraBpovrê ob raras
déyyer rods dar” alvos prropas: xai Bárrov dy
TIS Kepauvois deponévors dpyravolêor vã Supera
Súvarro 7) dvroçpladuijoa. rois éradAjÃos éxeivou
mádeow.
35. "Emi pévror rod IlAdrawvos ral dAAy tis
Cory, os Ebmv, Srapopd. od ydp peyéder rap
dperôdy dA Koi Tó mAjõer moAd Aeumópevos adrod
Avoias ôjuws mAeiov Eri Tois duapripagw mepir-
reles 9) vais dperais Aeimeras. ri mor! ody eibov oi
to

icóbeo. êxeivor Kal Tódv peyiorwr Exopeéámevor Tijs

cuyypadis, TS É é» dmaow dxpiBeias dmepdporj-
corres; pôs moAÃois dAhos éxeivo, Ori 1 gúois
o ramewor juãs lmov odd dyeveês Expive róv
dvBpwmov, GA ts eis jueydAmo vá marfyupw
eis rôv Bio» xai eis Tôv ouuavra. Kócuov Erdyovca
deorás tuwas vTr dAwv abrfs écondvovs «ai
drorimordreus dywrorás, edbds dpaxov Epwra
evéducer úpuidv vais buyais mavrós dei Tod peydÃou
3xai os mpôs juãs dopoviwrépov, Biórep TH
Bempia rai duavoia ss dvOpomrivns émBodijs ova”
ô cúumos xóguos dprei, GAMA Kai rods rod mepr-
sore. éxovros molAdris ôpous Exfaivovom ai éxrivorar
Kai eb Tis mepiBAcaro év xúrxhgp vóv Biov, óce 6
Ador exe
E Tô mepirrov é» vão Kal péyo Kai Kadu,
é raxéws eloerar mpós & yeydvaiev. êvdev dugucáis
224,
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxxrv. 4-yxxv. 4

his own unapproachable vehemence and power:

snatching into his arms all the wenlth of these
mighty, heaven-sent gifts—it would be impious to
call them human—he thus by those beauties that he
has invariably defeats all comers, and to make up
for those he lacks, he seems to dumbfounder the
world's orators with his thunder and lightning. You
could soonexr open your eyes to the descent of a
thunderbolt than face unwinking his repeated out-
bursts of emotion.
35. There is, as 1 said,º a further point of difference
in the case of Plato. Lysias is far inferior both in
the greatness and the number of his merits ; and the
excess of his faults is still greater than the defect
of his merits. What then was in the mind of those
demigods who aimed only at what is greatest in
writing and scomed detailed accuracy? Among
many other things this, that Nature has distinguished
man, as à creature of no mean or ignoble quality.
As if she were inviting us rather to some great
gathering, she has called us into life, into the whole
universe, there to be spectators of all that she has
made and eager competitors for honour; and she
therefore from the first breathed into our hearts
an unconquerable passion for whatever is great and
more divine than ourselves. Thus within the scope
of human enterprise there lie such powers of con-
templation and thought that even the whole universe
cannot satisfy them, but our ideas often pass beyond
the limits that eming us. Look at life from all sides
and see how in all things the extraordinary, the greht,
the beautiful stand supreme, and you will soon realize
the object of our creation. So it is by some natural
& See chapter xwxii.
a2s
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

ms dyógevor pá AU od Tá pucpã peiôpa Pav

a EA A 4 7 + A Cm, +

Loper, ei xai deavyt) rob xpjousa, 4AMa róv Neihoy

nai “Lorpov 7 Pírov, motd 6º é gov TOv
“Dreavóv, ovdé ye TO OP dudv rovri pÃoyior
dvaraógevov, êrei «abapor aqúbler TO déyyos,
êxmAnrróueda Tv oupavicv uEMÃov, kairos 10A-
Adeis emororovuéruv, ovde Tv vis Altas
rparipwr dEobavpaorórepor vopilonen, ds a
dvaxoal mérpous Te é BuloD «ai dÃous ôxBouvs
dvapépovor «ai morapds êviore 108 yuyevoõs
Exeivou Kai avroô púóvou mpoxéova mupós. AA
e

êni vv rorirwy ardurwv éxei” dy elmoer, cos

cumópurov per dvbparmors TO xpeúdes 7) Kai
dvayratov, Pavpacror 8 ôuus dei TO mapddogor.
86. Odiodv êxi ye TCdv Ev Adyois peyaloduor, Ep”
dv odxér” êfw tis xpelas Kai cpeleias minre
rô péyedos, mpocrrei ovvbempeir abróber, óru rod
dvapaprirou mohy dpeoródres oi TnALkodTOL Oucus
mdvres eloiv éxdvw rod Ovnrod! Kal rá pev da
Tods ypwpévous dvbpamous exéyyer, vô 5º úfos
évyis aipet peyudobposóvys Beod. «oi Tô êv
daresror ou fheyerar, 70 péya d€ «cai Bavudierar.
vi xph mpôs Tobrois êrs Aéyemy cos exelwr Tv
to

dvôpod» Exuoros dwravra rã opdAgara évi eE-

cveirar mwoMAdais ie. ral Karoplcnar, mui vó
201 v. Kupubraror, cs, el ye exAééos vá “Ounpou, rá
Amuoodévovs, vã IlAdrewros, véiv Amy doa 8)
Hépiuro. vaparrópnara sávra duóce cuvalipoi-
gerev, eAigrorov dv rt, pãAÃov 8º otde moMhoormud-
prov dv eúpebeim váiy exeivors Trois fpwor marra
noropfovpévarv. did rad0! O más alrois air rob
Bios, ob Buvápieros: dmô rod dBórou mapavoias
286
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxxv. &-xxxvr. 2

instinct that we admive, surely not the small strearas,

clear and useful as they ave, but the Nile, the Darube,
the Rhine, and far above all, the sea. The little
fire we Eindle for ourselves keeps clear and steady,
yet we do not therefore regard it with more amaze-
ment than the fires of Heaven, which are often
darkened, or think it more wonderful than the
craters of Etna in eruption, hurling up rocks and
whole hills from their depths and sometimes shooting
forth rivers of that pure Titanic fire. But on all such
matters | would only say this, that what is useful
and indeed necessary is cheap enough ; it is always
the unusual which wins our wonder.
86. In dealing, then, with writers of genius, whose
grandeur is of a kind that comes within the limits of
use and profit, we must at the outset form the con-
clusion that, while they are far from wmerring, yet
they are all more than human. Other qualities prove
their possessors men, sublimity lifts them near the
mighty mind of God. Correciness escapes censure :
greatness eavns admiration as well, We need hardly
add that each of these great men again and again
redeems all his mistakes by a single tonch of
sublimity and true excellence ; and, what is finally
decisive, if we were to pick out all the faulis
in Homer, Demosthenes, Plato and all the other
greatest authors and put them together, we should
find them a tiny fraction, not the ten-thousandth
part, of the true excellence to be found on every
page of these demi-gods. That is why the judgement
of all ages, which no jealousy can prove to be amiss,
º As the grandeurs of Nature, e.g. volcanoes, do not.
aa7
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
as
dAdrar, ,
depor 5.4
dmédwrer TA , vucnTipia
, 1»
va
vôv dvapaipera pulárres Kai Eciue tnpúoem,
; Kai dxps
dor àv Ubwp Te pén rui dévôpea pampa redijAn.
a mpôs pévrOL YE TÔv ypágovra, cds O rohoodos d
dpaprnnévos ob xpeirrwv 7) 6 [ovadeirou dopu-
óópos, mapúxeirar wpôs modÃois <dMÃors> elietu,
órs Emi uév téxuns Ouvpáleros TO depiBéoraror,
êmi Sê vv pucucdv Eoywv vó uévelos, quos dé
Aoyuedv O dvbpwmos: ndmi er dvôpidvrav Enteirar
rô porov dvBparmep, Eri Dé Tod Adyou Tô Umepaipor,
4 ds Eb», TA dvbpomima. mpoojrei 5 ôues (áva-
ráumter yêp êmi ty dpydv Puiv voD úrouríuaros
à mapaíveois), Emei) TÊ ev ddidinTwror ws êmi
Tô mokd réus êori raróplewpna, Tô O év Umepoxi
mAjv ody óuórovov peyalopuias, Bojbqua vi
gúge. mávrn mapilecda. vjv réxunvo À yãp dAAm-
Aouyia vob tows yévorr” &p TO réÃeiov. Tovaira
iv dvayralor úrép vódp mporedéveewr Emcpivas
creuudtov: yapérw O êxmoros ols ijderar.
37. Tais dé uerapopois verrridom (êmaviréor
ydp) oi smapaBohoi Kai eixóves, exelim quávor
mopaddarrovoal «
202 r. 38... coro: Kai ai rosabral: “el ui) rdv éy-
Kébador év vais mrépvais raramenarnnévor bopeire.”
Brómep eidévos xp?) TO péxpr vob mapoprréov éxa-
crov Tô y&p eviore mepairépmw mpoermimreim dvapel
* Quoted in Plato, Phacdrus, 264. c, as part of an epitaph
said to have been written for Midas.
» This statue by the great fifth-century seulptor was
regarded as a canon of the true proportion. The statement
is probably in Cecilius's treatise, * See chapter
228
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxxvr, soy. 1

has awarded them the crown of victory, guarding

it as their inalicnable right, and is likely so to
preserve it,
So long as the rivers run and the tall trees fourish in green
As to the statement that the faulty Colossus is
no better than Polyeleitus's spearman;? there are
many obvious answers to that. In art we admire
accuracy, in nature grandeur; and it is nature that
has given man the power of using words. Also
we expect a statue to resemble a man, but in
literature, as I said before, we look for something
greater than human. However, to come back again
to the doctrine with which we began our treatise,
since the merit of impeccable correciness is, generally
speaking, due to art, and the height of excellence,
though not sustained, to genius, it is proper that art
should always assist Nature. Their co-operation
may thus result in perfection. This much had to be
said to decide the questions before us. But everyone
is welcome to his own taste.
37. To return to metaphors. Closely akin to
them are ilustration and imagery. The only
diferenceis. ..
[Two pages of the ms. are here lost.)
88... .? Laughable also are such things as “If
vou do not carry your brains trodden down in your
heels."* One must know, then, where to draw the
line in each case. The hyperbole is sometimes
º The mutilated word is assaumed to be sarayédacro.
Longinus has returned to the topics from which he digressed
towards the end of chapter xxxii,, where the comparison
of Plato and Lysias led to the discussion of faulilessness
and genins, just concluded, The as. resumes with the
discussion of hyperbole, * See Add, Note, p. 254.
229
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
ei ôrreppodip Kal rã, Torira dmeprewógeva
XadáraL, éo6" óre. “dé «ai eis Vmevaveuhoeis divri-
2 mepúoraras. O voBv Toowpárns our cio” óreus
maidos mpáyua esabev Sã rijv Tod mávia avém-
TLRÉDS eBéNem Népew fiiorquiav. êoTu pév yap
dmóbeos abr TOD marmyupucod Aóyou, «bs 1%
“Abipvaidey módus vais eis TodS “EMras edep-
yeciaus úmepBdAer ri Aaredoovicwr, éé E eúbds
é» 7) eiofBoA vadro, vibgowm “ Emei? oi Aóyos
rogaúrnr exovas ôuvaguy, cab” oióv 7º elvar rai rá
peyóda vamewa moijoa mai Tois puepois arepu-
Beivar puéyedos Kai TA Tata, ravds eixeiv «ai
mepl rédv vemorl veperquévey ãpxaiws BieADeiy *—
oúody, gmoi ris, oóxpares, oUrws pédheis mai rá
mepi Aaredamoviwr mai "Alyvalwv êvalhárrem;
cxsd0v yáp TO Tó» Adywr dyxúuiov âmorias tis
Ka” abroi trois dxodovor mapdyyedua Kat mpootucav
3 EgéOmner. uimor odv dprra ródv UmepBodr, cs
Kai émi rOv oxnudrw» mpoelmonev, ui adró Todro
deadaviávovoas Oru eioiv drepfBodai. piveras dé ró
roióvde, êmerday ôo êxmabeis geyéder Tui our
expwvidura meprorácemws, Omep O Dovrvdidns em é
Têv év Bucedia SOerpopévey mort. oi ze vão
202 v. Rvparoúoror, " ducto, o êmnarafidvres rods é TD
moraud uúlOTO copalov, rob 70 VBmp cúbds
diéblapro, SAX oudev focor émivero 9uod 2)
mA parapévor Kai cois moMois em, dr mept-
Háxmrov. P géqua od nor Tivópeva. ôpuems elva
mepidynra Eri movel migTor % rob máBovs éômepoxi)
Kal mepioraois. rob zê “HpoBóreror em códv éu
4 Oeppomúdais ôporav. “ev robrm” gyoiv “dAeto-

230
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxxvrrm. 1-4

ruined by overshooting the mark. Overdo the

strain and the thing sags, and often produces the
opposite effect to that intended. For instance
Isocrates fell into unaccountable puerility through
his ambition to amplify everything. The theme
of his Panegyrio is that Athens surpasses Sparta in
her benefits to Greece. But at the very coutset e
he puts this: “ Moreover words have such power
that they can make great things humble and endue
small things with greatness, give a new guise to
what is old and describe recent events in the style
of Jong ago”-— Why Isocrates,” says someone,
“do you intend by this means to change the rôles
of the Spartans and the Athenians?” For his
praises of the power of words have all but published
a prefatory advertisement to the audienee that he
himself is not to be believed, Perhaps then, as
we said above of figures,* the best hyperbole is the
one which conceals the very fact of its being a
hyperbole. And this happens when it is uttered
under stress of emotion to suit the circumstances
of a great crisis, This is what Thucydides does
in speaking of those who perished im Sicily. “For
the Syracusans went down and began to slaughter
chiefly those in the river. The water was im-
mediately tainted but none the less they kept on
drinking it, foul though it was with mud and gore,
and most of them were still ready to fight for it.” e
That a drink of mud and gore should yet be worth
fighting for is made credible only by the height of
the emotion which the circumstances arouse. Tt is
the same with Herodotus's description of those who
fought at Thermopylae. “On this spot,” he says,
S Poneg. 5 8. ? See chapter xvii. * Thue. vii. 84,
281
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

pévous Hoxaipnow, (Soous aréd era êróyxavor

meproÚGaL, Kai xepoi Kal orógao. Karéxwcar ob
BápBapor.” enradB”, oiév éort TÔ mai orójiaor
udxecha: pôs comiiauévors Kai ómolóv qi TO
rarosexóoba, Bekeciy, épeis, mAjy úmolws Exet
wioru" od yãp Tô npâyua évera vis dmepBonis
mapalauBáveodas Soxei, ) ÚmepBoM) 3 edhdyams
vervãoda: mpôs Tod mpáyuaros. or ydp, «Ds
o

oú Siadeiro Aéymwy, mavros roduiuaros Aerrucol

Adois Kai maváreé TES TA Exyos ExorTácems Epya
Koi vóby. ô0ev Kai Tá mewpuca raitom eis &-
meoriay êxmimrovre mibavã did Tó yeÃoior
dypóv éoy” exdrro yiy êxovr! Emorodis.
Kai vp à yédws mábos év pdovj. aé 3º drepBoai
fan]

rabdsmep êmi TO petlov, odTeus mai Emi TobÃarrov.

eme) xowôv dpois 7) êmiraors: Kai mws O Siam
cupuôs Tameórnrós cor adénois.
89. EH qéumey moipa vó» cuvrelovedy eis TO
Ea
únbos, dv2 ye év». dpyf
3 A 194
mpoúléueda, HAS em
€0º f
rjuty Aeimera,
rpdriore, | Om" Tdv Adv abrir” grotd, cúvleois.
úrép Às é Buciy dmoxpovros dmodedwnáres cuv-
28» ráyuacim, dou ye ris Dewplas dy duiv Epuerá,
rogoiror éE dváyrms mpocbeimper du elo my
mapoicar Umódeom, cos oU uóvor éori qrerois
Kai fdovis 1) douovia quoicov drbprmrors dAlA Kai
Heyalmyopias Kai mábous Bavpacróv ri Bpyavor.
20% vãp adlos pév eutiônciv uva srdBm Trois drpom-
gévors «al olov Ergpovas ral ropuBavriaonod
mivipeis Gmoredei, Kai Bdow evôods riva pubjoo
1 3% Rohde for dó P. ? atrôp Richards for atry P.
“ Herod. vii. 225, * Chapter viii,
232
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxxvim. a-xexrx, 2

“while they defended themselves with daggers,

such as still had daggers left, and with hands and
teeth, they were buried by the barbaxians.Ӽ Here
you may well ask what is meant by actually “ fighting
with teeth ” against armed men or being “ buried *
with missiles; yet all the same it carries credence,
because Herodotus does not seem to have introduced
the incident to justify the hyperbole, but the hyper-
bale seeras the natural outcome of the incident. AsT
am never tired of saying, to atone for a daring phrase
the universal specific is found in actions and feelings
that almost carry one away. Thus, too, comicexpres-
sions, though they go so far as to be incredible, yet
sound convincing because they are laughable:
His field was briefer than a Spartan's letter,
Laughter indeed is an emotion based on pleasure.
Hiyperbole may tendo belittle as well as to magnify :
the common element in hoth is a strain on the facts.
In a sense too satire is an exaggeration of pettiness,
39. Of those factors of sublimity which we specified
at the beginning” one still remains, good friend—
1 mean the arrangement cf the words themselves
in a certain order. On this question T have in two
treatises given a sufficient account of such conclusions
as 1 could reach, and for our present purpose I
need only add this, that men find in melody * not
only a natural instrument of persuasion and plea-
sure, but also a marvellous instrument of grandeur
and emotion. Docs not the flute, for instance,
induce certain emotions in those who hear it?
Does it not seem to carry them away and fill them
with divine frenzy ? It sets a particular rhythmie
º See Additional Note, p, 254.
238
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

mpôs vabrgy drayrdle Paive é Poor nai

cureéoporwtodas TO qédes Tor depoarir, dy
duovoos 7) mavrárao; Kai v7) Alo plóyyor rdápas,
oudév darhs anpaivorres, Tais TOv fywr pera-
Bodais Kai 77) mpôs dAMjÃovs xpoúcer ral jigei TÃS
cuupuvias Povpacrêr emdyovor molhdris, «Ss
êniorages, BéXyyrpov (xairo: vradra elôwÃa Kai
e“

piujuara vóda ori medoos, obxi tis dvôpweias

Gúgems, ds Epmv, Evepyjuara yrjoia), odx olópeda
8º &pa vip cúvbeow, dpuoviar Tivô olcar Adyey
dvBpesrors êupúror ral ris buxis adris, oUxi Ts
droijs uóms epumronévur, moidas riwotcar
idéas Orouárur vojoewmy mpayuárev ráMovs
cúueÃeias, mdvrwv uir evrpópmwv xai cryyerôp,
xol duo Th pites Koi molvpopóia tv covriis
dOdyywv TO mapecrós TO Aéyovri mádos eis rãs
fuyxas rôv médas maperodyovony Kai eis perovoiar
aúrod rods dxovovras dei radiorâcar, 7) TE TEDV
Adécwy êmoucoBoujve. rà peyédy cuvapuólovoar,
& aúródv rolrwv enheiv re ÓoU ral impôs dymor
ve roi délwpa ral úbos Kai mãv év aúri) mepi-
mv. Aoubdver noi Buôs exdorore ouvôiaridévas, mav-
roles muy ris Biavolas êmparooar; GAN ei ,
nos pavio TO mepl TP obrews dpoÃoyoupérey Bra-
mopeiv (dmoxpioa yap À meia miaris), WnAdr yé
mou Boxei vógua Kai Cori TO dvri Oavudoroy,, É
os

vô bmplonar, à Ampoofévas êmipépe. “rodro rô

fibra tó» Tóre tj) mode. meprordvra «ivôuvor
mapendeiv éxoincer domep vépos," GAN adrijs ris

a Dem. De corona, 188. The passage follows that

mentioned in chap. x. (p. 78) in which Demosthenes vividly
284
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxxix, 2-4

movement and forces them to movein rhythm. The

hearer has to conform to the tune, though he may be
utterly unmusical, Why, the very tones of the harp,
themselves meaningless, by the variety of their
sounds and by their mutual pulsation and harmonious
blending often exercise, as you know, a marvellous
spell. Yet these ave only a bastard counterfeit of
persuasion, not, as E said above, a genuine activity of
human nature. We hold, then, that composition, which
is a kind of melody in words—-words which are part
of man's nature and reach not his ears only but
his very soul—stirring as ít does myriad ideas of
words, thoughts, things, beauty, musical charm, all of
which are born and bred in us! while, moreover, by
the blending of its own manifold tones it brings into
the hearts of the bystanders the speaker's actual
emotion so that all who hear him share in it, and by
piling phrase on phrase builds up one majestic
whole-—ye hold, 1 say, that by these very means it
casts a spell on us and always turns cur thoughis
towards what is majestic and dignified and sublime
and all else that it embraces, winning a complete
mastery over our minds. Now it may indeed seem
lunacy to raise any question on matters of such
agreement, since experience is a suflicient test, yet
surely the idea which Demosthenes attaches to his
decree strikes one as sublime and truly marvellons :
“This decree made the peril at that time en-
compassing the country pass away like as a cloud.” *
describes the alarm caused by Philip's capture of Elateia in
889 .c. The decree, passed on Demosthenes' motion, pro-
vided for naval and military action against Philip and, more
important slill, for reconciliation with Thebes. Demostbenes
served on the embassy to Thebes, and an alliance was made,
and a joint army formed.
285
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

Siavoias od Edarrov 77) Opuovia mepevnras. dor

Te vãp éri róv darrulicôy eloyrar publi, ebyevé:
araror 3” obror rui pepebomosoí, do Kai TO úpidor
dv lopev KáMiorov uérpov oumorêo [ró re
êmeirorye é ris idlas adro xcpas gerádes ósal
dm eDédeis “rodro vô fúdina aa womep vébos
émoinos Tóv róre «ivôuvor mupeAdeiv, nm Alia
utav dmóxopor cvMhaBir uóvor “ érolmos map-
eAlciv cos vébos,” «al eium, mócov j dpuovia TÊ
der ouvmyst. adrô vãp Tó “ domep vépos” ém
paxpoS rod mpewrouv pvBuoo Béfinee, rérpao: Kura-
perpovuévou ypóvois: eémpebeions Sé tis iãs
cuAdaBisRr “csA vépos” DE edbdsAN drpwurnpiátes
a mfp
cuyromi Tô péyelos, Os Eua, édv Exerereivas
“arapeAdeiv émoimoev momepei vépos,” 10 adro om-
paíver, ob Tô adrô dé Eri mpoomimres, Orc TA juice
TOv drpov ypóvar ouveridera, rol Siayaddra
tô ifos Tô dmórouov.
40. "Ev Bé vois páltoTO peyedomoi rã Aeyó-
gera, rabámep vã oúuara 7 TOv pedir éxvol-
Decis, iv &r êr ovderv rumbêv dp érépov nal?
éourô dEiódoyor êxer, mávra dé per” dAjAmr éx-
204 . mAnpoi Téletor avoTmua: oúreus TÃ peyúÃa, cre
”

daobérra quêv da” dAAjAmv, dAoo dAMm dua

éavrois cuvôiaçopel cai vô os, cwpuaromotwúgeva
de 77) Kowwvia Kai êrt decuiD tis Appovias tepi-

* If the second syllable of exolnoer is taken as long, there

are two dactyls in the sentence, roiro Tô at the beginning and
Gomep vibis at the end. Longinus seems to regard the
rhythmical effect as dependent upon the position of these,
But he goes on to say that the effect of the last two words is
286
 ON THE SUBLIME, xxvix, 4-x1, 1

But its ring is due no less to the melody than to the

thought. ts delivery rests sholly on the dactyls,
which are the noblest of rhythms and make for
grandew-—and that is why the most beautiful of
all known metres, the heroie, is composed of dactylsé
For to be sure if you transfer it ? anywhere you like
from its proper place-—rotro 7ô fijgbiona dirmep végpos
êmoice iv róre xivôuvor mupeXBeir-—or indeed if you
onky cut off a single syllable—êroínce mapekdeiv ds
végpos-—you will realize how truly the melody chimes
in with the sublimity. Indeed the actual effect of
domep vépos depends on the first “foot” being a
long one, equivalent to four beats. Cut out the
one syllable—ús vépos—the eurtailment at once
mutilates the grandeur. So again if you lengthen
it--rapeddeiv êxvinoer morepel vépos-—the meaning
is the same, but it does not strike the same upon the
car, because the sheer sublimity loses its solidity and
tension by lengthening out the concluding beats.
40. Nothing is of greater service in giving grandeur
to such passages than the composition" of the
various members. It is the same with the human
body. None of the members has any value by
itself apart from the others, yet one with another
tbcy all constitute a perfect organism. Similarly
if these effects of grandeur are separated, the
sublimity is scattered with them to the winds: but
if they are united into a single system and embraced
due to the fact that dasmep is a spondes, two long syllables,
equivalent to four short syilables or four metrica! beats,
»* Tt” seems to refer to the concluding dactyl to which
Longinus attaches special importance. Or perhaps vãos is
omitted after'»ó re, The sense would be the same.
“ ig. the way they are put together, the anatomy of the
sentence,
: 237
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

sicidueva, abr TO Kúrim pwrjevra piverar! rali

a El A

oxcdov év vais mepródoss epavós éort mAijDovs rá

2 epédn. dAa ij Ori ye mOAÃOL Kai cuyypaçémy
Kai otraA obk ôvres úinÃoL púcer, pijtore BE ' icai
dueyédeis, ôuuws Korwois «ai Bmuuideor Trois Ovópgucor
nal oúdéy exayouévors mepursôv «os TÃ mo
cuyxprperos, dia póvou rod curbeivas Kai R dpjócea
a Eni ]

raúra O” ópws ôykov Kai ddornga Kal Tó a)

rameol doreiv elvai meprefidÃovro, Kalámep Aos
- Eq

re moMoi rui Dikioros, "Aproropdvms év TLoLv, é»

1 1 , 2 [4 Eid *

Tois- mheiorois
, ao:
Eipuriôns, Comi ijuiv
ixavéds tia GedrAwra,
,
sperá yé ros viv rexvorroviar “Hpaxhijs duos
véu
Eq
Kaxôv 3) mode
” * A Lou
éo0” LES
ómo, eb.
:4 a

opódpa Omuiddes vô Aeyógeror, GAMA véyover

WlmAd» 7jj mAdoe dvaloyod» ei 8º dAÃws adrô
cuvapuóceis, pavjoeral var, dóri vis ouvbécems
momris é Edpuriôns uãAor dorm 7) Tod vod. êm
406 vis ovponérms úrô rod raúpov Áiprns,
ei dé mou TúxoL
mépiê éxitas, elAxe <mdvb'> duos ABr
yuvalxa mérpar ôpôr peradÂdoowy dei,
Y 1 a 1 y a e 4 1
êori pév vervaiov nai TO Afuna, dôpórepor de
º* A Sicilian historian (fourth century) and an imitator
of Thucydides,
» Her. Fur. 1245. ,
* The sense is doubtful. He seems to mean that common-
place phrases gain grandenr from their position in the whole
passage. A modern critic has said the some about the
line, * Xt all comes lo the same thing in the end,” in
Browning's “ Any Wife to Any Husband.” A common
phrase becomes in thal setting fine.
asr
 ON THE SUBLIME, xL. 1-4

moreover by the bonds of rhythm, then by being

merely rounded into a period they gain a living
voice, In a period, one might say, the grandeur
comes from a multitude of contributors. We have
indeed abundantly shown that many writers both in
prose and poetry, who are not by nature sublime,
perhaps even the very opposite, while using for the
most part current vulgar language, which suggests
nothing out of the common, yet by the mere force
of composition and verbal carpentry have achieved
dignity and distinction and an effect of grandeur ;
Philistus,? for instance, among many others, Aristo-
phanes oceasionally, Euripides almost always. After
the siaughter of his children Heracles says :
1 am stowed full with woes and have no room for more.»

The phrase is indubitably vulgar, yet becomes

sublime by being apt to the setting. Ifyou put the
passage together in any other way, you wilk realize
that Euripides is a poet rather in virtue of his
composition than his ideas, Speaking of Dirce
being torn away by the bull, he says,
And wheresoe'er he chanced
To wheel around, he seized and haled at once
Woman or rock cr oak, now this, now that.é

The idea itself is a fine one, but it gains additional

& Yrom the lost Antiope. Toved by Jupiter, Antiope
Pore two sons, Amphion and Zethus. Later she fell into
the clutches of her uncie Lycus, king of Thebes, and his
«wife Dirce, «who condemned her to be dragged to death by a
bull. Antiope's sons, entrusted. with this execution, dis-
covered that she was their mother, so they killed Lycus and
tied Dirce by her hair to the bull. In this passage the bull
is dealing with Dirce,
280
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

véyove TD TIv dpuoviar ui) nareomedoda. uno”

olov êv dmoxvAlonar, pepeodar, SMA ornprypots
re Exeiy mpôs dAAnÃa Tê drógara Kai EEepeiopara
nv vv xpórwv mpôs édpalor dafeBnnóra jéyedos.
41. Mixpomooiv 5º odder obras é rois úlmÃois
ds pubuôs rexÃaomévos Adywr Kai cecobnuévos,
olov d) uppíxio. Kal tpoxator mai Bixópeos,
Tédeov eis Gpynorikôv ouvermimrontes. eúlde yáp
mávra palverar TO raráppubua «opa sai pucpo-
xapi) xal dmobéorara da tis duosideias em-
molálovra Kai Eri ToúTWwv TO xeiproTov éTL, Bomep
1w

rã dpia Tods dxpoarãs arô rod mpáyuaros

dpélres Kul eb” aúrd Budlerar, ourws xai rà
rareppubuicuévo Tv Aeyopévwr ou TO Tod Nóyou
mábos évôiBwo rois droúovar, rô dé Tod pubuoo,
os eviore mpoeidóras Ts ôpeonévos raradjfeis
adrods úmoxpodew rois Adyovor Kai Pedvovras cds
é» xopód tu mpoamodidóvar vv Báow. dpoiws Sé
3 dueyédy Koi vô Alav ovyreimera Kal eis puxpá Kai
Bpaxyvovldofia ouvpreromuéva Kal cdoavei yónupors
rrody emuhjÃos ar” éyroxãs xal cxAnpórgras
émiovvôedenéva.
42, "Em ye pie Úibous peuvrucor Kai 1) dyav ris
dpdcems avyromy: anpo? vp Tô péyelos, ôrar eis
Alor cuváyyros Bpaxó: axovécdw de vôv ui) rã [od]
Beóvrus! ovveorpanuéva, AA! Boa dvTinpus purpá
2 vê Deórruws Manutius for rê ov deórrws P,

“ He is referring probably to the elesh of consonants

which gives emphasis by delaying pronunciation, thus
produeing an “ austere” effect, The words cannot be run
240
 ON THE SUBLIME, x. 4-x1m. 1
force from the fact that the rhythm is not hurried
along as if it ran on rollers, but the words offer
resistance to each other? and derive support from
the pauses, planting themselves in an attitude of
stable grandeur.
41. Nothing demeans an elevated passage so much
as a weak and agitated rhythm, pyrrhies (».), for
instance, and trochees (=), and dichorees (mo),
which fall into sheer dance-music. For all over-
rhythmical passages at once become merely pretty
and cheap; the effect of the monotonous jingle is
superficial and stirs no emotion. Moreover, the
worst of it is that, just as lyrics? divert the attention
of the andience from the action and forcibly claim
it for themselves, so, too, over-rhythmical prose gives
the audience the effect not oí the words but of
the rhythm. Thus they sometimes foresec the due
ending for themselves and keep time with their
feet, anticipating the speaker and setting the step
asifit were a dance. Equally deficient in grandeur
are those passages which are too close-packed and
concise, broken up into tiny fragments and short
syllables. They give the impression of being roughiy
dovetailed together with close-set pins.
42, Extreme conciseness again has a lowering
effect. The grandeur is mutilated by being too
closely compressed, You must understand here not
proper compression, but absolutely short sentences,
together: each resists the other and claims full room, as
it were, with straddied legs (da Befmxóre).
* On the stage,
* Tie seems to mean that the pauses do not come at the
roper places to give the sentence an organic unity: it is
ke a piece of carpentry not properly jointed but ronghly
hammered together with a clumsy crowd of nails.
241
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

Kal KaTaKEREpRaTIONÊVO: CUYKOT) Ev VÃp KodoveL

2óv voêv, auvronia 8º em” edbU. Bihov O cos eumadm
rã exridnv dmóbuxa, dre map” drapor uíjxos
dvaxalcueva.
43, Aew? 5º aloxôvar Tô peyéd ral 9 pucpórms
vv dvondrer. mapa yoir rp Hpodóre rara per
sor vó Mupara Supuoviws O vezudr méppaoras, TuvA
Sé vm) Alia mepiéxer tis VANS ddofórepa, Kai roxo
pév loms “ Leodons dé ris Daddoons," ds vó “ Le-
adons” moAd Tô Uhos mepromrã, Sã TO Kaicóoropor,
MA “dó dvequos” dnciv “ exomiagev,” Kai “rods
mepi zô vaváyrov ôpacvonévovs égedéxero Tédos â-
xapr” doeuvov yãp TO momácas iBuurinov <ôv,>
Tô 8 dyxdprrov nikxovToy málovs dyoreetov.
2ôpoiws ral ó Qeómoumos úreppvis crevdoas
ri» vo8 Iépoov raráBaom ém Aiyvnrov dvo-
mariors roi TÃ dha diéBaev. “mola vãp móMis
motor ébvos ródv Karã riy " Aciav ode exprofedero
mpôs Bacihéa ; TÉ dé Tédv dk TÃS VS pevrmpéver
% róv rarã véxunv emuredovpévor Kad 7) ruuicor
obic êxopuiaôn dópov cs abrov; od moMÃal uér
Kai movredeis -oTpwpval xa yAavides, TA er
dAovpyi, Tà dé moura, rã Sé Aevxá, moMai dé
CKnvaL xpucal KarTecrevaonévor mão: vols xpm-
cimois, molÃaL dé «ai Evorides Kai rAivar todv-
redeis; éri DE mai KoiÃos dpyupos «ai xpvoos
dmerpyaauévos sal êxmiúuara roi aporipes, dy
rods uév MPoxodkirovs, tods 3" dAkos depibs
Kai molvredds eldes dy exmemormudvous. mpós dé
2 dire map' Toup for rã vyàp P: druxandpera Toup for
dryaxadoipea P,

asa
 ON THE SUBLIME, xe. 1-=xm. 2

the small change of literature. For extreme concise-

ness cripples the sense : true brevity goes straight to
the point. Conversely, it is plain that prolix passages
are lifeless ; their undue length makes them drag.
43. The use of trivial words has a terribly debasing
effect on a grand passage. The storm, for instance,
in Herodotus is, as far as the ideas go, wonderfully
described, but it includes certain things which are,
Flenven knows, beneath the dignity of the subject.
One might instance perhaps “ the sea seething “:s
the word “ seething “ is so cacophonous that it takes
off a great deal of the sublimity. But he does worse.
“The wind,” he says, “ fagged,”? and “ For those
who were clinging to the wreck there awaited sn
unpleasing end." o “Flagued” is too colloquisl a
word to be dignified, and “unpleasant ” ill befits so
terrible a disaster. Similardy Theopompus, after
fitting out the Persian King's descent into Egypt in
the most marvellous manner, discredited the whole
description by the use of some paltry words. “ For
hat city or what people of those in Ásia did not
send envoys to the king? What was there of
beauty or of valne whether bom of the earth or
perfected by art that was not brought as an offering
to him? Were there not many costly coverlets
and cloaks, some purple, some variegated, some
white; many parilions of gold furmished with all
things needíul, many robes of state and costly
couches? Then, moreover, there vas plate of beaten
silver and wrought gold, cups, and bowls, some of
which you might have seen studded with jewels
and others embellished by some other means both
cunning and costly. Besides these there were
º vii, 108. *» vii. 191, * viii. 18.
248
 ' DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

roúros dvapifunto. per ômAwv pupiádes ródv qév

“EAAmviódo, róiv Be BapBapuedry, dmepBdAovra dé
Tô mAidos úmolúyia Kai mpôs Karaxomiv iepeia
oirevtá, Kal moMÃoL gêv dprupárwv pédquvOL,
sroMÃoi Be oi BúÃaro Kai odikor Kai xúrpar BoA-
sv. Bv! Kai vv dAdewr dxdrrwr xpnoiumr rocadra
de npéa Terapiyevuéva mavrodamdr iepelov, ds
cwpods aúród» yevécdar tmAucovTous, dote robs
mposióvras móppubev úmodanBáver ôxdous elvar
3 xal Aógous dyrwloupévovs.” ex redv ibnÃorépam
eis 7À ramewórepa dmodpdoxes, déov mowoacdas
riv abéncw êEpmaly dE 7% Oavpaori Ts dAms
mapaoxevis dyyedia mapauitas Tous Guldrovs Kai
Tê dprúuara Kai rã caxxia payerpeiou TivA. Par
raoiar émoinoer. dowep vãp ei rig êm abridy
Exeivar Tó mporocunpárur peraéd Tor ypuciu
Kai AboroAAjTwv sparipwv Kai dpyúpov xoiÃou
cinvôv re dÃoxpÚomr Kai ermwndTv pépuwv péca
eOmnev OuAdria Kai curcia dmperés dv do 1
mpocópe, Tô épyov, obrw Kal vis épunveias TA
rota dvógara aloyn mal oiovel oriypara
4 robiorarar mapa repôv êyrarTararrópeva. map-
éxeiro 5” ds odooxepis emendeiy Kai obs ôx0ous
Adyer cvpBeBAnodo: iai mepi vis dAAms mapaokevis
obrws dAldgas eimeiv Kaujhovs «ai sAijdos úro-
Cuytuv dopraywyodvra» sávra Tá wpós tpupijv
Kai Emódauew vpamelódv vopyyiuara, ) cwpods
dvondoa: movrotwv omeppármuv nai Tv direp dia-
déper mpôs óbomoias sai jlumadelas, 7) cimep
mávres eBoúdero abra Kai pure” Geivas, Kai doa
rpumelorópuwy elsreiy Kai dormondv fovouara. od
5ydp dei raravrãv év trois dpeow eis rá purrapã
Qd
 ON THE SUBLIME, xcum. 2-5

countless myriads of weapons, some Greek, some

barbarian; baggage animals beyond number, and
victims fatted for slaughter ; many bushels of spice,
and many the bags and sacks and pots of edible roots
and of all other things needful; and such a store of
salted meat of every kind that it lay in heaps so
large that those who approached from a distance
took them for mounds and hills confronting them,”
He runs away from the sublime to the trivial, where
he needs rather a crescendo, -As it is, by introducing
bags and spices and sacks in the middle of his
wonderful description of the whole equipage he has
almost given the effect of a cook-shop. Suppose
that in all this elaborate show someone had brought
bags and sacks and set them in the middle of the
gold and jewelled bowls, the beaten silver, the
pavilons of solid gold and the drinking-cups—
that would have presented an unscemly sight. In
the same way the untimely introduction of such
words as these disfigures the description, brands
&, so to speak, with infamy. He might have given
a comprehensive desexiption both of what he calls
the heaped-up mounds and of the rest of the equipage
by altering his description thus, “camels and a
multitude of baggage animals jaden with all that
serves the luxury and pleasure of the table”: or he
might have called them “ heaps of every Kind of
grain and of all known aids to cookery and good
living”: or, ifhe must at all hazards be explicit “ al
the dainties known to caterers and cooks.” One
ought not in elevated passages to have recourse to

wápres BupMwr P.
.- De abrápry obras P,
1% 245
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS
2067. Kai eguBpiopéva, &v pu) opódpa Úmó Tevos dvdyrens
cuvônurcueda, GAMA vódv mpayudrwo mpémo. Op
Kai Tás puvês Exe déias Kai piueiodor vijy Onju-
oupyjoacav Gúow óv dvBpwmor, ris év Wuiv vá
» tia

um rã dmóppnra od Eber é» mpoccwmw oddé

Ta 7oú mavrôs óyxou mepinbiuara, dmexpúfaro dé
ds êviy Kai nor Tv Fevogáivra Tous Tobrcoy
671 mappuráreo ôxerods dméorpedev, oúdani Kar-
6 aroxúvaca Tô rob Chou Edov Káldos.
Z 1
AM yáp mo! FA LA LAÃG A

ode ém' eldovs éxeiyer Tô pixporoá Sexprbpeiv

mpoimodedenyuérov vap Tv doa edyeveis Kai
LA
vlmÃods êpydiera: Tous Adyous, OiÃor «ds Tá
) 3 L 4 z ms €

évavria TOÚTWV TAmELOdS morjoes Karã vô mAciorov

xai doyjuovas.
4. 'Exeivo pévtor Aormor (évexa vis ofs
xpnoropabeias ob dxvijvomer eximpocdeirar) dta-
copiou, Tepevriavê dikrare, ómep elúrncé tus
o 4 + 4 ) E Es

ré» prhocóper pós <éue> Evayyos,

A 4
“Balud 1 E ar ee Lol A 3

Exeo,” Aéymv, “cds duéder nal érépovs moMovs,

ar >> E) toe > / 1 e! L

ms gore Kara Tóv muérepov aiédva midaval per er

dxpov Kai moltrinal, ôpruelai TE kal EuTpexeis, ral
udÃioTa pôs mdovds Adywr cúpopos, vmÃal ôé
! q £ A 4 x” e h] 1

Alaor Kai drepueyébeis, VIA ei ga) 4 amdvior, odkére

veródvras dúgeis. rocuúrm Adyey og pure Tas
2 éméxes róv Bloy dgopia. à) vm) Ai “ ey Cmgrev-
réov êxeivp TO Ppvhoupéveo, cós 9 Inpokparia, ro
HeyáAmy dyab) Tubgvós, 1)7 jóvm vxedou Kai guy
ÁRgacar ob mepi Adyous dewol Kai cuvarélavor;
Ppébasr Te vá, gaoir, dica), zà, Ppovipara ród»
sv HeyaÃobpóvuwr 7) EXevbepia ral EmeAnicas nai âua
248
 ON THE SUBLIME, xr. 5-myv, &

what is sordid and contemptible, except under

pressure of extreme necessity, but the proper course
is to suit the words to the dignity oí the subject
and thus imitate Nature, the artist that created man.
Natuxe did not place in full view cur dishonourable
parts nor the drains that purge our whole frame, but
as far as possible concealed them and, as Kenophon
says; thrust their channels into the furthest back-
ground, for fear of spoiling the beauty of the whole
figure.
There is, however, no immediate need for enumerat-
ing and classifying all the factors of mean style. As
we have already laid down all the qualities that
make our utterance noble and sublime, it obvionsly
follows that the opposite of these will generally
make it trivial and ungainly.
44. One problem now remains for solution, my
dear Terentianus, and knowing your love of learning
1 will not hesitate to append it—a problem which
a certain philosopher recently put to me. “
surprises me,” he said, “as à doubtless surprises
many others too, how it is that in this age of owrs
we find natures that are supremely persuasive and
suited for public life, shrewd and versatile and
especially rich in literary charm, yet really sublime
and transcendent natures axe no longer, or only
very rarely, now produced. Such a world-side
dearth of literature besets our times. Are we really
to believe the hackneyed view thai democracy is
the kindly nurse of genius and that-speaking
generally—the great men of letters flourished only
«with democracy and perished with it? Freedom,
they say, bas the power to foster noble minds
= Mem, i. 4, 6.
E
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

BieADeiy 7Ô mpóduuor ris mpôs dAMjÃovs éprdos Kai

ari mepi vê mpwreia portas. Eri ye pv Bá
ra mpoxeiueva é» Tais molireiors emalda Exdorore
Tê divyuxã mporepúpara rd» Pnrópuv juederepera
drovirar wai olov êxrpiBerar Kai Tois mpayuaos
xará Tô eixôs eNeúbepa cuvexAdumes ot dé vô
êoirauer” Eb “aadopabeis elvar Bovheias d-
raias, trois adrijs édeor nai emndeduaow eÉ
áraAôy Eri hpormudrer móvor obx eveomapyaves-
gévor nal dyevoror Kadliorou Kai vorurTárou
Adywr» vigaros, Tmv edevbepiar” Edy “ Aéym,
diómep oúder Ort ij Kódames êxBaivouev peyado-
aqueis.” Sd rodro TAS per dAÃas cfeis nai eis
oikéras mimreuw Epaarer doDÃor dé undéva yivecdau
Priropa edbds yap dvaleiv Tô drappnoiactor Kai
otov Eubpovpor úrô auvnbeias dei nerovôviLopévou!+
5“ duav ydp 7” dperis * xará vóv OQunpor “ áxo-
aivurar Boúlior qjuap” “ cdomep ody, eb ye” noi
“rodro murróv dor <ô> ârodcw, TA pAwrróroga,
év ois oi muyuaior, aaÃoúuevos dé vôvoL, TpépovraL,
oó uóvor KwAveL Tóv EyenÃcrouévov TOS aúénceis
GAMA sai ovvapato?? did Tou mepixeipevov ros opor
decuóv, obrws dmacav dovheior, Kdv À) duxatorárm,
buys yAwrrórogov ral rowôv dv vis dmodnjvaro
8 decuwripror” éyas pévror ye UmohanBáveor “ pg-
dv,” Edy “A Beédriore, Kai iSiov dvbpurov ró
roranéupeoda: rá del mapóvra: Spa dé, ij more
obx À ris oixovudvys elpivm Seapbeipe: vás peyd-
sorz Aos qúgeis, moh) dé pãAÃov É raréxmr ijuidr vàs
* P has Kexovôviagévor,
2 auraparo? Schmidt for cvrápo: P.
248
 ON THE SUBLIME, xuv. 2-6
and to fill it with high hopes, and with freedom there
spreads the spirit of mutual rivalry and eager com-
petition for the foremost place. Moreover, thanks to
the prizes which a republic offers, an orator's intellec-
tual gifts are whetted by practice, bumished, so to
speak, by friction, and share, as is only natural, the
light of freedom which iluminates the state. Butin
these days we seem to be schooled from childhood
in an equitable slavery, swaddled, 1 might say,
from the tender infaney of our minds in servile ways
and practices. We never drink from the fairest and
most fertile source of literature, which is freedom,
and therefore we come to show a genins for nothing
but flattery.” This is the reason, he alleged, that,
while all other faculties are granted even to slaves,
no slave ever becomes an orator. For his fear of
candour * prompily bubbles to the surface and the
dungeoned air of one ever accustomed to the
cudgel. As Homer says: “ Surely half of our man-
hood is reft by the day of enslavement,"? “ And
so,” my friend adds, “if what I hear is true that
not only do the cages in which they keep the pygmies
or dwarfs, as they are called, stunt the growth of
their prisoners, but their bodies even shrink in close
confinement, on the same principle all slavery, how-
ever eguitable it may be, might well be described
as a cage for the human soul, a common prison.”
However | took him up and said, “ Et is easy, my
good friend, and it is characteristic of human nature
always to find fault with things as they are at the
moment, But consider. Perhaps it is not the
wozld's peace that corrupts great natures but much
“« The lack of free-speceh (rappyola) seemed to the ancients
the greatest evil of slavery. » Od, xvii, 382,
249
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

êmbuplos daepróprros oúrooi módemos xal vi)

Aia mpôs Toúrw Tà fpovpolura róv vêr Blov ai
Kar dxpas ãyorra nai dépovra TavTi mábn. % ydp
drioxpnparia, mpôs iv dmavres dadgoras Om
vocotner, Kal 7 primdovia, dovÃayeuyodor, sãAÃov
Sé, os dy elmo: ris, raraBubilovomr adrávôpous
jên rods Biovs drhapyupia pév vóona pucpo-
mov, dulndovia 8 dyeméorarov. od dm Exmw
Aoyitóueros eúpei», «gs otóv ve mÃoiror Adprror
dxruuijcavras, Tô 8” dAnbéoTepor eimeiv, Exdericav-
vas tê auupui roúrm waxd eis vás fuyds ijuddr
emerordvra ju) mapadéxeodas drohoubei yãp rã
duéTpy mÃoÚTE Kai dicoldore curmpéva Koi ia,
fact, Baivovoa moluréleia «ai âua dyolyovros
éxeivou ródv modem Koi oireay rãs eioddous edbdg!
êmpaiver Kai auvoriteras. xypovicavra dé taúra
é» rolo Bios veorromoLeiraL Kará Tods cobods mai
raxéus yevópeva arepk Tervomoar dÃalóverdy Te
yervidas nai Tópor real mpupi, ou vôda cavrédv
perriuara GAÃO Koi qávu yrjcia. édv é nai
voúrous ris TO mÃobTou Todg Exyórovs eis PALxias
éldeiy caon, Taxéws Beomóras tais fuxais év-
rixTovOW dmaparrirous, ÚBpir mai mapavoiar Kad
8 dyaoyuvrior. vadra yàp obrws drdyen viveodar
Kai umnéri rods dvbpemous draBhérew unde aépo?
diuns elvai riva Aóyov, dAÃA rorobrey év rúRÃ
av. TeEdeciovpyeiodar mar” dAiyov rjv vór Biav Siam
Plopdy, plivem dé Kal rarauapalverdas Tà buyuca
ueyéBm sai dino yivecla., juira vó Ovyrá cav-
tv pépm Kai Samarmrã' exbavpdlorv, mapérres
! ebbis Mathews for eis às P.
2 uma mvépu Manutius for uyô' Erepa DP.
250
 ON THE SUBLIME, xuv. 6-8

rather this endless warfare which besets our hearts,

yes, and the passions that garrison our lives in these
days and make utter havoc of them. Itis the love
of money, that insatiable sickness from which we
all now suíffer, and the love of pleasure that enslave
us, or rather, one might say, sink our lives, soul
and al) into the depths ; for love of gold is a wither-
ing sickness, and love of pleasure utterly ignoble.
Indeed, 1 cannot discover on consideration how, if
wc value boundless wealth, or to speak more truly,
mako a god af it, we can possibly keep our natures
free from its evil parasites. In close company with
vast and unconscionable Wealth there follows, “ step
for step,” as they say, Estravagance : and no sooner
has the one opened the gates of cities or houses,
than the other comes and makes a home there to.
And when thoy have spent some time in our lives,
philosophers tell us, they build a nest there and
prompily set about begetting children; these are
Swagger and Conecit and Luxury, no bastards but
their true-bom issue. And if these offspring of
wcalth are alowed to grow to maturity, they soon
breed in our hearts inexorable tyrants, Insolence
and Disorder and Shamelessness. This must in-
evitably happen, and men no longer then look
upwards nor take any further thought for their
good name. And what is the end of this process?
Step by step the ruin of their lives is completed,
their greatness of soul wastes away from inanition
and is no longer their ideal, since they value that
part of them which is mortal and consumes away,
and neglect the development of their immortal

3 val dararrã Rothstein for xararra P,

251
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

guiéem vabdvara. oU yap êmi Kpícer pév TIS dexa-

obleis ob dv Ery vid» Oixaiwy mai ral» cXeúfepos
ral dis dp rpiris yévoiro (dvdyrm vp TO Swpo-
Bórw vã oixeia pév paiveobar Kahà rat dieaa),
ômou Bê uôdy éxáorou Tods dÃous 407 Blovs Be-
xaopoi BpaBedovor xai dMorpiav Bipar duvárev
Koi évédpar Biabnciy, tô O éx rod mavros Kep-
datveiy esvoduela rijs fuxis ExmorTos mpôs Ts... +
ijvôpamodrouévo., dpa dm) é rj rocaúrm Aowui
rod Biov diaplopã dorodjuer Eri EXedlepór viva rpu-
vip vv pepádwr 7) [ueyádmrv 9)] Sunóvrwry mpôs
róv alva rúdéxacro» dmoÃedeiplos nai pur) Kar-
apxapecidtecdas mpôs ris Tod mAcoverreiv êmim
10 Puplos; dAÃa uújmore rorovrois, oloi ep eauer
úueis, dueror dpyecdar 7) exevbépors eivar: émei-
rowye dpeleica TO cúvodor, cs éÉ eiprrijs Agperoi,
rara Tó mAnoior ai mAcovegias Káv emucAvociar
11 Tofs Kecois Ty oiioupévmr. dAws Be ddrravov Ebnv
eira: ródv vôv yervapévor qúcewv Tv palupiar,
7 mtv CXlywv mápres eyrarafiotner, ot dMms
movovres À) dvalaubdvorres ei um éraivou Kob
nBovijs évera, dAAG um Tijs CjÃov Kal tuuiis déios
iBmorê cpeleios. “wpárioror eixij radr ea,"
émi d6 TO cuveyi) xupeiv: dv Dé radra vá máby,
mepi dv é idip mpomyovpévaus dmreoxópela
ypdbem bmomjnare, O mjv re rob EMov Adyou
no aúrod vob infous poipar exexdrrwv, «ds
TpuLV, ...

à Perhaps rpvps has been omitted here.

252
 ON THE SUBLIME, xiv. 9-12
souls. A man who has been bribed for his verdict
cam no longer give an unbiased and sound judgement
on what is just and fair, for the corrupt judge in-
evitably regards his own interest as fair and just.
And seeing that the whole life of each one of us is
now govemed wholy by bribery and by hunting
after other people's deaths and laying traps for
legacies, and we have sold our souls for profit at
any price, slaves that we are to our luxury, can we
then expect in such a pestilential ruin of our lives
that there is left a single free and unbribed judge
of the things that are great and last to all etemity ?
Are we not all corrupted by our passion for gain?
Nay, for such as we are perhaps it is better to have
a master than to be free. Were we given complete
liberty we should behave like released prisoners,
and our greed for our neighbours” possessions
would swamp the world in a deluge of evils, “in
fact,” 1 said, “ what spends the spirit of the present
generation is the apathy in which all but a few of
us pass our lives, only exerting ourselves or showing
any enterprise for the sake of getting praise or
pleasure out of it, never from the honourable and
admirable motive of doing good to the world.”
““Tis best to leave this to a guess” and pass on to
the next question, which is that of the Emotions,
a topic on which I previously undertook to write
a separate treatise, for they seem to me to form
part of the subject of writing and especially of
sublimity. . ..
[The rest is lost]
* Eur. El. 379,

258
 DIONYSIUS OR LONGINUS

AvnprrionaL Notas

P, 148, * The sense but not the exact words of Genesis 1,

Sand 9, “Theidea of the first and instantaneous appear.
ance of light. . . is sublime; and its primary appeal is to
sense. The further idea that this transcendently glorious
apparition is due to mere words, to a breath, +. . heighiens
enormously the impression of absolutely immessurable
power.“ —A, €. Bradley, Oxford Lectwres on Pocêry, p. 57.
P. 198, * Lit. “to be hung all over with bells,” as some
war-horses wi In [Demosthencs] A ristoreiton 8 NO rúBe-
vas efupdmevos is used of advertising what had better be
concealed. A “figure” should be concealed not advertised,
cf. chapter xvii. 8 1 (sub fin).
P. 207, * Verrall detects a buried iambie line :
ws obTe HAovror dpyvpodr ipuuéror
éiy evoixeip olre de? xproody wóxer
and censures Longinus for not recognizing a quotation intro-
duced by Plato to enrich the passage with literary association,
P. 229, * From the speech entitled Halonnesus (5 45), no
longer attributed io Demosthenes.
P. 283, º ápuovia is a combination of elements in a proper
proportion. In music these elements are treble and base and
the result melody. In writing the composition of clauses,
sentences, paragraphs is a “harmony,” but Longinus is
thinking here rather of the aural effect of good composition,
the melody of words.

Q5d
 DEMETRIUS
ON STYLE

WIIH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY

W. RHYS ROBERTS, Lirr.D.

EMERIXTS PROFESSOR OF CLASSICS IN TUE UNIVERSITY OF LELDS
 INTRODUCTION
Tue date and authorship of the Greek tract “ On
Style ” * are uncertain. But the principles on which
it is based are clearly Peripatetic in origin. The
first authority to be quoted in it is Aristotle, whose
definition of the “ period“ isgivenin$I1. Aristotle's
pupil Theophrastus is quoted in $ 44. Theugh no
definite reference is given in either case, the Third
Book of Aristotle's Rhetorio is certainly meant in 8 11,2
while the lost work of Theophrastus, Ilepi Aéfews,º
is almost certainly meant in $ 41,4 No one who
studies the Ilepi éouaveias carefully, as a whole
and in detail, can well doubt that its ultimate sources,
for substance as distinguished írom framework, are
the Third Book of Aristotle's Bhetoric and the Ilecoi
Ages of Theophrastuse Indebtedness to Stoje
2 Tepi epumvelas, “ Concerning Expression, Style”; De
elocutione.
* Also in 88 34, 38, 81.
s * Concerning Diction, Style” The Third Book of the
Rhetorie, or the main part of it (ce. 1-12), is sometimes called
epi AcEews in Greek writers,
q Also in 88 114, 173, 282,
* Passages in which Demetrius is certainly or probably
indebted to Aristotle and Theophrastus are brought together
in A, Mayer's Theophrasti ilcpl Aéiews libri fragmenta,
Leipzig, 1910. For other Peripatetic sources see 85 34, 57,
181, 228 (with notes). En & 181 the term oi Ilprraryrixoi,
used collectively of writers possessing cumunon character-
257
 DEMETRIUS

writers can sometimes, as in $ 172, be detected or

surmised ; and if the treatise belongs (as will pre-
sently be maintained) to Graeco-Roman times, its
Peripatetic doctrine may have flowed through Stoie
channels.
Demetrius offers no formal definition of Style,
but his general treatment of the subject, and his
own practice, presuppose the Aristotelian conception
of good style, In the Mhetoric Aristotle says:
“ Style to be good must be clear, as is proved by
the fact that speech which fails to convey a plain
meaning will fail to do just what spcech has to do.
E must also be appropriate, avoiding both meanness
and undue elevation ; poetical language is certainly
free from meanness, but it is not appropriate to
prose.Ӽ Aristoile seems here to be adapting to
the needs of prose (oratorical prose especially) the
shorter, but in the main identical, definition found
in the Poctics (c. 22), “ Style to be good must be
clear and free from meanness.” | In prose he distrusts
ornament, though he recognizes that a good prose
style will rise and fall with its subject. Ornament,
he feels, is apt to obscure the meaning and to lead
to fine writing and famboyant speaking ; the diction
of prose is, he declares (Rhet. iii. e. 1 ad fo), distinct
from that of poetry. The key-notes of the definition
in the Rhelorio are, therefore, clearness and fitness,
The former is, with him and with all who followed.
his teaching, a primary essential. Às he says above,
istics of style, seems to point to a late date. The term is not
found in Aristotle's extant works, nor indeed earlier than
the time of Cicero, Some of Demetrins's quotations from
letters attributed to Aristotle may also be taken to indicate
late authorship.
« Arist. Rhet. iii. e, 2, tr. Roberts,
258
 INTRODUOTION

in terms characteristic of his philosophy, “ speech

which does not make the meaning plain will not
perform its own proper mork (pyov, funclionj As
Tor ornament, it will be kept in its place by a sense
of what is fitting—by a good taste which will shrink
alike from excess and defeet.
Waiving for the moment the difteult question of
the origin of the division into those Four Types of
Style under which, as a vague and elastic framework,
Demetrius discusses his subject aíter a short intro-
duction dealing with the structure of rhythmical
sentences, we can ses that in essence he is true to
Aristotle's definition of prose style. In 85 190-205
he enjoins clearness, giving hints for its attainment 3
and, in agreement with Aristotle's distrust of orna-
ment, he feels that clearness can best be compassed
in the pluin style. Bathos and bombast are pilloried
in 88 114 121, 80% The importance of ftness
(appropriateness, good taste) is proclaimed and
exemplfied in 8 6 and throughout. Dis own style,
lke Aristotle's in the Rhetoric, is unpretending and
on the whole clear; it is the customary matter-of-
fact style of the Peripatetic lecturer-—of the man of
science rather than the literary virtuoso.
The origin and growth of the fourfold classification
just mentioned is not, perhaps, of great moment in
this Introduction, except for its bearing on the date,
authorship, and affinities of the treatise; in them-
selves, all such divisions are pedantic if regarded as
in any way absolute and final, But something must
be said; and Aristoile must again be quoted, this
time to show a point of divergence. The origin of
the division of style into certain Types or Characters
(xaparripes) is best studied in connexion with the
259
 DEMETRIUS

Elevated Stylet—the yapaxtip peyadomrperis, the

“ grand ” or “ magnificent ” style, if these adjectives
can in modern English be taken as terms of
praise. In the Rheloric, iii. c. 12, Aristotle says: “To
analyse style (7)v Aééiw) still further, and add that it
must be “agreeable” or 'magnificent” (qbiav «al
peyaomperh), is superfluous; for why should it have
these traits any more than “ restraint,'“ liberality,' or
any other moral excellence (ibovs per)? Obvionsly
agreeableness will be produced by the qualities
already mentioned, if our definition of excellence of
style has been correct. For what other reason should
style be “ clear, and not ' mean” but ' appropriate”?
(rívos Yãp dvera dei cui) rob o] ramenro eia SAO
mpérovoar ;) If it is prolix, it is not clear; nor yetif
it is curt. Plainly the middle way suits Dest (dAÃa
ôjÃov ôr: 7ô nécor dppórrem), Again, style will
be made agreeable by the elements mentioned,
namely by the good blending of ordinary and unusual
words, by the rhythm, and by the persuasiveness
that springs from appropriateness.” »
It seems evident froro this passage that Aristotlo
did not himself name any style “magnificent ” or
“ agrecable,” and likely that some previous or con-
temporary teachers had done so: indeed, the
s For the general structure of the De eloeutiona, and its
arrangement under Four Types, the tabular analysis on
pp. 290-298 should be consulted.
» Arist. Mhet. lálda 19-28, tr, Roberts. Aristolle has
not introduced brevity, or even purity (7ô dAAyulfer,
“ good Greek "9, into his acinal drênison of styles they
are, both, covered by vó = À Vain decorum), and
brevity must be subordinated to clearness, In the passage
translated above, the term vô névor may be specially familiar
in the ethical domain, but its use here is not ethical,
260
 INTRODUCTION
e
scholiast here comments “ as some used to say.'&
&s we know from the Ethics, peyekorpérem was
with him a “moral excellence,” In treating of
style, he avoids the ethical point of view; it is,
indeed, a noteworthy fact that, in all the Rhetorie,
no clear reference is made to the Ethics, nor yet in
the Ethics to the Rhetoric. Ethical designations of
this kind, if applied to style, were (he clearly thought)
not only misplaced, but would have no end Some
of his friends and pupils went further than he did.
Quintilian (iv. 2. 63) tells us that Theodectes wished
the expository style to be not only “ rmagnificent ”
(magnifica) but “ agreeable ” (iucunda). Theophrastus,
too, seems to have recognized peyahorpéreia and Tô
%ôv as merits (dperai) of style generally? but not
perhaps to have labelled any particular style as
XepasTÃpo peyakorperis or xapastão qovsê: his
3 Anongmi et Stephani in Aristotelis Ártem Rhetoricam
commentaria, ed, H. Rabe, p. 225 1. dy ts tivês EXeyor,
» The Greeks knew, of course, that speech is as various
“as man-—that style is personal (cf Menander, &rôpós
Amparrip êx Adyou srupiteras, and Dionysius, émewds Yêp
dmarres vopgtfovow elxóvas elvar TÃS exdorou Wuxis Tobs Aóyous,
nt. Rom. à 1); but such variety does not lend itself
easily to analysis. Cf also Demetrius $ 227,
* Departing thus from Aristotle's conception of goodness
of style as a unit to which more than one element contributes,
and also Sling a more definite place to ornament than
Axistotle was disposed to concede. Por Theophrastus's
recognition of geyadorpémrem cf. 8 dl.
& Cie. Or. 879, “sermo purus erik et Latinus; dilucide
planeque dicetur; quid deceat cireumspicietur; unem
aberit, quod quartum numerat Theophrastus in orationis
laudibus: ornatum illud, suave etadfuens” Here we have
Ciceronian equivalents for eAAguonôs (* purity,” “ correct
ness ”), caqrjveia, and +à mpéror, all of «which are recognized
in the course of Rhes. ill. Tt is added that Theophrastus
wished also for agreeable and rich adornment (cp. féis
261
 DEMETRIUS

Xapaxrijpes—those seen by a sharp-sighted botanist

—were personal, and they depicted individuals sc
little agreeable and magnificent as the dadijs ( dis-
agreeable,” “unpleasant” person) and the di
cAeúdepos (“ iliberal,” “mean”, pixpoióvos (“ penwi-
ous”), puspopihórinos (the man of petty ambi:
tion”). His lost book on Style (the Ilepi Acfems)
was an important work, freely used by later writers,
including Cicero, Dionysius, Quintilian, and Deme-
trius:; but any classification so specific as Acfcus
xaparripes would seem to be later Lhan Theophrastus
and may have originated in the desire, sharcd by the
Peripatetic and Stoic schools, to distinguish a strietly
logical from a more ornamental or “ rhetorical ”
way of speech and writing.”
À clear division into classes, or forms, of style we
do not actually find till Roman times, and the classes
are then not four but three. Such a division there
is in the Latin treatise addressed, probably by
Comificius, to Herennius about 35 s.c.,, where the
descriptive adjectives uscd are gravis, mediocris,
attentatus; and then in the De oratore (55 8.0.) and
Orator (about 45 B.c.) of Cicero, who calls them gravis
(grandis, vehemens), medius, sublihs (tenuis); and,
finally, in the Greek essays of Dionysius, whose terms
and ueyaxomperis), Cicero probably prefers “laudes” to
“virtates,” as a less directly ethical rendering of dperal,
* The whole question is ably disenssed in (1) G, L.
Hendrickson's articles, in the American Journal of Philology,
1904 and 1905, on “The Peripatetic Mean of Style and
the Three Stylistic Characters,” ete.; (2) J. Stroux's book
De Theophrasti virtutibus dicendi, Leipzig, 1912. From
the nature of the case, such classifications teem with
uncertainties; the various “ characters” are apt to rum
into one another in imperceptible and unnumbered ways,
and may be found together in one and the same person.
a6a
 INTRODUCTION

are such as inmÃos, pégos, lryvós. Cicero regards

Demosthenes as a master not of one type only, but
of all three, in their respective tasks of moving,
pleasing, proving. Many problems in the history of
Greek rhetoric and literary theory can best be
explained by the increasing interest taken in these
studies by Roman siatesmen and by the secure
establishment of Demosthenes” pre-eminence which
accompanied it.
Aristotle and Demosthenes were almost exact
contemporaries, but-—-whatever the reason-—no illus-
trations of oratorical practice are borrowed from
Demosthenes in the Rheioric,? whereas Isocrates is
quoted again and again. Theophrastus, too, seems
to have ranked him in some ways below even
Demades.* Nor can he have fared any better at the
hands of Demetrius Phalereus (300 B.c.), who, like
Demades before him, was a Macedonian favourite,
and who, with his florid style, was the precursor of
that decline of taste which, with few exceptions,
afilicted the Greek «world for more than two centuries,
during a period when ereative imagination and
healthy political interests were all but dead, when
learning flourished rather than letters, and when
speakers and writers were no longer guided
by tue Attic theory and practice, The revival
came when Greek teachers and gifted Roman
learners reviewed together the authors of the best
Athenian age. Ibis Cicero (106-48 B.0.) who, thanks
to his genius and his familiarity with great aflairs,
can see and show, in the teeth of prejudices which
* Unless perhaps in 140786, The name Demosthenes
occurs three times only in the Rhstorie, and nowhere else
in Aristotle's works.
» Of. Plutarch, Vit. Demosth, c 10,
268
 VENDA RIUO

in many various quarters had been current for

generation upon generation, that Aristotle was
greater than Isocrates and Demosthenes greater
than Lysias. Like Tacitus at a later time, Cicero
was interested less in the “ dry-as-dust"2 books
(with their minute, and often futile, technicalities) of
Greel: rhetoricians such as Hermagoras than in the
Greek masterpieces which lay behind them ; unlike
the Roman author who, at a later day than Herm-
agoras, had written the treatise 4d Herennium in
which the name of Demosthenes does not once occur,
he openly based his own rhetorical precepts on
Greek as well as on Roman exemplars.
In his rhetorical teaching, Cicero was an eclectic
of the best sort, drawing freely from Isocrates as
well as Aristotle,? from Lysias as well as Demo-
sthenes, and rejoicing also in the gifted orators of
Rome. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (who was born
about 60 p.c., lived till 8 B.c. or later, and came to
Rome some thirteen years after Cicero's death) does
not mention Cicero's name in any of his critical essays.
But, in general terms, he acknowledges gratefully
the part played by Rome in the restoration, among
his Greek contemporaries, of those literary ideals
whose decay began, he says, with the death of
Alexander: “1 believe that this great revolution
(viz, the retum to the best Attic teachers and models)
was caused and originated by Rome, the mistress
of the world, who compelled entire communities to
2 Tac, Dial, e, 19, “ aridissimis Hermagorae libris.”
* In Ep. ad fam. 1. ix. 8 23 Cicero says, of the three
books De oratore, that he had written them * Aristotelio
more,” and that they “ abhorrent a communibus praeceptis
atque omnem antiquorum et Aristoteliam et Isocratiam
rationem oratoriam complectuntnr.”
264
 INTRODUCTION

look up to her: Rome and her ruling classes, men

of high character, excellent administrator, highly
cultivated and of fine critical intelligence.” «
In relation to the Attic authoritics, Dionysius was,
like Cicero, an eclectic. Keenly alive, as his First
Letter to Âmmaeus shows him to be, to the traditional
feud, in the Greek rhetorical schools, between the
followers of Isocrates and of Avistotle, he never-
theless acknowledges his indebtedness not only to
Isocrates, who claims his first allegiance, but to
Aristotle, Theophrastus, and the Peripateties gener-
alty; nor does he overlook the services rendered to
the study of rhetorie by the Stoies. The composite
Atticist (as distinguished from Asiatic) rhetoric
which he himself taught he likes to call “ philo-
sophical,” by which he means “ theoretic ” (or
“technical” in the best sense)“ artistic," “scientific”:
the antithesis of ali that is merely “ empirical,”
merely the result of practice and of knack. But in
reality he, together with his fellow-Greeks of Roman
times, is devoted mainly to the study of style, and
does not, like Aristotle in his strictly philosophical
treatment of rhetoric as the art of persuasion, analyse
the processes of the human reason and probe into
the secret workings of the human heart,
However much they may differ in the details of
their classification of styles (principal and inter
mediate), the later Greek critics agree with the best
Romans in assigning a specially high xank to Demo-
sthenes and in attributing to him pre-eminently
the quality of devórys. Dionysius makes Demo-
sthenes" Aexrix?) dervórns, or the dexterity and power
« From Dionysius's Preface to his Ancient Orators (of
Oresce),
265
 DEMETRIUS

(the mastery) of his style, the subject of a long and

able essay. That Dionysius is here thinking of style
in no narrow sense is clear when he asks, in the
same essay, “When we who are centuries removed
from the time of Demosthenes, and. are in no way
affected by the matters at issue, are thus moved and
overcome and borne wherever the argument leads
us, how must the Athenians of that day and the
Greeks generally have been carricd away, when
living interests of their own were at stake, and when
the great orator, whose reputation stood so high,
spoke from the heart, and laid bare his inmost
feelings and the promptings of his soul? ” «
Skill and power, mastery of oratorical technique,
and a certain concentrated force (the vis of Cicero
and Quintilian) are in the minds of these Greek
crítics when they think of Demosthenes with his
high aims and overpowering convictions. They do
not, as a rule, use devós simply in the more or less
colloquial sense of dewds Atysww.? They hark back to
s D. H. De adm, vi die. in Dem. c. 22,
>» It is not easy to co-ordinate the various senses borne in
Greek by the remarkable word Jewós—terrible, strange,
(uncanny), strangely strong, clever. But (1) Herodotus and
Sophocles, who are often at one qn points oí language,
seem to be the first extant writers to couple Serás and coqós;
(2) this use of Jewós ('shrewd, “clever,' prio ) Kai copós
is criticized pedanticaliy by Prodicus in Plato's Protagoras
841; (8) Prodicns's eriticism may suggest the conjecture
that dewds Never originallg meant “(awfully) clever at
speech,” just as deuwós Gaye» (Ken, cneob. vil. 3, 28) is used
of a man with an “awíni” appetite. Tie derós vas the
dangerously dexterous man. Lhe speial Jevórmns imputed
by Aeschines and Demosthenes to one another is rhetorical
clavernoss: the special dewórys ascribed by Longinus to lhe
oratory of Demosthenes is formidable force, overmhelming
intensity, awe-inspiring mastery.
“266
 INTRODUCTION

the primitive and literal associations of the word with

“fear” (ef. Plato, Laches, 198 8; Aristotle, Nic. EIA,
1115 2 24-26). Dionysius and Demetrius are in the
habit of coupling 7ô Seióv and + qobepdv as almost
synonymous terms, and Longinus (De subi. c. 34)
telis us that, while no one fears (poficira:) when
reading Hypereides, everybody shrinks from the un-
approuchable terror and might (decvórgra sai Sivapur)
of Demosthenes.”
Demetrins stands alone, among extant writers
(Peripatetic or non-Peripatetic), in introducing
the Sevôs (C forcible') xapastip as a separate
type of style. The sections im which he does this
show signs of confusion and poor writing: it is not
easy for him to mark off ai all points the devis
xapertip from the peyadomperis xapoxrip. A
natural inference is that, in initiating or adopting
this classification, he has been infuenced by a desire
to find an independent place for Demosthenes? and
for Demades, whom he, agreeing here again (how-
ever oddiy) with Theophrastus, couples with Demo-
sthenes in his illustrative quotations. He speaks also
(8 245) of q voy naréxovoa Sesvórys (“the foreible
style now in vogue), an expression which may
indicate that, in his day, Demosthenes' forcible
style rather than that of any other Greek speaker
or writer was coming more and. more to be regarded
as a paramount model in the Greek schools of oratory.
Demosthenes is such a model in the opinion of
Dionysius, who (like Cicero) ranks him as foremost
e Cf.elso D.H. 4d 4mm, Z c. 2, and Demetr. De elos,

s O Demetrius's xapaxrip neyadorperis Demosthenes

hardly enters, except once for Peripatetic eriticism and
correction: $ 8 (cf. De subi, xexii, 2 and De elog. & 250).
267
 DEMELHIUO

in each of those three types of style which, in Diony-

sius and Cicero, correspond to the first three named
by Demetriuse Demetrius, going further still, as-
signs him a class in which he seems to stand supreme.
It only needed one further step and the fluid “ types ”
of style were, as by Hermogenes of Tarsus (A.D. 170),
discarded in favour of various ideas (“ forms,” “kinds?
of style, among which the last and greatest is detwórys
(the command of all the oratorical gifts and resources),
as shown in fullest measure by Demosthenes. Of
Sevórs Hermogenes distinguishes three varieties :
one which seems it and is it, a second which is it
without seeming it, a third which seems it without
being it. The last sort of Sevórys is that of the
Sophists, the first is that of Demosthenes.
The Graeco-Roman date of Demetrius is thus made
extremely probable, were there no other evidence
one way or the other, by the main subject (the Four
Types of Style) of his treatise and by his favourable
attitude towards Demosthenes : in Peripatetic cireles
neither the fourfold classification of styles nor the
exaltation of Demosthenes can well have been an
early growth. Authorship in Roman times is also
indicated by the use of late words and phrases, such
as are found in the age of Plutarch.? Further: in
* Demetrius deals with his four xapasripes in the follow-
ing order: meyuhorpemis, yNaqupos, loxrós, Sevós The
xeparrip yroprpós (Cemooth,” “elegant,” finished”)
corresponds roughly to the xaparrip nécos, puxrós, elxparos,
etc, of other Greck theorists of style. Nós is noted in
$ 88 as à current equivalent for geyahompemás.
* Details in Roberts's larger edition (Cambridge, 1902),
pp. 54-59: vocabulary (including rhetorical—eg. epuqueia
itself, —grammatical, and metrical terms) and points cf
grammar (e.g. artificial use of dual number, and capricious
use or non-use of à» with cptative mood). A point of diction
268
 INERODUCUIUON

$ 108 there seems to be, in the expression “ broad

purples,” a direct reference to the Juticiave (7 x haró-
onnos) of the Roman senator. In $$ 128, 130,
doreirpós (found also in Dionysius) may, in forma-
tion and in meaning, have been influenced by the
Latin urbanitas.e
External evidence, on the other hand, at first sight
appears to demonstrate a much earlier authorship--
that of Demetrius of Phalerum (300 B.c.). At the
beginning of the best and oldest (10th or 1Ith
century) manuscript (P 1741) which preserves the
treatise stands the heading : Anumrpiov Palypéws mepi
epupvelas O êrt; mepi dpácews. But at the end of
the book the same manuscript gives Anpmrpiou mepi
épumveias simply. The belief of the present editor
is that the shorter title was the original one, and
that it was amplified in Byzantine times. Accord-
ingly he has ventured to bracket, on p. 204, both
ô érri mepl dpáceos (words which rightly explam
epuqueia as meaning bpéois, viz. Aéfis) and Pelmpéms?
The work being clearly Peripatetie in the groundwork
not mentioned there may be added here. A good com-
mentator on the De eloe. once took exception to the use of
Aahouuérur in 8 69: “ Neque honorificaum satis,” said he,
“de Homero dicere Aoheiw.” But in late Greek (eg. in
the New Testament) Ashes is no less dignificd than Adyerr.
Valuable indications as to date are also furnished by the
personal names ionnd iu the De eloe.; <f. larger edition,
p. 51-55. [tis hundly dikely, for example, that Demetrius
vf Phalerum woull, as in 8 289, be so detached as to speak
of himself as Anuórpros 6 Palgpeis, :
a Other possible Latinisms are (1) 8 292, Cnhorureir with
the dative (cf cemulari): (2) 5 122, 080 droyróras rui (of
viam aperire, putefacere), though with ihis may be
compared Pindar, Pyth. v. 88.
» Pacsimiles of the superscription and subscription as found
in P 1741 are given in Roberts's larger edition, pp. 65, 208.
K 209
 DEMETRIUS

of its teaching, it was not unnatural for a copyist to

attribute it, by the conjectural addition of “ Pha-
lerian,” to so accomplished and versatile a leader of
the Peripatetic school as Demetrius Phalereus. But
in its present form the treatise cannot, for reasons
fully detailed in the introduction, notes, and glossary
of the larger edition, be the work of a writer who
lived at Athens so early as 800 n.c. There is also
external evidence, of a mueh emlier date than thak
of P 174, for naming “ Demetrius,” without addition,
as the author. Both the Peripatetic commentator
Ammonius (about a.D. 500) and the Neo-Platonist
Syrianus (a generation or two earlier) speak of
“ Demetrius “ in terms which seem to mark him out
as the writer of the work we know, and the latter
appears to place him after Dionysius in order of
time.: On the whole, therefore, it seems best, on
the evidence before us, to assume that the name
attached to the treatise at an early date, if not
originally, was “ Demetius,” and Demetrius without
further specification.
Demetrius was a common enough name in the
Greek and the Graeco-Roman world. But, if we are
free to speculate where certainty is for the moment
unattainable, the present editor of the treatise would
wish to revive and amplify a suggestion made by
him incidentally in a letter to the Classical Reviem
some twelve years ago.
* The passages of Ammonius and Syrianus ave cited in
the larger edition, pp. 60, 61. It was not the habit of the
Graeco-Roman eritics to refer expressly to one another's
wrilinga, bul in 8 120 of Style the defence suggested for
Polyerates may possibly be a reply to the strictures of
Dionysius in his essay on Isasus, c. 20,
*lassical Review, xxvii. 200 (December 1913),
270
 INTRODUCTION

The suggestion is that the writer on Style, whose

work (as we have seen) seems on internal grounds to
come later than Dionysius (30 8.c.) and earlier than:
Hermogenes (Ap. 170), belongs to the days of
Plutarch towards the end of the first century aD.:
that he is no other than the leamed and far-travelled
scholar Demetrius of Tarsus, who at Delphi takes
part in Plutarch's dialogue On the Cessation of the
Oracles, being at that time on his way home from
Britain to Tarsus*; and, further, that C. W. King
and H. Dessau? are right in their view that this
Demetrius, the friend of Plutarch, is identical with
the Demetrius who, when residing ip Britain,
dedicated the two bronze tablets, bearing pious
Greek inscriptions, which are now preserved in the
Museum at Yorke If all this be true, it follows
that the author of the disquisition on Style should
be described as Demetrius “ of Tarsus,” who lived
as many as four centuries later than Demetrius “ of
Phalerum.”
2 Plutarch, De def. orac, e. 2 Anuirpos uêv à vpognarisds
éx Bperravios eis Tapodv draxomibpsvos olende,
* Archacological Journal, xxxix. (1888), 28 ff; Hermes,
xbvi. II, 156
* The inscriptions are: (1) 'Qxearp | nal Told | Anuirpios,
and (2) Oesis | voir ro) dyeluovirod mpmlrwplou Expe. |
Anmúrpios. Very few Greek inscriptions have been found
in Britain, and these two are among the ecarliest. The
Greek, scholar here shows himself not only in the selection
of the names Oceanus and Tethys, but in the careful
addition of the fota adecriptum-—DKEANOI. The Homerie
scholar is seen in the reminiscence of Jliad xiv. 801 Epxopa
dont manugipiiou meipara yatns. | Seenvór re, deôu myévegi,
nai umrépa Pybiu, where the phrase “ earth's farthest bounds *
may be thought to anticipate penitus toto divisos orhe
Britannos (Virgil, Ekl. à, 66) and ultimos orbis Britamnos
(Horace, Odes, à. 35, 30)
271
 DEMETRIUS

But yliat grounds, however slender, are there for

conjecturing that it was Plutarcb's Demetrius who
wrote on Style ?
Once we conclude, on internal (and some external)
evidence, that the treatise was put together, by a
Demetrius, in the latter half of the first century a.D,,
the field of choice is much narrowed ; and, though
it is dangerous to argue from silence, we do not,
as a matter of fact, know of any other Demetrius
during this half-century who would seem so well
qualifed for the literary and educational task here
in question. After all, Plutarch makes us feel that
his Demetrius was a scholar,* well read and eritical:
one whom the company vegards as its philological
expert, though it ralhes him now and then on the
scholar's proneness to pedantry. The dialogue does
not allow much scope for literary reference, but
Plutarch's Demetrius shows his familiarity with
Homer, Hesiod, Euripides, Heracleitus, Plato—
authors who all find a place in the treatise on Style,
He also quotes (e. 3), as from Alcaeus, the proverb
“to take the claw and paint the lion from it"? (a
wholesome warning against basing, as we now are
bold enough to do, broad conclusions on slender
premisses); and the same proverb is foumd in Style,
& 156, with the remark that Sophron had made lavish
use of this and other proverbs,
Pintarch's Demetrius was (c. 2) a religious man ;
and the dedicator of the votive tablets at York vas
clearly that. The author of the treatise shows, in

º ypaumorinos (co. 2, 28)=a scholar, mam of letters,

grammarian (in a broad sense).
> Plutarch, De def, or. e. 3 ob «or! “Adxator 6E óvuxgos rôs
Néovra Yypúorras,
ora
 INTRODUCTION

É 71, a special interest in the songs of the Egyptian

priests. Morecover, after concluding the famous
chapter (e. 17) which tells that “ Great Pan is dead,”
Plutarch makes Demetrius say “that, among the
islands near Britain, many were deserted and lay
scattered (Sporades), some of them bearing the
names of daemons and demigods ; and that he him-
self, by the emperor's command, made a voyage of
inquiry and observation to the nearest of the deserted
islands, which had a few inhabitanis, all sacred
persons and never molested by the Britons.”* The
dramatic date of Plutareh's dialogue is known to be
about A.p. 83, and we therefore have his Demetrius
retuwmning from Britain to Tarsus about the third
year of Domitian's reign and the sixth year of
Agricola's governorship. We can, accordingly,
hardly doubt that the emperor who sent Demetrius
on this special mission (roprj tob Bagikéws 5) was
Domitian. The island may have been Anglesey,
or one smaller and further from the coast.” What
was the mission jtself? Hardly a mere bid for
trade. A possible inference from Plutarch's language
is that Demetrius, himself a religious roan, was sent
to win over, in their last refuge, the most religious
men (Druids perhaps) of the Britons, and throngh
them the Britons themselves. Long before he went
to Britain, Demetrius seems £ to have been on the

º Plutarch, De def. or. e. 18, tr, Prickard,

* These words seem to mean missu Cassaris, and not
simply to refer to a government escort on the voyage.
º This may have been the occasion on which the York
Demetrias, 1Ê identical with Plutarvh's Demetrius, dediested
his tablets; or a more Hkely occasion may be songht in his
original voyage to Britain (cf. p. 271, note '). .
* Put, De def or c 45. Agricola was quaestor in Asia
e73
 DEMETRIUS

staff” of a Roman governor of Cilicia, his own native

province, and the province which Cicero once had
administered ; and there to have taken an interest
in the doings of oracular shrines ; and in Britain he
would, Hke Agricola,” desire, as a matter of state
policy, to see temples built wherein men “ scattered
and uncivilized ” (dispersi ac rudes) might gather and
“ grow used to peace and quiet.”
As for the exact office held by Plutarch's Demetrius
in Britain, he was probably a member of Agricola's
staff and employed in some secretarial capacity, as
under the Roman Empire men of letters often were,
This may have bcen the position, too, of the York
Demetrius, whether we take the Zxpi8 of the
inscription to stand for Scriba or Soribonius? A
“ypauparurós” would also, by talk and lectures,
bring the refreshment of Greek culture to Agricola
and his entourage º; Agricola himself would thus be
in 4.p. 64 and would then have opportunities of meeting
government servants. Or they may have first come together
in Rome, where Plutarch's Demetrius had no doubt spent
much of the long time during which he had been absent
from Tarsus.
s Tac. Agr. e. 21.
à Neither “ Seriba ” nor “ Seribonius ” nor “of Tarsus ”
would normally appear in any Greek literary references to an
author Demetrius who was entitled to one or other of these
appellations. The York dedicator describes himself as
“ Demetrius” simply on one of the tablets. Dionysins of
Halicarnassus is oíten introduced as Acorúgios only.
e Viz, the “ domus “ of Tac. «igr. « 19, This “ honse-
hold” would include the official staff, high and low (gf
“ domum Caesaris” in Tac. Jlist, ii, 92, amd ol ér ris
Kaicapos oixtas im Ep. to Philipp. iv. 22). Agricola's
wife, à woman of talent and breeding, was probably with
him in Britain throughout his governorship: his daughter
was in Jtaly with her husband Tacitus; his infant son he
lost in the seventh vear of his British command. One of
274
 INTRODUCTION

keeping alive those studies in philosophy and rhetorie

which, as a youth, he had pursucd in the Graeco-
Roman university of Marseilleso Little disposed
as Greek men of letters were to lean Latin, Plu-
tarch's Demetrius would, at Tarsus and in Britain,
have many cecasions (and necessities) of doing so,
and may even have seconded Agricola's effort “to
give,” doubtless in the Latin tongue, “ the sons of
British princes a liberal education,»
Now, apart from his obvious accomplishments as
a man of letters and a teacher, does the writer on
Style show any acquaintance with such secretarial.
work in high places as probably fell to the lot of
Plutarch's Demetrius and the Demetrius of the
York tablets? We turá to 8 234 of his treatise, and
cannot help feeling that the words “ Since occasion-
ally we write to cities or royal personages( Sacer)”
are meant to include actual cases in which the author
had written to Roman emperors. Sections 2809-204
strengthen the impression, Though in a Greek
treatise the author naturally, and prudentiy, refers
to incidents in the old Greek world, he is thinking
of his own Roman times and their well-known risks
of imperial disfavour. He is no professional sophist,
boasting of his familiarity with the great and inditing
congratulatory addresses to them: by him the word
“ sophist ” is nowhere used, and in the one passage
($ 15) in which “ sophistical ” is found it is, with him
the York tablets is dedicated (pe 271 note 9 to “the gods of
the Governor's Ficadquarters”—the gods of Government
House,
e For Massilia as a seat of refincd learning cf Tac,
Agr. e 4 What Tarsus did for Hellenie culture in the
Eastern Mediterranean, that Massilia did in the Western.
» Tac. dgr. e Bl.
275
 DEMETRIUS

as with us, no term of praise. Again, the sections

(2283-235) on letter-writing are among the very best
in the book; and this we might expect if the author
were not only a Peripatetic buta secretary. Whether
Plutarch's Demetrius was, like the writer on Siyle,
a man of Peripatetic leanings, we can hardly say on
the evidence before us; we can only point out that
in ce 28 be attacks an opinion of Plato's with an
Aristotelian pugnacity which must have shocked the
Academic dovecotes of Plutarch's home.” Certainly
neither of the two men is wanting in self-confidence
and self-assertion? -
As a whole, the treatise may have been put
together at Tarsus, and used later in Britain as notes
(ómopyipara) for lectures, or lessons, on “ How to
write Greek Prose”; or, as we might rather say,
on “ How to leam Greek through Greek,” since
these old Greek teachers and critics were firm
believers in the Direct Method and made no use of
Latin in teaching Greek to their masterful Roman
pupils, but conducted them straight to the fresh and
ancient springs-—to oi dpxuto. (Siyle, 88 67, 244), the
Classics of Greece. “ Treatise” too is hardly the
best (though the customary) description of a manual
which has no formal beginning or end, and contains
no address to a friend or patron, such as is usually
found in critical essays of this kind during Graeco-
Roman times. Possibly Style was never meant for
* The combination (for which see Stroux, De Theophr.
virê. die.) of Stoit with Peripatetic views in the structure
of Style would be in keeping with a training received at
Tarsus. The author also probably knew Alexandria and
its library.
» De def. ce. 8 and 28 may be compared with De elo,
85 15, 87, 170.
276
 INTRODUCTION
publication; it may owe its survíval not so much to
the fame of its writer as to its preservation in the
household of Agricola in Britain and in Rome. If
it were published after its authors death and at
a distance from the main scenes of his activity,
the uncertainties of its later ascription are easily
accounted for, :
Whoever may have written it, Style seems clearly
to belong to that second half of the first century of
our exa when the loss of the freedom of speech which
had once prevailed in Republican Rome was deplored
alike in Tacitus's Dialogue on Oraiory, in Quintilian's
Camses of the Decay in Eloquence (no longer extant),
and in the Sublime of “ Longinus.” Bad as the time
was, there was not wanting the promise of greater
liberty, of better public speaking and a wider
culture. Towards the close of the century, the
Latin language and literature were making rapid
headway in the provinces. In the year a.D. 96
Martial“ can report the rumour that his verses are
sung in Britain. Some twenty years later Juvenal
says that “ To-day the whole world has its Greek
and its Roman Athens; eloquent Gaul has trained
the pleaders of Britain, and distant Thule talks of
hiring a rhetorician” ?
Not that the author of Style would have cared to
be called rhetor; he would prefer the title of gram-
maticus (“man of letters,” “teacher 0Ê letters,”
“seholar”), Though we ave apt to think of him as
a “yhetorician,” he does not once use the word
“ vhetorie ” ( ônropucj). Where he speaks of “ the
a Martial xi. 8. 5, “ dicitur et nostros cantare Britannia
versus”
“ Juv. Sat, xy. 110-112, tr. O. G. Rainsay,
E2 et?
 DEMETRIUS

rhetoricians” (8 24) it is with a touch of irony,

as with us to-day. Towards “rhetoricians,” and
“sophists,” his bearing seems to have been as
guarded as that of Aristotle himself. But, in dealing
with capricious and arbitrary superiors, he found, as
we have seen, the “ figured speech ” (89 287-295) of
the rhetoricians useful; and this device and this
spixit may perhaps be seen when, in 8 108, he glances
at “the shows of the rich-—cornices, triglyphs, and
broad purples.” In such queer company, and in
such ambiguous words, does he introduce the lati-
clave of the haughty Roman Senator !
Demetrius of Tarsus (and the writer on Style, if
the two are to be identified) would, not more than
twenty years after St. Paul's death at Rome, be
teaching Greek at York ; and the years round about
A.D. 80 may therefore be regarded as the birtl-years
of Classical Education in Great Britain. The long
tradition of Greek lterary study at Tarsus is sug-
gested by the names of the Stoic Archedemus of
Tarsus (180 B.c.: 8 34) and the rhetorician Hermo-
genes of Tarsus (AD. 170); and the vigour with
which such studies could be adapted to new and
high purposes is best seen in Paul of Tarsus, who
was proud to be a citizen not only of Tarsus but of
Rome. St. Pauls writings and his hfe are a standing
proof that the Tarsus of Plutarch's Demetrius was
serving as a linguistic and literary centre and was
becoming a great link between East and West. In
his Greek epistles, St. Paul can quote Epimenides
and Menander; at Athens, where he quotes Aratus,
he can deliver a Greek speech to a critical audience,
As a great letter-writer, and one who fully under-
stood that a good letter should be one of the two
278
 INTRODUCTION

sides of an imaginary dialogue (Style, 8 228), St, Paul

was in the true Peripatetic tradition, Even in the
minutiae of self-expression, he will be found to be
in accord with that same tradition as preserved and
developed in the work on Style. The famous thir-
teenth chapter in the First Epistle to the Corinthians
exemplihes the dyúviera and the ôÃoyia. which,
when used in season, are praised in Style, 88 2607-269,
108. His proserhythm is often so marked that
whole passages may appropriately be arranged in
the form of hymns. Even when (as in Rom. xi, 95-86)
his language may partly coincide with the Greek of
the Old Testament, there are signs that his individual
sense of rhythm keeps him true to the best Greek
precepts.
This intellectual and spivitual centrality of Tarsus
is brought home to us still more by the actual career
of St. Paul who at Jerusalem, Athens, and Rome
could, becoming all things to all men, use the current
language of those three great cities. A “ Roman
bom,” º he would at Tarsus itself, Greek-speaking
though it was im the main, have some opportunity,
when a youth, of hearing Latin, the official language
of a town which, like Athens, was “ no mean city." ?
If, in the passage of the Acts? he used Greek (not
Latin) in reply to the chief captain's question, “ Tell
me, art thou a Roman? And he said, Yea,” surely
he did so because be thought that an officer with
“ Lysias” as one of his names was Greek in origin.
His early knowledge of Latin would be deepened
a dyd dé ntred dets xii, 28.
db xx e ve» Jon 8, quoted ir T. E.
Page's edition or the -
S Ih, xii. 27.
279
 DEMETRIUS

when “he abode txro whole years in his own hired

dwelling Ӽ at Rome; and it has sometimes been
thought that his growing familiarity with the signifi-
cance of the characteristic Roman words gravitas and
pietas accounts for the fact that he uses cenvóris
and etvéBea several times in his Pastoral Epistles
but in none of his other Epistles,
Be all this as it may, the period to which we would
venture to assign the essay on Siyle is thal period
(AD. 50-100) of contact between different languages
and different civilizations, between old faiths and
new, when Plutarch was preparing the ground for
his comparison of Demosthenes and Cicero (as part
of his Parallel Lives of Grecks and Romans) and for
the writing of his Roman Questions; when “ Longinus”
was teaching men how to admire not only Cicero and
Demosthenes, but the sublimity with which the
“egislator of the Jews” begins his account of
the Creation ; when “ Philo the Jew ” and Caecilius
“im faith a Jew” are still remembered in Greek
literary circles; when Plutarch holds “ theology ”
to be the final goal of all philosophy and preserves
for us the memory of a Demetrius who, in Britain,
bad known the remains of those Celtic Theological
Colleges in which, as Julius Caesar? long before tells
us, young Britons were taught about Lhe heavenly
powers, the world of nature, and the survival of the
human soul; when Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and
Quintilian were observing the ways of Jews or
Christians ; when the Gospels and the Epistles had
begun to stir the minds of men; when, in short,
Judaea, Rome, Greece, and even distant Britain in
º Ágits xxviit. 80,
é De helio Gallico, vi, 1d
280
 INTRODUCTION

the West, were playing their part in the creation of

a new Europe and finding their chief channel of
communication in Greek, with the promise of a wider
“ Hellas and Hesperia ”º vet to come, which should
embrace not only Ebcracum but a future Eboracum
Novum-—not only the York that was new to Agricola,
but the New York that is planted in a world unknown
(save perhaps in legend) to those vaces which were
pioneers in the intellectual and spiritual aspirations
of humanity.

“ Demetrius Phalercus De elocutione;” to give it

the title it bore among scholars, was long a favourite
text-book of speech and writing and literary taste
in the universities of modem Europe. Milton may
well have studied it at Christ's College, Cambridge.
At all events, he mentions the book, under the name
of “ Phaleveus,” in his Trectate of Education when
he borrows a striking comparison from the Stoic
philosopher Zeno: “And now lastly will be the
time to read with them those organic arts which
enable men to discourse and write perspicuously,
elegantly, and according to the fitted style of lofty,
mean, or lovly? Logic, therefore, so much as is
useful, is to be referred to this due place with all
her well couched heads and topies, until it be time
to open her contracted palm into a graceful and
ornate Rhetorie, taught out of the rule of Plato,
a The title of B. L. Gildersleeve's well-known book,
» The adjective “ mean ” is, unfortunately, ambiguous in
English. Here the sense is “intermediate.” The Greel
equivalents for Mikton's three adjectives would, in the order
in which they stand, Pe “Ar, “503 (not Tamerós), Ioxrós,
* Pitted style “==7ô 1. . 2
281
 DEMETRIUS

Avistotle, Phalereus, Cicero, Hermogenes, Longinus,”

Towards the end of the eightecnth century, 8. T.
Coleridge, then an undergraduate at Jesus College,
Cambridge, was (upon some breach of College
discipline) “ gated ” for a month, and set the task
of translating the De elocutione into English: whether
the version was completed, and how long il survived,
we do not know,
In the year 1871 two classical graduates of Cam-
bridge, who were also excellent writers of English
and workers distinguished in many lines of activity,
E. A. Abbott and J. R. Seeley, brought out their
English Lessons for English People. In what they
themselves describe as “ a practical text-book ” of
English, there is a point of coincidence between them
and Demetrius which is specially worthy of note,
whether it is accidental or designed. They find it
convenient to apply the terms simple, elevaied, grace-
ful, and forcible, to the characteristic styles of various
English poets — Wordsworth, Milton, Tennyson,
Shakespeare.
E is in his practical application of the general
principles of good taste and aesthetic diserimination
to the art of prose-writing that the strength of
Demetrius lhes; and the soundness of his precepts
and their permanent value may be inferred from the
ease with which they can be illustrated, as in the
present edition, by examples drawn from English
literature, not only prose but (as with him) poetry
as well. His handbook is not to be ranked with
works so great as the Poetics and the Rhctoric. These
too are, in a manner, practical; but they are the
product of a master mind, and one of them stands
in a class apart through having as its subject the
282
 INTRODUCTION

transcendent theme of poetry, Wben he tums te

rhetoric, Aristotle is interested not so much in its
relation to style, as in its widest bearings—logical,
ethical, political: he defines rhetorio as “the faculty
of observing in any given case the available means of
persuasion,” and busies himself with the discovery
of arguments or inducements which can convince the
mind, and bend the will, of men. Demetrius does
not take so wide a range as that. Nor has he the
breadth, and other great qualities, of “ Longinus,”
In one respect, no doubt, he is broader. He treats
of four types of style; Longinus of one only—the
sublime, The újos (“ height,” “ elevation,” “ sub-
Emity 0) of Longinus corresponds closely to the
xoparrijp peyakorperjs of Demetrius. The nom
tos, and the adjective vinhos, were, by the Greek
Hterary critics, often used to describe the style of
Plato; and in his own way of writing, thinking, and
feeling, Longinus is influenced above all by that su-
preme master of imaginative prose.. The Poeiios is of
unsurpassed interest because in it Aristotle the man
of science inquires, as an epoch closes, into the
secrets of the great poetry of Greece; Longinus,
the literary enthusiast, is in his own way unique
because, at a time when the three great ancient
bteratures were coming to know one another and
the Greck language was spreading far and wide, he
is under the spell of Plato who, with the poetry of his
prose, has quickened fresh votaries from age to age.
Among the weaknesses of Siyle may be reckoned
a The earliest English translations of the treatise give, as
its title, (1) “ Of the Height of Eloquence ” (Hall, 1652),
(2) “ Of the Loftiness or Elegancy of Speech >” (Pulteney,
1680). Boileau's rendering “ Traité du sublime ou du
merveilleux dans le discours ” eventualiy won the day.
288
 DEMETRIUS

sundry repetitions, inconsistencies, and digressions:

defects which may be partly due, as already sug-
gested, to want of revision for publication. A more
serious fault is one in which its author differs widely
from Aristotle. While Aristotle is inelincd to say
much about subject matter and iittle about style,
his chief concem being with thought rather than
with language its instrument, Demetrius sways Lhe
othev way and is apt to busy himself with the expres-
sion of thought to the partial neglect of thought
itself. Though we do not forget that “ expression ”
is his subject, we feel some impatience when (88 4, 288)
he assails the short clauses, one following another,
«vith which Hippocrates, at the beginning of his
most famous book, arrests attention for memorabte
thoughts in an unusual, because unperiodie, way.
Still, we have reason to be gruteful to Demetrius for
his special point of view. Of the subject matter we
can to-day more readily judge than of the form and
sounds im which it is conveyed; and here these
Graeco-Roman critics give us the stimulus of an added
appreciation and enjoyment; wc are borrowing Greek
cars and Greek taste in order the better to catch the
living accents of the great Greck authors. And it
is the great authors to whom Demetrius makes his
appeal, whether or no we can always folow him in his
praise or strictures. The very first writers he cites
arc (in the order given): Hecataeus, Kenophon,
Hippocrates, Plato, Archilochus, Anacreon, Homer,
Demosthenes. We cannot but prize a Greek critic
who quotes Ireely from Homer and shows special
delight in those passages of the Odyssey where
Nausicaa (lixe Artemis) is easily known among her
maidens, bcautifal though they are one and all; or
484
 INTRODUCTION

the nightingale sings her lovely song in the first

seasonof spring. To Sappho, too, Demetrius appeals
repeatedly, and finely says that in the texture of
her poetry “ every lovely word is imwoven.” à Plato
also is cited ofteu, and the Sophron whom Plato
admired and Graeco-Roman critics seldom quote.
From Aristophanes lines are adduced which show a
perception, not too cormmon in Greek writers, of
his liking for parody, hyperbole, and surprise-jests é:
the same welcome sense of humour being seen in
such sections as 79 and 170,
Thongh scanty, Demetrius's remarks on the relation
of styleto subjcet are sound and useful. He recog-
nizes that the subject must create the style—that a
great theme is necessary to the grand style, which
otherwise will be merely grandiose; and that no
beauty of language can emoble what is essentially
base. He is a broad-minded literary critico rather
than a narrow rhetorica! theorist, and draws Literary
analogies from great works of seulpture? knowing
that the principles of all fine art are the same. He
sees,? with Theophrastus, that distinction comes to
style no less through what is not said them through
what is said: much should be left to the reader's
own perception and imagination. He praises lucidity,
and tells us why the language of Heracleitus is
obscure* Bombast and bathos are among the faults
he-ridicules, together with preciosity and affectations
DÊ all sorts” Each style has, he sees, the defects of
its qualities, and the greater the height attempted
q 8 166. à 55 150, 152, 161,
eSis4. 8 à 222.
* 88 191, 192.
s 85 114, 115, 119, 121, 186-8, 220, 304. The elaborate
term inpoxaroiaNe is particularly noteworthy.
285
 DEMETRIUS

the greater is apt to be the fall, Even so useful a

device as antithesis can, he points out, be overdone
and seem like false artifice” whereas all good
prose is, as he assumes throughout, the offspring
neither of axtifice nor negligence but (like poctry)
of art.
Many niceties in Greek prose-writing which we
are prone to miss to-day Demetrius brings before
us, such as the choice of words with noble associa-
tions: the use of a rhythm (a prose mesurée?) which
will pay special heed to the beginning and the end
of sentences; the recognition of the fact, now coming
into view once more, that there is such a thing as a
siage-language---one in which the actor finds it easy
to make us think with him and feel with him.e
Proverbs also are valued by Demetrius when they
are used in sesson; he sees how important it is for
artistico prose to keep in touch with the familiar
thought and language of the people—ywith the vulgar
tongue (7 cuvjbem). The part which the proverb
plays in the field of popular philosophy is well
indicated in $ 252: “it is the wisdom of a people,
it is the wisdom of the world,” & Tts frequent use in
letter-writing is there recommended: a precept
endorsed, as we know, by the practice of Cicero,
* 8 250.
? Even so great an artist in the finer medinm of verse as
Milton too often forgets, im his controversial writings, that
there must be “measure” (uérpor) in prose; prose must
not sprawl limitably. Demetrius makes this clear from
the start; he also recognizes the need of variety--of inter-
mingling shorter with longer clauses or sentences, and of
passing from one type of style to another,
º 88 193, 194,
& Cf. Roberts, Demetrius on Style (Cambridge, 1902),
pp. 259-262,
as6
 INTRODUCTION

The sections on the art of letter-writing (ES 2289-285)

include the definition of a letter as “the heart's
good wishes im brief.” In his reference (88 61, 62)
to Homer's brief glorification of Nireus of Syme,
the little island in the Dodecanese, Demetrius
is following Aristotle's Bhetoric, but he puts his
point effectively in his own way. The example from
Ctesias in $ 216 is apparently chosen by himself, and
it is certainly presented with remarkable taste and
fecling. Altogether we feel, when we read Deme-
trius, that we are being carried back to the great
era of Greece though four centuries have passed
since it ended, and that our author, with Aristotle
and Theophrastus as his chief guides, shows Peri-
patetic point, good sense, and brevity. His own
way of writing is, in the main, spare and plain—that
xupaxtip ioxvós under which some of the best
qualities of style are grouped by him—cleamess,
vividness, naturalness, persuasiveness,
K is this carrying back to the great writers of
Greece and the very words they uttered that we
need today. Demetrius and the other Graeco-
Roman crities should not themselves absorb too
much of the reader's time, in an age when so large
a body of noble world-literatuve lies behindus. But,
as aids to literary enjoyment and appreciation, it is
important that the essays of such crities should be
made at once easy of access and of understanding
to modern students, and it is for that reason that
Demetrius claims and deserves a place in this
Classical Library.
 DEMETRIUS

Text
The Greek text is based on a collation, by the
present editor, of the famous Paris codex (P 1741)
which contains not only Demetrius but the Poetics
and the Rhetoric of Aristotle, All important devia-
tions from this manuseript (which is here denoted
by the letter P) are given as they oceur, and is
obvious clerical errors are oceasionaly mentioned
in order to indicate its general character. Some
inconsistencies (e.g. in the use or omission of dv with
the optative) are rctained in the text. Where a
manusecript is comparatively old (in this case, the
10th or LIth centuxy) and generally sound, it seems
best to follow it as closely as possible, while recording
in the footnotes the conjectures made at various
times by good scholars in passages where there is
room for doubt.

Brerioerarny
A full bibliography, up to the year 1902, af the
editions, translations, and occasional writings which
have been concerned with Demetrius is given in the
present editor's larger work, pp. 3911-816 (" Deme-
trius on Style: the Greek text of Demetrius ' De
elocutione,” edited after the Paris manuseript, with
introduction, translation, facsimiles, etc, by W.
Rhys Roberts: Cambridge, 1902"). During the four
centuries which open with the edito princeps ví Aldus
Manutius in 1508, work on Demetrius has been done
byvarious Italian, German, French, and other scholars,
the two editions of Victorius (1552, 1562) being of
special importance, The first English translation,
Rss
 INTRODUCTION

here revised for the Loeb Library, is that by Roberts,

The first complete German translation, by Emil
Orth, was issued in 1928: E, Orth, Demetrios vom
Stil, Miúnchen (Max Hueber). Orth has also contri-
buted papers to the Philologische Wochenschrifl in the
following years : (1) 1922, p. 887,“ Demetrios $ 214";
(2) 1922, pp. 1003-8, “ Demctriana ”; (5) 1098,
pp. 909-911, “ Zu Demetrios”; (4) 1925, pp. 778-
788, “ Ein Fragment des Herodoros. Zn Demetrios
8 66”; (5) 1926, “Ein Fragment des Kynikers
Diogenes. Zu Demetrios 8 171” Orth's separate
publication “ Logios” (Verlag Maria Martental,
bei Kaisersesch: 1926) is a comprehensive study,
with Aóyios=peyalorperjs, Demetr. $ 88, as its
starting-point. Mention may also be made of A.
Kappelmacher's “ Bemerkungen und Ubersetzungs-
probe zu Pseudo-Demetrius,” Nikolsburg, 1908:
Fortsetzung, 1904; A, Brinkmann, “ Zu Dionysios”
Brief an Pompeius und Demetrios mepi dopapretas,”
Rhcinisches Museum, vol. Ixix. (year 1914), pp. 255-
266; F. Boll, “ Zu Demetrius de Elocutione,” Rhcin,
Mus. vol, lxxii, (year 1917-18), pp. 25-83; H.
Richards, “ Notes on Demetrius zepi Eppunrelos,”
Classical Reviem, vol, xx (1906), p. 598. The
characteristics of Demetrius, and other Greek critics,
are discussed in J. D, Denniston's recent (1924)
volume on “Greek Literary Criticism” Some
incidental illustration of various points in Style will
be found in Roberts's editions of Longinus's On the
Sublime, and Dionysius's Three Literury Letters and
Literary Composition, as well as in his translation of
Aristotle's Rhetorie (Oxford, 1924).
 DEMETRIUS

TABULAR ANALYSIS

[The numbers refer to sections of the treatise,]

1. Preliminary Remarks on the Period, eto,

1-8, The “ members ” (KúÃa): and their appro-
priate length.
9. The “ phrase ” (róupa),
10,31 ff. The “ period ” (mepivõos).
12-18. The periodic and the disjointed style
(épuapvela xureorpo pé, enpuqveia Bnpapery). Number
of members in à period.
19. The narrative period (xepiodos trropr).
20. The rhetorical period (repíoõos fnroperi).
21. The conversational period (mepiodos SiaÃoyucil).
22-24, Periods formed of contrasted or antithetical
members (éÉ dvrinenêvor KbAwy mepiodor).
25. Symmetrical members (xúÃa mapómom).
26-29, Members with similar terminations (6po-
rélevra). Cautions with regard to their use.
30-88. The enthymeme (erdóumma). Difference
between enthymeme and period,
34, 85. The member (xúÃov) as defined by Aris-
totle and Archedemus.

JE. The Four Types of Siyle-—The Elevated Style

36, 87. The four types of style (xapartipes rijs
epuqvelas) are: the plain (ioxvós), the elevated
(ueyaomperis), the elegant (yAagupós), the forcible
(Desvós).
290
 INTRODUCTION

38-127. General subject: the elevated style

(xaparrip peyahorperis, or Adyis), with the foliow-
ing subdivisions : E
(1) Elevation in composition or arrangement,
cúvbecis peyaompemis, 88-74 ;
(2) Elevation in subject matter, rpáypara peyado
mperi (=Grdvoia peyakomperis), 75, 76;
(3) Elevation in diction, Aéfis peyaÃompemiss T7-
18;
(4) Frigidity (tô Juxpór) as the correlative vice of
the elevated style, 1l4-127, [Like elevation, frigidity
arises at three points: (1) Gávea, (2) Aégis, (8)
cúvberes. The very acme of frigidity is reached in
hyperbole, 124-126.]
Special topies in the following sections :
59-67. Figures of speech (cx:jpara Agews).
68-74, Hiatus (cóyrpovois Swrgérror),
78-88, Metaphor (ueragpopd).
89, 90. Simile (cixacia) and comparison (re paão A).
91-98. Onomatopoeic or coined words (dvóguura.
memompéva).
99-102. Allegory (dAAsyopiu).
1038-105. Brevity, aposiopesis, indirect and harsh-
sounding expressions, ete,
106-111. Iipiphoneme (êriporyuo).
112, 118. Poetical colour in prose (rô womrixôr é
Aóyois).
HI. The Elegani Style
128-189. Genexal subject: the elegant style
(xapasrip yAabupós), with the following subdivisions
and topies :
(1) Charm and galety of expression, xaprevrurnds
rui thapôs Aóyos, 128-172.
28
 DEMETRIUS

(a) Kinds of grace and their elements, cid; vó»

xupérar Kai êv Térer, 128-186.
(b) Sources of grace, róro. rijs xáperos, 1987-168,
(a) Sources in diction and composition, rómo:
ris Aégems Kad Ts ouvberews: Figures,
ete., 1387-155.
(5) Sources im subject matter, vórur TOv
mpuypiror: Proverbs, Fables, Compari-
sons, Hyperboles, ete., 156-162.
(8) Difference between the laughable (Tô yehotor)
and the graceful (1d elxupi), 1608-172.
(2) Elegant diction, beautiful and smooth words
(Negis yAugipá : órópuro naXd xai Acta), V78-178,
(8) Elegant composition, cúrdes yAapupá, 179-
185,
(4) Affected style (xupartip KaxófiÃos) as the
correlative vice of the elegant style, 186-189,

IV. The Plain Style

190-285. General subject: the plain style (xupurtip
io yvós), with the following subdivisions :
1) Plain subject matter, mpáymara io xrá, 190,
e) Plain dietion, Ages io xyw), 190, 191.
(3) Plain composition, advôecs toy, 204208,
(4) Arid style (xapaxtip gupós) às the correlative
vice of the plain style, 2936-280.
Special topics in the folowing sections :
191-208. Concerning cleamess, mepi rijs cuqipueims,
[Also: concerning stage-style and concerning resump-
tive pp tom mepl dmrorpererôm uai mepi Emavadibens,
194 f.
209-280. Concerning vividness, mepi ris êvapyeias.
221, 222, Concerning persuasiveness, epi vis 74
Bavóriros.
292
 INTRODUCTION

2923-285. Concerning the epistolary style, mepi vo *

êmurtoAixoU xapaxripos. This is to be regarded
(cf. 285) as a blend of the plain and the gracefu)
styles.
V. The Forcible Style
240-804, General subject: the forcible style
(xaparrip Servos), with the following subdivisions :
(1) Foreible subject matter, zpdypura Bevá, 210,
(2) Forcible composition, cóvderes dev, 24I-STL,
(3) Foreible diction, Acéis Sevj, 272286,
(4) Concerning the unpleasant style, mepi vob
dxdpiros yapartipos, 801-804,
Special topies :
287-298. Concermning figured language, epi Tod
êrynparionévor Adyou
299, 300. Concerning hintus in forcible passages,
mepi ovyrpoúveus êv Betvóryru,

293
 AHMITTPIOTY
[BAAHPEQE]

NEPI EPMENEIAZ
[o zrr meri epasgoz)

I
” e , a A f 4
Pt “Oorep 7 smoinois Giatpeiras Tois péTpOis, oiov
iupérpois! 7%) ecapérpois 7) tois áMors, oira
PEA 4, 1 s Ef Lg a A PV “

Kal mv Epunvelar mv Aoyuciy Braupel nai da

rpivei Tà rakoúueva não, ralámep dvamadovra rOv
Aéyovrá e ku Tê Aeyópevo? adrá, Kai év moAdois
dpois dpilovra TO» Adyor, émei Tor gaspôs dy eim
Koi direrpos Koi drexvs mriywr rôv Aéyovra,
2 Bovierai pérro. Bidvoror dmapriter vã soda
vara, moré per dAmv Bidvorar, otov «os Fixaraiós
dmow é» rj) dpyi tis toropias, “ “Exaraios
Miljoos dde uubeirar” cuvelhymrar vão dá
pola TD icóhp dAw dA, Koi dubw cuyrara-
Afyovow. eviore pévror TO KódÃov dAnv uêv od
cupureparo? Brdrorav, pépos de SAns dhov ds yap
2 olov à Ouérpois Muretus: olov à rpuérpos Spengel.
2 Aéyorrd re Kai Td Mevógicvo Pinckh: Aóyov TÁ re kara
Xeyóueva P,
294
 DEMETRIUS
ON STYLE
I
As verse is articulated by measures (such as the
hemistich,* the hexameter, and the like), so also is
prose style articulated and marked out by what are
called “members.” > These members give rest, one
might say, to the speaker and his discourse ; they set
bounds to its various parts, since it would otherwise
extend itself without limit and would simply run the
speaker out of breath.
But the proper funetion of such members is to
indicate the conclusion of a thought. Sometimes
a member is a complete thought in itself, as for
example Hecataeus opens his History with the words
“ Hecataeus of Miletus thus relates/? where a
complete member coincídes with a complete thought
and both end together, Sometimes, however, the
member constitutes not a complete thought, but
a pat of it, yet a complete part. For just as the
o Cf. uérowr tucémv jn 8 180, The meaning here is
“ short lines, Jong lines, or lines generally.” See 85 4,5.
* gola: limbs of a period, clauses of a sentence, Cj. $34
and Aristotle, Rhetorio, iii. c 9.
* Hecat. Pragm. 382, €. FP. Miiller, F.H.G. à, p. 25.
295
 DEMETRIUS

Tia xetpôsWon
obons dhou TivÔSnos mo dh
uépm adris 0 8
dAms!
êoriv, olov ddrruÃo. ral mixvs” iótar yáp mepi-
vpagnjr êxer TOdTWV TO ueplDv ExaoTor, Kal Bra
pépm' obrw Kal Siavoias rivOs CAms ovons meyádns
êusrepidanfdvorr” dv uépy rivá abris dAdrAnpa dura
Kai aúrd.
3 “Dovep é Ti dpoxi vis "AvaBácems tis Bevo-
óúyros Tô rotdror, “ Apelou roi Ilapvcáridos ”
néxpr Tob “ vecirepos dé Kúpos,” ouvreredeouém
mãoa dudvord corr: rá 5º é abri) xúdda ôdo uépn
pév adris Exdrepór dor, drávora de év éxarépu
mAnpobral tis, iBrov Exovoa mépas, olov “ Aapeiou
xai Ilapucáridos myivorror maides.” Exer pdp Tuva
ddoxAnpiay 1 Sávoia abri Kad” army, Ort Eyévovro
Aapeip Kai Hapvodridt maides. rali donúraos Tô
érepov rdhov, órt “ mpeoBúrepos per "Apragépéns,
vedsrepos dé Kipos.” dote TO pév KOÃov, «bs
ómnt, Brdvorav mepréfes TivA mávim mávrms, ijror
dAmv 7) pépos dAms dÀov.
4 Ác 8 odre néve paxpa moteiv TÃ KDÃo, emei roi
yiverar duerpos 7) cúrbecis 7) SvomaparxoÃovlnros:
obdé yãp 7 mori) Úrêp cbdperpor YAder, ei ui
mou é» CAiyois: yeÃotor vãp TO gérpov Guerpor
eivar, Kat Karaliyovros ToU pérpov êmidediodas
nuês more ipéaro. ore Br Tô pijxos rr rede
mpémov Tois Adyots dk Tv duerpiar, ore 1) purpó-
Tr, êmsi TOL yivorr &v 7) Acyoném Enpã clvõems,
olov 1 roiáde “ d Bios Bpaxós, 7) Téxim ampá, O
1 Shys Vietorius: dy P,
2 mixus Schneider: mixes P.
8 aróre Schneider: à óre (sic) P,
* abre dy Victorius: atire dé P.
296
 ON STYLE, 1, 2-4

arm, which is a whole of a certain kind, has parts

such as fingers and forearm which themselves again
are wholes, inasmuch as cach of them has its own
Kmits and its own parts: so also a complete thought,
when it is extensive, may very well comprise within
itself parts which themselves are integral.
At the beginning cf the Anabasis of Xenophon
an example wi 1 he teu, in the words “ Darius and
Paxysatis” down to “the younger Cyrus.“ S This
is a fully completed thought, of which the two
members contained in it are parts; but each of
these, within its own limits, conveys a meaning
which is in a manner complete. Take the first
words: “ Darius and Parysatis had sons.” The
thought that sons were born to Darius and Parysatis
has its own completeness. The second member, in
the same way, conveys the complete thought that
“the elder was Artaxerses, the younger Cyrus.”
Accordingiy. as I maintain, a “ member “must in
all cases be understood to comprise a thought, either
complete, or a part of the whole complete in itself,
Members should not be made very long; other-
wise the composition becomes unwicldy or hard to
follow. For even poetry, with rave exceptions, is not
written in measures of greater length than sis feet,
since it would be absurd that measure should be
without measure, and that by the time the line comes
to an end we should have forgotten wben ii began.
But if long members are out of place in prose owing
to their unwieldy character, so also are briefmembers,
for the reason that they produce the so-called “ arid “
composition, exemplifed in the words “ life is short,
a Xen, 4nab. à. 1 Apelou ral Dapucóridos yiyrovtar maides
Bio, mpeofó-cpos mêv ' Apralépéns, veúrepos dê Hipos,
297
 DEMETRIUS

xatpôs óEvs” sararxerounévo yãp êoucer 1) cy

des xai mcerepuorionévo; Kai elxoradpóvros
dd Tô uuspá cúpararra Exerv.
5 Tívera: uev odv more Kai parpod rdÃov Kapós,
olov é Trois geyébeoiy, às O Ilhdrwr dmoi, “ró
ydp ô)º mãv róde rorê per aúrós O Deds smopevo-
gevor auprodnyei! mai cuyrvrdel” axedov yãp
TO geyéder 70) Keúhov ouvesioras Kai O Adyos.
ôá roiro «ai éfduerpor fpwor Te dvopáleras
288 v. úmô toU uijxovs Kai mpéror | jpwouw, Kai odx dy
ar” “Ourpov "Tirdda mperóvrus tis ypdipesev' rois
"Apxidóxos Bpaxécu, olov
dxvunévm civráAn
“oi
ris cds maprepe Ppévas;
ovde rois "Avaxpéorros, <cs>! 7ó
dep” Vdwp, dep” olvor, & mai
mebvorros yáp O pruos arexvs vépovros, od
Haxonévou Tpwos.
2 raraxeconméro «q « cexepraricadry Schneider,
2 vô yãp mir sine à codd. Platonis,
3 rorê pér codd. Plat,: vô uér É
* mopevógero» cuurodye? codd. Platonis: smopevógeros T9D-
mys P.
5 ypáypere» Victorius: yndyer é P,
8 «às post -os omissuro. restitui; cf. 54 268, 270, 278,

a Hippocr. Áphorism. ii 1 (Littré, Gluvres complites

SP Hippocrate, iv. 458). In the text of Hippocrates, dé is
found in the clauses that follow the first, as also in $ 288
below. By à réxry Hippocrates probably. meant “the Art,”
viz. Medicine. réx»n was not, to him, à manual of rhetoric.
See, further, W. H. 8. Jones (Loeb Hippocrates, Preface),
298
 ON STYLE, 1. 4-5

art long, opportunity feeting.” * For the composi-

tion here seems to be minecd fine, and may fail to
impress becanse everything about it is minute,
Occasionaliy, however, a long member is appro-
priate. For example, in elevated passages, as when
Plato says: “ At times God himself teketh part in
guidance of the universe and aideth its revolution,” à
The elevation of the language corresponds, it may be
said, with the size of the member. That is why
the hexameter is called heroice, because its length
fits it for heroes. The Iliad of Homer could not
fittingly be written im the brief lines of Archilochus,
as
Staff sorrow-stricken ; º
or
Who made thy wits swerve from the irack ? é
nor in the lines of Anacreon, as

Bring water, bring wine too, page-boy.”

That is just the rhythm for an old man drunk, but

not for a hero in battle.
“The aphorism became unpopular, even among the Coan
physicians, and gave place to the rhetorical prose style char-
acteristic of the early fourth century. . « « The aphorism, as
a Greek literary form, died out, at least as far as medicine
and science generally were concerned,” The advyantages of
variety were forgotten.
à Plat. Politicus 2690 rô yãp mâv rorê gêr abrds O Des
cumodmyeil mopevôgeror Kal cuyruxhei, rorê d! avixer, lre al
meptodo: rod mporixovros abrp mérpor elhaprorw fôr xpbvou,
KTA,
* Archil Pragm. 89 Bergk P.L.6.*—Here, and else
where, the verse renderings are, for the most part, from the
hand of Mr. À. 8, Way.
& Archil, Progm. 94 Bergk'.
* Anaer. Fragm. 62 Bergkê.
299
 DEMETRIUS

6 Maxpod pêv 57 xcÃov Kapós pivorr” dy more dd

mM » a

vodra: pivorro Sº dy more Kai Bpaxéos, olov djrar

- em A
ptcpóv qL uv Aeyóvruwr, cs O Sevopbdr dum,
ôrt dpixorro oi “EdAmues éxi rór TyleBdar mora-
e h] !

póu ez. ce
Caúros
A 8
dé dv péyas prev od, Kadds
1m L 1 A À 1 8
862
E RR)
cj Ma

ydp mukpóruTi «ai droxomi Tod prôpoo ovvar

epdim ral 1) muxpórys TOO a moragod AA
ral xdpes: el
dé oúrws exreivas adrô elmev, “oúros dé ueyéda
pév mv êXárrwr tóiv monAóiv, Káldes dé diep-
eBdMero ndávras," rod spérovros areróyyaver
dv, noi eviyvero O
»” 1 3! e A
Aeyóperos Juxpós
+, Eq .
aMá
ALA
epi +

buxpórmros uév Vorepor Aexréor,

7 Tv dé much rúwr Káv Seróryri xpiois dor
e + Eai £ 3 L os *

dervórepor yêp TO ev dMiyw moAd Euparógevor ai

upoSpórepov, Sô nai oi Adrwves Bpaxukóyo. bro
demórgros: Kai 7ô uév emmáooe» cúvronor Kal
Bpoxú, nai mãs deomórns BovAw povocúldaBos, rá
z 1 E ES 4 IA 4

dé ixeredemm papór Kai Tô ddvpecdar. ab Avrai

«00º “Ounpor Kai ywÃai mai pocal rd Bpaduriros, + E)

rouréoTIv ÚmO parpoÃoyias, Kai oi yéporres parpo- 2 e

Adyoi did mv dobéverar.

8 Iopddemypa de Bpayeias cuviéoeus TO Aaxe- + / Z

à raAds uér, péyes 5º ob Menophontis codd.

s Xen. 4nab. iv. 4.8. Demetrius's quotations often differ

slightly from the traditional Greek texts.
“The writer ho is a “frost,” through his bad taste.
Cf. 88 114-127; Avrist. Rhet, iii. c 8: Longinus, De subi.
ec. 8, 4 When the poetaster Theognis (X/wr) was produc-
800
 ON STYLE, 1. 6-8

Sometimes, then, a long member may be appro-

priate for the reasons given; at other times a short
one may be fitting, as when our subject is something
small. Kenophon, for example, says of the river
Teleboas, in the passage where he describes the
axrival of the Greeks on its banks: “ this viver was
not large; beautiful it was, though.'2 The slight
and broken rhythm brings into relicf both the emall-
ness of the river and its grace. Jf Xenophon had
expanded the idea and said: “ this river was in size
inferior to most rivers, but in beauty it surpassed
them all)” he would have failed in taste, and we
should have had the so-called frigid? writer, Con-
cerning frigidity, however, we must speak later.
Short members should also be employed in
foreible passages. For there is greater force and
intensity when much meaning is conveycd in a few
words. Accordingly it is just because of their
force that the Lacedaemonians are chary of speech.
Command is always concise and binef, every master
being curtº towards bis slave, but supplication
and lamentation are lengthy. The Prayers in
Homer are represented as wrinkled and lame? in
allusion to their tardiness, which is tantamount to
saying their prolixity. Old men, too, are prolix
owing to their feebleness.
As an instance of brieí composition the following
may be given: “ The Lacedaemonians to Philip :
ing a tragedy at Athens, the rivers in Thrace were frozen
(Aristophanes, dch. 139; cf. Thesm. 170).
* Greek “ monosyllabie.” “Of Erasmus, in the .ddages,
* qmnis herus servo monosyllabus,”
“ Hom. R. ix, 502:
«ul ydp re Aval elos Aids robpa. meyáhoio,
xwkal ve puoal re mapaBhomrés vº ponho,
y 301
 DEMETRIUS

Supório, Dimmp: Aovicios é» Ropivbp.” moAd

vãp Bewórepor paivera, puder oúrw Bpaxéws, à)
A ô 4 4 em € Dé e F Ri]

clrep adro uarpos exrelvartes eirov, Ort O Atovi-

= ? Ed

: , . a
viós more uéyas Or TÚparvos Womep 0d ôus viv
iBunredewm oixel Kopidor. ou yáp rt dia moh»
m A ” a

Pndêv êmumAnée. Ecórei, GAMA Semyúuari, Koi ppaAAóv

e A 1 m

tw ALddorovri, odx expoBodvri: obrms êxtetvógue-

vor éxAverar rob Aóyou Tô Guuicêv rai cpodpór.
domep rá Onpia cvorpéborta cavrã páxeror,
. A

rotaúrm tis dv eim cvorpody Kai Adyou ralárep

êomepanévou mpôs dewérgra.
“H dé rowúry Bpoxórus nara tr cúvdeow
1 4
8
róuua dvondleras. dpilovrar 5º abrô Gde, róguga
Eq 5 [4 LONA 8º TA DO Eq

êoriy TO KwAoU EXarTorv, oior TO mpoepnuévor, Tó

E 1

re “Asics é Kopivôw,” nal 1ôó “vB

ceavróv,” mai TO “êmov dem," vã TO copôr.
f 2 1 1 te oo 1 mm mm

êore vôp rol dmopbeynarixor À Bpaxóros iai

Z 3 2 E DS) ,
yropodoyicór, Kai coperepor TO év OAiy aroAÃdy
Sudvorar mopolodas, nabdrep év rois omrépuaciy
agr. dévôpov ddr | Buváuers: ei O” êxreivorró mis tip
prumo év parpois, diducnadia yiveral TES Kal
o Í

fnropeia. dvri yrúpmo.

10 Tor uévror rcdAw Kal KouuáTeov ToLoUTIWV Ouy-
mubeévor pôs dinda ouvioravrar ai tepiodos
t 1 Ea f . ,

ôvoualónevas. Eoriy yãp 7 mepiodos clermna éx

4!

º Cf. 54 102, 241, This Laconic letter to Philip of

Macedon is an apt reminder that other tyrants have ere
802
 ON STYLE, a. a-10

Dionysius at Corinlh.”2 Por it is felt to be more

foreible when thus briely put than if the Lace-
daemonians had said at full length that Dionysius,
although once a mighty monarch like yourself, now
resides at Corinth in a private station. Once the
statement is made in detail, it resembles not a rebuke
but a thing narrated ; it suggests the expositor rather
than the intimidator. The passion and vebemence
of the words are enfeebled when thus extended,
As a wild beast gathers itself together for the attack,
so should discourse gather itself together as in a coil
in order to increase its force,
Such brevity in composition gives rise to the term
“chip” or “phrase,” A “phrase” is commonty
defined as “ that which is less than a member,” for
example the already quoted words “ Dionysius at
Corinth,” and the two sayings of the sages “ Enow
thyself” and “ Follow God” For brevity suits
apophthegms and maxims; and it is a mark of
superior skill to compress much thought in a little
space, just as seeds contain potentially entire trees.
Draw out the maxim at full length, and it becomes
a lecture or a piece of rhetorie rather than a maxim,
From the union of a number of these members
and phrases are formed what are called “ periods,”
Now the period is a combination of members or
now fallen from power—and become sehcolmasters, teaching
for a pittance in some gay city. For the brevity of. “ And
as Jehu entered in at the gate, she said, Had Zimri peace,
who slew his master?” (2 Kings, ix. 81).
> côugo: à thing chopped or cut, chip, segment, short
clause (Latin incisum, French incise). Às terms of punciua-
tion we still use “comma,” “eolon,” “period” The
metaphor in “ period ” is that of a “ full-orbed,” “ rounded,”
“ circular ” sentence ; qf. 88 10, 11,
803
 DEMETRIUS

KdAmwv 7) copudrov edxaraoTpópws eis! cv Grd-

vorar Ti” dmoremuévay dampriapévor, otov “ ud-
Aora pév elvera roõ vopilem cuupépew 2 módei
Achúodos Tôv vógov, eira, read rob maos elvexa Toi
Kafpiou, buolóynoa. goúrois, os, dv olós re à,
ouvepeiv”” arm, vãp 9 meplodos êx zprd» nec
odoa Kaumiv TE Tiva Kai ovoTpodip Éxer rará Tô
védos.
1 "Apiororédys dé Opilera, Ty mepiodov obrus,
" mepiodós dot Mégis dpyij Exovca Koi redeurijy,"
pda Ko Kai mperóvrws ópraáuevos: cóBbs yap
óé rip mepiodor Aéywy cupaiver, óri dpreraé modev
Kai dimoteXevrijaei toi eo émeiperor eis 71 TEdOS,
Domep oi ôpoueis dpebévres" ral yãp êxelxoy
ovveupalverar q dpxi) rod ôpógov Tô rédos.
êvDev Kal mepiodos wvoudabn, amerasdeica, rais
dBois tais «vrAveidéo: wai meprwdevuévars. rob
rabóÃov! oúdev 7 meploõós dor+ mA” mota, cúrbeois.
ei yo» Avbeim aúrijs rô mepumBenpévor tea peTagur-
Tebeim, rã Her mpóypara géver Tá aúrá, mepiodos
de oóx dora, olov ei Tiv mpoepmévov res Tod
Anmoobévovs mepiodor draorpéas eixos Ddé mws,
2 eis Schenkl: opôs P,
2? dmorekevriver mo rei HH Stephanus: dmorekeuriaa: groref
ai P.
3 ral xabóhou Radermacher: «môbhoy P. CÊ 8108 init.,
8 119 ini,

e Dem. Lept. imit. "Avôpes deuoral, múMoTa jêr elvexa

Tod vouifem cupgpéper ti) móke Aekúctas rdv vógor, elra xai rod
mudos elvexa TOb KRaBplov, emokóynca Taúrors, ds dm» olós Tº &,
guvepei.
* Aristot, Rhet. iii. 9 Aéyw dê areplodor NéEw Exovour dpxip
804
 ON STYLE, 1. 10-11

phrases, arranged dexterously to fit the thought to

be expressed. For example: “ Chiefiy because 1
thought it was to the interest of the State that the
law should be abrogated, but also for the sake of
Chabrias” boy, 1 have agreed to advocate my clients
case to the best of my ability.” e This period, con-
sisting of three members, has a certain rounding and
concentration ab the end,
Aristotle defines the period thus: “a period is a
poxtion of speech that has a beginning and an end.” ?
The definition is good and fitting. For the very use
of the word “ period ” implies that there has been
a beginning at one point and will be an ending at
another, and that we are hastening towards a definite
goal as runners do when they leave the starting-
place. For at the very beginning of their race the
end of the course is before their eyes. Whence
the name “period, the image being that of paths
traversed in an orb or cirele. In general terms, a
period is nothing more or less than a particular
arrangement of words, Anyhow, if its circular form
should be destroyed and the arrangement changed,
the subject matter remains the same, but period
there will be none. This may be illustrated by some
such inversion as the following in the period of
Demosthenes already quoted: “I ill support the
sai rexevrip aúrip xa8! abrip xal péyedos edobvorror “By
a period Í mean a portion of speech thet has in ilself a
beginning and an end, being at the same time not too big
to be taken in aí a glance ” (W. Rhys Roberts, Translation
of Aristotle's Rhetoric in Works of Aristoíle, vol. xi,
Oxford, 1924).
“ Or, “ For, in the case of runners, the beginning and the
end of the course find their expression in one word, vis in
meplodos "+ R. Y. Tyrrell, who refers to Plntarch, Sol. 4,
for mepioõos as meaning
a coming round to the starting-point.
805
 DEMETRIUS
ç
*cuvepd robrois, àx dvôpes "Alyvaio: diÃos ydp
goi eoruv O vids Kafpiov, wohd Se uãMÃov rodrou
W môlis, 7) cuvermeir pe dixaióv dorur” od yãp
ér1 oUBauol 1) mepiodos edpiokerar.
Téveois 8 adris jõe. vis counvelas 7 mér óvo-
tem
ty

pdlerar rarTeorpaupévm, oiov 7] rarã mepiódous

éxovca, os 7 Tv Ivompareior proper! «ai
Popytov Kai "Axiddgavros: dÃa yãp Bd meprdmwr
eloiv ouvexidv obdév rt Exarrov mjnep 7 Ouipou
soimows Sº” Etanérpwr 1) dé TIS dimpnuévm Epumveia
Kadeiror 1) eis KdÃo AcAvuérm oU pdÃo dAMÃoS
cumprauéra, cs À Texaraiov, Kai rá mAciora TAv
“Hpodórou, xai dAws 7) dpyaia mãoa. mapádeypna
obriis, “ Exaratos Mijoros dde uubeiras rdde
vpáge, as mor doxet dAgbéa elvar: oi yap EAM-
vav Adyor moAÃoL TE Kal yedoios, cos uol pulvorrar,
eioiv.” comep yãp cecwpevupérors Em” dAAjÃos TA
roÃa former Kai êmeppunévos Kal ob Exovow
cúvõecw ovd” dyréperor, odde Bonboivra. dAMjÃos
Comep év tais mepródors.
13 “Eote yoiy Td pev mepioduca xdÃa Trois Aidors
rois durepeidovor Tás mepipepeis oréxas Kai our»
éxovor, TÃ dE Tijs dwdeAunérms epumreias drsppigu
er» pévois mAncior Aldos uóvor | Kai od cuyrequévors.
14 Ai ral mepreéeouévor Exei Ti 7) Epumveia % mpi»
Kai edoralés, cowep «ai Tô dpyata àyádpara,
dp réxim élóxer 1) ovoroAm) mai ioyrórms, | dê
vv jerã vara epumveia trois Desdiou êpyois
2 imropesir Weil: jyrôr P,
306
 ON STYLE, 1. W-lá

complainants, men of Athens. For Chabrias” son is

dear to me, and much more so is the State, whose
cause it is right for me to plead,” º No longer is
there any trace of the period.
The origin of the period is as follows. There are
two kinds of style. The first is termed the “com-
pacted ” style, namely, that which consists of periods.
It is found in the rhetorical discourses of Isocrates.
Gorgias, and Alcidamas, in which the periods succeed
one another with no less regularity than the hexa-
meters in the poetry of Homer. The second style
bears the name of “ disjointed,” inasmuch as the
members into which it is divided are not closely
united, Hecataeus is an example; and so for the
most part is Herodotus, and the older writers in
general, Here is an instance: “ Hecataeus of
Miletus thus relates. 1 write these things as they
seem to me to be true, For the tales told by the
Greeks are, as it appears to me, many and absurd.” ?
Hexe the members seem thrown upon one another
in a heap without the binding or propping, and srith-
out the mutual support, which we find in periods.
The members in a pexiodie style may, in fact, be
compared to the stones which support and hold
together a vaulted dome. The members of the dis-
connected style resemble stones which are simply
thrown about near one another and not built into a
structure.
So there is something trim and neat in the older
method of writing. It resembles ancient statues,
the art of which was thought to consist in their
succinctness and spareness. The style of the
writers who followed is like the works of the sculptor
S Cf SIO supra * Hecat. Fragm. 382 (GA 52 supra).
307
 DEMETRIUS

iôm Coser Exouod ri Kal peyodeior Kai axpiBés

Eua.
15 Aoráio vàp dy) Eye é pre, mepródors ôÃov róv
Adyar cuveipeatas, sos é Vopyiov, pijre Oradedd-
cêar dhov, es rã dexata, ia. penixdas pãAhov
ar duuborépmy- ouro vp Kai eyrarácievos toras
Kai dmhois água, Kai CÉ dupoiv jdús, Kai obre
púda Buurucos, otre pda coprarucás. ródv de!
ras muKvAS mepródous Aeyóvray gi ai rebola
Padics éorãomw, ds émi TOY oiveupévesv, oi TE
dkovovTEs vavrudos Sã vô dridavor, roré dé ab
êxpuvodos rà TEM ródv mepródwv mpoeidóres nai
mpoavaBodo.
16 Tv dé mTepródmr ai nucpóTepas per éx ôuoly
Ko cuvribevrar, al uéyrotaL dE Ex TETTApev
rô 5º úrêp rérrapa odkér' dv évrôs ely meproducis
cuuuerpias.
w Pivovra Sé mai vpixwmÃo! Ties: Kai govórcoL
dé, às rolodom dmÃãs mepródous. órav yãp TO
ridÃov uíjós Te éxm Kal Koumijy Karô vó Téos,
róre movóxwhos mepiodos yiverar, rabdaep d
roidõe, “ “Hpodórov “Alixapraoios ioropins dmó-
deéio mõe” Koi mdAmv, “MW yãp cabis dpdcis
mod Ps mapéxeras raís ródv ucovóvreov Bra
volous.” dm Gppoiy pévror cuvigraras ú dr
mepiodos, eai úmô T98 pjncous Kai ÚmTO vis raparis
Ri epi 7ô rédos, Úrô de Barépou ouBé more.
"Ev dé vais ouplérois mepiódors Tô relevralov
“eos Harpórepor xp? efvar, Kal Doxep mepiéxor
é Schneider: ve P,
3 Winckelmann comments on this section in his Geschichta
der Runst des Alterthums (ed. 1764), p. 240.
308
 ON STYLE, 1, 14-18

Pheidias, since it already exhibits in some degres

the union of grandeur with finish.e
My own personal view is that discourse should
neither, like that of Gorgias, consist wholly of a
string of periods, nor be wholly disconnected like
the ancient writings, but should rather combine the
two methods. It will then be elaborate and simple
at the same time, and draw charm from both sources,
being neither too untutored nor too artificial. Public
speakers who employ accumulatcd periods are as
giddy-pated as tipsy men, and their hearers are
sickened by the lack of true persuasiveness ; some-
times, indeed, they loudly declaim the ending of the
periods which they foresee and Jar.mial:,
The smaller periods consist of two members, the
largest of four. Anything beyond four would trans-
gress the due bounds of the period.
There are also periods composed of three membeis ;
and others consisting of a single member, which
are called “ simple” periods. Any member which
possesses the requisite length and is rounded at
the end can form a single-membered period. For
example: “ Herodotus of Halicarnassus sets forih
in this History the result of his inquívies.” ? Again:
“Clear expression foods with light the hearer's
mind.” e For the simple period these are the two
essentials, the length of the member and its final
rounding. If either of these conditions be wanting,
there is no period.
In composite periods the last member should be
longer than the rest, and should as it were contain
+ Herod, À. 1 quis,
º Scriptor Incertus. [This phrase, abbreviated as “ Ser.
Ine.,” will be used to indicate that the authorship of a
particular ilustration is unknown.)
.2 309
 DEMETRIUS
Kai mepreiindos Tilha. oúrm yãp peyadompesmis
4

êoror ral ceu mwepiodos, eis oeprór Kai juapór

Ajyouca. rdÃov ei dé ui), AmoKenouuévm KoL ycoAf
- 4 Fal

óuoia. mapédeypa 8º adris Tô rordror, “ob yãp m 1 Rr “& 2 1

rô eimeiv cadôs xadóv, dA Tó eimóvia êpãom

x > A Em [4 > 1 1 a EA Ea

vã eipquéva.”
19 Tpia Sê yém mepiddwv éoriv, ioropurd, ôdta-
, 1 EA 4 3 2 e 4

Aoyuci, PnTOpueh. ioTopuel) per pre nEpimyuÉvI,

nim 13
dreiuévm aogodpa, dAO
5 E 0) LAÃG
peraéd A
dugoir,
> E
«ds
x

gire puropucr Dóéeiev nai dmibavos dd TYv mept-

aywyir, Tô ceuvóv TE Exovoa Kai ioropikdv éx Tijs
dmhórnros, olov 7 rouide, “ Aapelou Kai Hapvod-
x 4 e € A se t 1 2

ridos viyvovras " uéxpu Tod “ vecirepos dé Kbpos.”

édpaio yáp vue nai dopalei raralée êoreev
€ 4 Ea 1 > Aa EA ”

aúrijs À dmódeors.
co Tis de pyropieis mepródov cuveorpaunévov vô
eldos nal Kvkhcôv ral Beduevov orpoyyúdov oTó-
paros tai yetpôs cuumeprayonérms TE puÔuA, olov
vis “udliora qév elvera TOU vopilemw cuudépew
rf môder Aedvofas vor végor, elra mai voô mudos
sr. elvera 700 Nafpiou, | Guoldynoa robrois, «dg dp
olós te &, auvepeiv.” oxedov yap edbds ex ris
dpxiis 9 mepiodos ) Tomide ouveoTpanuévor rt
êxer Kai Eupaivov, ôre odx dy daojÉerev eis dmhoUv
EA 43 a < k) a > Ê > s Los

rédos.
23 Avidoyin) dé dori mepiodos 7 ém. dveruévm Kai
2 Ser. Ing, à Xen, Anab.i. 13 0f.88 supra.
* veúrepos dê RKipos is an incomplete iambic line, with a
firm basis in the long first syllable of Kôpos.
& Cf. Aristophanes, Fragm. 897 xpona: yãp abrob [se
Euripides] rod orômeros rip crpoyyiky, and Horace, Áre P,
810
 ON STYLE, +. 18-22

and embrace them all. When the member with

which it concludes is long and stately, the period
itself will be stately and impressive; otherwise it
will be broken and will seem to imp. The following
is an instance of the period here recommended :
“For it is not to speak nobly that is noble, but
after speaking to perform what has been spoken.” a
There are three kinds of period: for narrative,
dialogue, oratory. The narrative period should be
neither too carefully moulded, nor yet too relaxed,
but between the two; so framed that it does not
seem rhetorical and vunconvincing through its
moulded shapeliness, but draws its dignity and power
of exposition from its simplicity. An instance of
such a period is furnished by the words “ Darius and
Parysatis ” down to “the younger Cyrus.» The
cadence of the period here resembles a sure and
well-based stop in a line of verse.s
The form of the oratorical period is tense and
circular ; it needs a neatly rounded mouth * and a
hand which follows closely each movement of the
rhythm, For example: “ Chiefly because 1 thought
it was to the interest of the State that the lay shonld
be abrogated, but also for the sake of Chabrias” boy,
I have agreed to advocate my clients” case to the
best of my ability.” * From the very outset such
a period contains something tense—something which
clearly hints that it will not end as a “ simple”
period
The period of dialogue is one which remains lax,
298 “ Grais dedit ore rotimdo | Musa loqui.” Contrast ora
vasto, and xeleow diepprqeáce (Aristoph. Nub, 878).
“ Dem. Lept., êinit.s cj. 10 supre.
* 'Lhe principle of suspense is meant,
êu
 DEMETRIUS
Em 4
dmhovorépa risne ioropiijs;
aa
«al , gols
A, > g
Eupalvovoa,
ôr: mepiodós éorw, womep à rotdde, “ KaréByv 4

x8és eis rop Hecpasã ” uéxpr rob “ dre vir mporrov

dyovres.”
E) 2,
êméppenrar yàp dAMijÃos TÃ roda éb
k) z A TAA A, A DA 31:

erépw* Erepov, Womep é» rois Stakevpévors Adyois,

2” E f Z

nai dmojéavres molis dy evvonbeiuer”? rara vá

rédos, Ori TO Aeyógevor mepiodos jr. dei pap
psroéd dmpnuévas re Kai rareorpanpévos Aéfemws
rijv ôrahoyuemy mepiodov ypágeclas, mai pueuuyué-
A 1 Es

vm» dgoiav Guporépois. mepdwv ger clôm rocdde. »” E

22 Tivovra dé nai EE dvriceruévmr KoúAmy repiodor,

7
dvrixenéveuv dé fror rois mpáyuaor, olov É mAéewr
pév ôtà tis ipmeipou, meledcwv! dé Bi Ts Baldo-
ons,” % dugborépoirs, rj ve Adfer nai Trois mpdy- o Y El f

paoty, diomep 7) aum) mepiodos Sde éxer.

23 Korã dé TO dvópara uóvor Grruneiuera Ka
voidde êoriv, olor Às 6 rir Elémr mapaBardy
tô “Hpoanhei grow, Ore “rd uér êmimovor tai
moducivôvvor qov Blov émolnoer, vis dé mepi-
BAentorv xai mepráxntor Tijv dúcur rarégimger”
dorixerror yãp ral àpbpor &pbpm, Kal oúrvôecuos
cuvbéouy, Ôpuora Guoiois, Kai TádÃa 6€ xará róv
abróv rpóror, Td per “emoinoev” vó “rarécrn-
cer,” vê de “émimovor”
>
vô
El
Cepibdemror;”
1 6
TO3? ERA 1 cé f >» A

dé “molunivôuvor ” vó “arepiudynrov,” ral ôMus

Ev pôs é», ôuoror map” âuoLOV, 7 dvramóBoors.
As

2a "Eori dé Kódda, À um) dvrineipreva dupalver rivê

cá ao

2 ioropexijs Vietorius: pyropueis P.

à êrépy edd.: êxarépo P,
? êuvonfeiner Spengel: ervonbôner P.
4 ricica , . . mejevom codd. Isocratis.
* Plat. Rep.i, 1 xaréBy» x0ês eis Ileuporô peró Dhaúxmvos roi
812
 ON STYLE, 1. 21-24

and is simpler than that of narrative, It segreely

betrays the fact that it is a period. For instance t
“1 went down yesterday to the Peiraeus” as far
as the words “ since they were now celebrating 1%
for the first time.” * The members are flung one
upon another as in the disjointed style, and when we
reach the end we can hardly realize that the words
formed a period. For the period used in dialogue
should be a form of writing midway between the
resolved and the compacted style, compounded of
both and resembling both. Such are the different
kinds of period.
Periods can also be formed of contrasted members.
The antithesis may Be in the thought, as “ sailing
across the mainland and marching across the sea," E
Or it may be twolold, of thought and of expression,
as in this same period,
Members which are only verbally contrasted may
be illustrated by the comparison drawn between
Helen and Hercules: “to the man he gave a hfe
Jaborious and peritous, for the woman he made her
beauty to be admired and coveted.”* Here article
is opposed to article, connective to connective, like to
like, from the beginning to the end: “ caused
to “ gave,” “ admired ” to “laborious,” “ coveted “
o “perilous” The correspondence of one thing
with another, of like with like, runs throughout.
There are some members which, although not
really opposed to one another, are apparentiy anti-
“Aploreros mporensógevos ze 7 Bei kal éra np dopripy Bovhd-
rpbror morjooueiy fire iv
dB E Ógre TO crparumed
Ba vãs dimeipou, mebcdon dE dê ris Fairy Tur up
tavrop feútus, rôv 5 “Ade Diopútas,
* Tsocr. Bro. Hel. 17.
 DEMETRIUS

dvrifecw did 75 TD oxjuari duribéreos yeypidla,

rabámep 7ó map” "Emyápuo TO momrj memay-
uévov, Ori “rórca mer é» mijvors Eooy PP róra
de rapá rávois Eyosv. ro aúro* pev var eipirau,
Kai oúdér evarrior O dé Tpómos ris eppnveias
pepupimprévos* dvribeciv Tira mhovôvr doucev.
GA? oúros pév laws yeAromoridy oúrws dvr-
dO nice, Kai dua ckcómrwr robs púropas.
25 “Eor; dé Kai mapópoia xódÃa, árwa apóia
dy role êm apxis, ciov
ôwpyroi TE mélovro, mapáppproi Tº Exéeoow
7 ds êmi védovs, às 4 100 Iavmyupirod doxyi,
“aoAldris efaúuaca vódv TÃS mavyyópas cuv-
apayóvrey A Tobs yupvicods ) dpósvas | nura-
ornodyrwv.” | eldos dé TOU mapopgolov Tô iodrmAov,
êmáv loas Em rã rdda Tàs cvAÃaBás, domep
Oovrvdida, “es obre dy muvôdvovras drasiovr-
Tur TO épyor, ois 1eº Emijtedes eim eidévor odx
dperdelóvrav” ioóraor pe 5) rodro,
26 “Ouotorédevra ôé édor Tê eis poa rarakijyorra,
tirou sis Svépara tabrás* ciomep Exer émi rob “od
& aúróv Kai lvTa éeyes Kacds, Kai vôv dor

1 qb airô apogr. : uórd P,

2 pemeumuévos Muretus; peuyuévos PD,
? ols re Thucyd,: als ro DP: fort. ols º, sic enim sedecim
(non septendecim) syllabae eveniunt.
é raira P: corr. edd,

* Epich. Fragm. 147, G. Kaibel, CGF Cf Arist.

Bhet. ij. e. 9, 1410 b 5.
* The special reference is to assimilation of sounds,
814
 ON STYLE, 1, 24-26

thetical owing to the antithetic form in which they

are written. Such is the pleasantry of the poet
Epicharmus: “One time in their midst was 1,
another time beside them 1,'s The same thing is
said, and there is no real opposition. But the turn
of style, counterfeiting an antithesis, suggests a
desire to mislead, Probably the comic poet em-
ployed the antithesis to raise a laugh, and also in
mockery of the rhetoricians.
There are also symmetrical? members. Among
these the symmetry may be found at the beginning,
as
Yet might they by presents be won, and by pleadings be
pacifed “3

or at the end, as in the opening passage of the

Ponegyric: “1 have often wondered at the con-
duct of the men who convened the assemblies and
instituted the gymnastic contests,”? Under the
heading of symmetry of members comes equality of
members, which occurs when the members contain
an equal number of syllables, as in the following
sentence of Thucydides: “ This implies that neither
those who are questioned disown, nor those who are
concerned to know censure, the business,” 2 Such,
then, is equality of members.
“ Homocoteleuta” are members which have à
similar termination. They may end with the same
word, as im the sentence: “ You are the man who,
when he was alive, spoke to his discredit, and now
assonance : an approximation to riyme, internal or terminal
—Bwpyrol . . . mapéppnTor, curayayórrar . .. KaraoTuodnre,
* Hom, Il. ix, 526.
3 Isoer, Panegyr. 1,
* Thuecyd. à 5. The “business” is Ehai of piracy.
815
 DEMETRIUS

28». Oavóvra! | ypádbers narcds"- à) órar eis cuMaBir

raradiym ti” adrjy, monep rã éx 700 Havyyu-
tcoU mpoepnnéva.,
gn” Xpijou E ciy rowdrwr row Emopadis.
obre yáp deuwids Aéyovri emimijdera: ExAber yap mijy
Sewóryra | epi adrô repôpeia ral dpovris.
Bjão 8º uiy volto smomi Qeóroumos. «ar-
nyopór yãp Tôv Duimaov piu dnoiy, “ dvôpo-
dóvor dé tijy púciy ôvres, dvôporópvor rôv rpóror
foav* Kai Exadotvro uêv éraipor, four dé éraipor.”
7 ydo Cuoórns À epi rá «ida Kai dvrideos
exAves rir dewórura did vi raxorexriav. Bunôs
vãp Téxuns ob deirar, GAMA dei Tpómor Tu abrodua
elvar êmi ródv TorodTwv Karuyopidv Kai drÃã Tá
Aeyópieva.
es Oúre Sirva év Sewóryr: xpújoma Tá Torira, ds
êdeita, ore é adfeo: Kal ilcow dmhodv yãp
civar Boúlstar Kai ámoigror Tó mádos, duolws dé
rob vô bos. é» voir mois "Aprororédous crepl
Bucarocórms é mv "Abnvalwr moh Sbvpópevos ei
pér oúrws elmo: Gr. “moiar TorbrTmv móAiy eihov
vor exOpór, olar rir iBiav mod dmiiecar,”
eumabos dv elpnicis el nai ddupricós: ei de
mapópmoror adrô mowjosr “rolar ydp moh Tô
éxBpdr rormiry! EXaBov, ômrolov iv idiar dar
éBadov,” od ua Tor Átia mábos rivijoes ovde éXeor,
dAMa Tórv raloúuevov Kiavoipédwra. Tô yãp é»
* árobaróvra Orth, coll. 8 211: neque Cavóvra neque
êmobavóvra apud Arist. het. iii 9: Bavária P,
* Ser. Inc: cf. Avistot. Rhet. iii, 9.
* Theopomp. Fragm. 249, Muller, F.H.G. i. p. 320,
* On the principle that “ facit indignatio versus,”
816
 ON STYLE, 1. 26-98

that he is dead write to his discredit” a; or they

may end with the same syllable, as in the passage
already quoted from the Panegyric of Isocrates.
The use of this kind of members is full of risk,
They are ill-suited for forcible declamation, since the
artífice and study which they involve impairs the
force of discourse. Theopompus proves our point
when, in arraigning the friends of Philip, he exclaims :
“ Men-slayers in nature, they were men-harois in
life; they were called comrades, but were con-
cubines,"? The similarity in the members, and the
antithesis between them, impairs the vigour of the
expression through the trick of art. For anger needs
no artº; in such invectives the wording should be
simple, and, in a manner, impromptu.
Such devices, as 1 have shown, do not contribute
to force of style. They ave not appropriate to out-
bursts of passion, or to delineations of character, For
simplicity and naturalness is the mark alike of passion
and of character-drawing. In the dialogue of Aris-
totle On Justice, for instance, a speaker laments
the fate of Athens. If he asks “what city had they
taken from their enemies as great as their own city
which they had lost,” d he will have spoken with
feeling and mournfuliy. But if he makes. the
members of the sentence end with similar sounds *:
“hat so great city from their enemies had they
taken as their own city which they had forsaken,”
you may depend upon it that he will not excite
emotion or pity, but rather the so-called “ mirth
amid tears.” 7 For illjudged ingenuity of this kind
& Aristot. Fragm. 71, ed. Berol. v. p. 1497.
* Lit. “symmetrical,” Terminal rhyme is here meant,
* Cf. Xen. Hellen. vii, 2, 9 mávras 88 vobs mapivras vóre me
Tô bori sAauolyekus elysr, where Il. vi. 484 seems meant, a?
 DEMETRIUS
a ; 1
mevoõe, mailew, xará tm” mapomiar, TO TA
rotadra év rois mábea. raxorexveiv éort,
29 Tíverar pévror ye xpjomá more, os 'Ápioro-
rédns noir, “ êym ex uêv "Abnróy elo Eráyepa
FAlov dd Tóv Baorléa róv péyar, êx dé Errayelomy
eis PAbijvas dia, ou xeódva ER uéyau E
ei yoiy > El

Egédors Tô érepov “ pépav, cuvagaspjon eai TIP

xdpur 1) yáp peyalnyopia cuvepyoi dy! rá roratra
Ka, ómoia réu Popyiou Tá m7oMá dyribera real
vó» Iooxpárous. mepi uév 8) TOv mapopoluv
radra.
so
sabéreo OE cvbiunga memusdo
Arapéper? de êvdi,
vibe, dm à pão
iddov Tide, óri 1) pev
mepiodos cúvbeors ris cart mepinypéva)! db ijs ral
cSvópaoTaL, TO de evbópmpa é» TD dravoruar Exei
a L 1 A 3 y 2 sm

rir Odvapuy Kal adoracew Kai Eorur 1) pév mepiodos

rúrdos | Toõ evupjnaros, domep nai ro» AM
A e u

mpayudrov, TO E) evbpmpo” Sudvorá tis “roi éx

uáxms Aeyonévm º év dxoÃovêios oxúpars.
31 Emuciov dé ei vêp Biadboeras rir cúvbeow rod
evbvuiuaros, rip pév mepiodov npáricas, TO &
evêvumna tadrór pévei, olor eb tes TÔ Tapã Ango-
obéver Sualóceer evbvumua vô rorobrov, “ cdomep
yãp el tus Exeivey EdAcw, o) TdS” our à» Expaos:
1 +ô drepor néya P: corr. edad,
2 owespyoi ày Gocller: cvvepyoter P.
8 rim Brapéper exbúumua mepiódou titulus in P.
* ou rir Bupopãr in margine P.
5 Tl dor êrgónnna in margine P,
* à addidit Pinckh.
2 Aristot. Pragm. 619, ed. Berol. v. p. 1582. Of. Grote,
Aristotle, p. 6, and Jaeger, Aristoteles, p. 381.
» Elymologicaliy a “consideration ”: a rhetorical syllo-
gism (5 32), an argument based on probable evidence. For
818
 ON STYLE, 1. 28-81

in emotional passages is no better than the proverbial

“ fun at a funeral,”
There axe, however, cases in which symmetry cf
members is useful, as in the following passage of
Aristotle : “ I went from Athens to Stageira because
of the great king, and from Stageira to Athens
because of the great storm," * If you take away
the word “ great” in either case, you will at the
same time take away the charm. The reason is that
such members, like the many antithetical ones of
Gorgias and Isocrates, tend to heighten expression.
Thus much, them, with regard to symmetrical
members. :
The “ enthymeme “? differs from the period in
that the latter is a roundeã structure, from which
indeed it derives its name; while the former finds
in the thought its meaning and constitution. The
period encireles the enthymeme in the same way as
other subjeci matter, but the enthymeme is &
thought expressed either controversially or in the
form. of a consequence.
A word in proof. If you break up the verbal
structure of the enthymeme, you destroy the period,
but the enthymeme remains intact. Suppose, for
instance, the following enthymeme in Demosthenes
to be broken up: “Just as you would not have
made this proposal if any of the former parties had
been convicted, so if you are convieted now no one
tuis section cf. Roberts's larger edition of Demetrius, pp.
279, 291, Demetrius here means that the enthymeme is à
form of thought, whereas the period is a form of composition,
or expression, which enfolds the enthymeme in its circular
(róxãos) embrace. Sections 30-83 scem to smack of the
school-book. : the author does nok hesitate to repeat himself
for the sake of clearness. '
319
 DEMETRIUS

obrws à» od viv dADe, dddos od ypdiber”: Bra-

Lol El E 2

-
Adoerev dé obrw “um êxurpérere Tois rá mapá-
7
som voga ypdpovow el yáp excwvorto, oblk dv pôr
2 A £
odros Tabra êypapev, odS” Erepos Err yprer
roúrou vôv dAduros*” évraúlo vis mepródov pév d
Pol Ear E) y £

úxÃos éxhéduras, vô 5º evliunua év Talro péver.

L 2 [4 A 2 3 t 3 2 m Ed

32 Kai mabóÃou dé 7Ó per evlvumua cuMÃoyionós

rig êori pnropuxós, 7 mepiodos dé cuMdoyileras per
oddév, cúyreiras de póvor: Kai smepródovs mev év 1 a 1 a

mavri uéper TO) Adyou Tibeuev, oiov év trois

mpoomtors, evbupipara dé our dv mavti: Kai TO A

per domep emuhéyeras, 7ô êvbdunna, À) mepiodos

À LA 3 A Ff À 2 Q z e 4 õ a dé
de
adrodev Aéyeras nai TO pév oiov cuMoyiouós
dorm drehis, À dé olre Shov TL obre árelés
cuMoyiteraL.
33 EuuBébne pêv obv Tê evbvumpari eai mepróde oa Em 3 4 1 4

elvas, dtóri meprodicadsN oúyrerrar,

4
mepiodos 5º aúx
EoTiv, dorep TO oixodonovpéry cuubéBnce uév
nai Acuri)N elvas, dy" Acuxôr 7,2 Tó olxodouovsevor
4

6º od dor Aevrér. repi per 5%) Biagopãs evbupi-

> 2 >” L v A e À = 3 2

partos «ai teptodou elonras.

a Tó Sd «dor "Apiororédys ourws dpilerar, El f

“edhóv dore 70 Erepor uépos mepiódov "- elra

emupéper “ yivera, dE Koi anAf mepiodos.”
3 f ce
obras f A ss Ea 1 + e

óproduevos,
£
“sô Erepor uépos,” BixmÃor éBoúlero
4 ESA LENA E4 3 mt > TA

eivar vip mepiodor Bndovóri. à 8º "Anxédnuos,

A 1 4 4 y >» a Es

cuMhaBm» róv dpor Tod A

"Apororédovs rob vô ] e E x Ed v 4

Emubepópievor TD dp, capéorepor Kai rekecitepor

3 4

« Demosth, 4ristocr, 99,

? Aristot. Let, iii, 9 menlodos dê h uév ér aos | 5º djekhs
320
 ON SIYLE, 1. 91-34

will do so in future” * Let it be broken up thus:

“Show no indulgence to those who make illegal
proposals ; for if they were habitually checked, the
defendant would not be making these proposals now,
nor will anyone in future make them if he is con-
victed now.” Here the round of the period has been
destroyed, but the enthymeme remains where it «as.
In genexal, the enthymeme is a Kind vf rhetorical
syllogism, while the period is not an instrument of
reasoning, but simply a combination of words. Nor
is this the only point of distinction. We use periods
in every part of the discourse, for example in
exordiums; but we do not so use enthymemes.
The one—the enthymeme-is as it were an addition
to speech, while the period is just a form of speech,
The former may be called an imperfect sylogism,
while the latter is no syllogism, whether complete
or imperfect,
It may, indeed, happen that an enthymeme is at
the same time a period because its construction ig
periodie. Still it is not identical with the period, A
building may be white if it so chance, but a building,
as such, is not necessarily white. So much for the
distinetion between enthymeme and period,
The “ member ” is thus defined by Aristatle: “ À
member is one of the two parts of a period,” He
then adds : “ A period is alo occasionally simple,” »
The reference jr his definirion to “one of the two
parts ” makes it clear that he preferred the period
to have two members. Archedemus, combining the
definition of Aristotle and its supplement, produced
a clearer and fuller definition of his own: “A
« xibhov 6º doriv rô Erepor pópior Tabrms, dpend 08 hégu rip
povóruhor.
821
 DEMETRIUS
oiros dpicaro, “ ridAdv êorue mjraL dA; mepiodos,
7 guvlérou mepródou pépos.”
36 Ti pév odv dmg meptodos, clpnrar ouvbérou dê
dicas adro mepródov uépos, ov dvol ros TIP
mepiodov ópilem Eoucev, dAÃO Kai prol ral mheto-
ow: iueis dé uérpor per mepiódou exrebeipeha,
vôv de epi Tv xaparripwv tis épunvelas
Aéywpevo

H
36 Eloi dé TérTOpes oi úmÃo? xapanripes, loyrós,
ueyadompemis, yhagupós, Seios, ai Aormôv ot Ek
TolTW» puyrúpevo.. utyyopras dé od vãs mavri,
daN O vaadupôs per roi TO io Kai TO
peyalompemei, sea ó deivós de ópoitos dppore-
pois" póvos dé O peyakomperis TB ioyvá od
giyvuros, GMA” womep dvbéorarov xai dvrixesodov
evartitoráre. do” By) wa póvous vo xapa-
eripás twes diodo elvar Tobrovs, Tods dé
Aourods dvo jueTag) ToúTwr, Tóv per pAagupor Té
ioxvo mpoavénavres pão», TE dé peyadomperei
qôv dewóv, cos TOB yhapupos uév uucpórnrá tura
Kal ropeiar Exorros, To0 dewoD dé ôyicor nai
uéyedos.
37 Veloios 3º 6 rordros Aóyos. dpDuer vão mhiy
3 Aéyopev P: corr. edd, 2 55 Victorius: de é P.

º Archedem. Fragm. Archedemus of Tarsus probably

lived about 130 s.c., and it is possible that the author of the
present treatise draws quuclh of his imaterial from him,
direetiy or indirectly. Itis to be noticed, however, that the
quotations from Aristotle are not taken from the Rhetoric
522
 ON STYLE, 1. 44:-—n. 97

member is either a simple period, or part of à com-

peund period.” &
The simple period has been already described, In
saying that a member may be part of a compound
period, Archedemus seems not to confine the period
to two members, but to include three or a greater
number. We have set forth our views concerning
the limits of the period; let us now describe the
types of style.

KH
The simple types of style are four in number;
the “plain,” the “ elevated,” the “ elegant,” the
“foreible.” In addition there are the various com-
binations of these types. Not every style, however,
can be combined with every other. The elegant is
found united with the plain and the elevated, and
the forcible with both alike. The elevated alone
cannot be combined with the plain, but the pair”
stand, as it were, in irreconcilable opposition and
contrast. For this reason some writers maintain
that there are no other types of style besides these
two, to which the other two are intermediate only,
The elegant style is, thus, regarded as akin to the
plain, and the forcible as akin to the elevated, as
though the first contained something slight and
dainty, and the second something massive and grand.
Sueh a view is absurd. We can see for ourselves
only; they are oddly miscellaneous, and may be held to
indicate that the aulhor approached Aristotle directly, or
through sources not later than Theophrastus or Praxiphanes,
» The artificial use of the dual number here is noteworthy,
Demetrius seems to be reviving, with some exaggeration, au
obsolete or obsolescent grarmmatical forms cf. 88 235, 287.
823
 DEMETRIUS

ro sipnpévor xaparripes êxavricur, mávras py

vupévous aôoim, olov rá “OQuipou re Em Koi robs
HAdrwros Adyovs Kai Eeropódpros Kai Hpodórou
Kai ANev aoMAódo moAkiy query ueyaÃompémeiay
Rara pepuypuévmy Exovras, moh dé Bewórará TE
Kai xdpiv,dare Tô qué» mAdos ride Xapaemjom
rocoirov &y eim, ôvor Acherrm. epuqreia é
éxdoTm apémovoa yévorr! dv rode vis.
38 ["Apfouu dé dxô vob peyahomperois, ôvrep
POr vip Adyror dvondlovom. ér Tprol dm) TO jeyodo-
mpesrés, Biuvolg, Aéger, TO suyreioba mpocfópws.
gúvbeois dé Heyalompemis, ds your “Aprororéos,
1 matcavuei, maisovos de ciôm Buo,! TO gév Tpo-
Karapierukáu, oó Gpyer per porpá, Miyover, ê
rpeis Bpaxetar, olov Tó torvde, “ pédro de,”
de roradnierueor darépa duriorpogor, o |rpeês
uso Ppuxetar Spxovom, Ayei dé uia parpá, damrep
“ApáBia
39 “aa de é» Trois KebÃors rob peyatompemode Aóyou
Tor mpoxaraprrucôr Hêv maiwvo dpyemr tv Ked-
Ar, OL raraAnteruco de Emecôar. mapádeypa
8º aúródo Tô Qovivdideror róde, * “dobdri! BE 73
Wro dm ABnvu do 3 qb mor” obr "Aprrroréas
Kôxóv EÉ Aidiónias.
obrw Sirágaro; Ori dd mai my euBoMp roê
rúdov ral dpoxmv peyadomperi edlds elrar iai
veélos, robro 8 foros, ddv amd paxpõs dpyúpedo
À cloquéror Victorius : dptopéiiar P.
2 bre dio elôm malturos, ésitor q ma mabtor Brera = in
margine P. 3 vê dpãpeia P: corr. Wala,
* jpgiirê P syllaba longa hoc loco non indicata,
“ie. four and the various combinations amoog them
(5 36) which are admissible in great authors.
sa
 ON STYLE, um. 37-39

that, with the exception of the two opposites just

mentioned, any style may be combined with any
other. In the poetry of Homer, for example, as
well as in the prose of Plato, Xenophon, Herodotus,
and many other writers, great elevation is joined to
great vigour and charm. The number of types of
style is, therefore, that already indicated The
mode of expression appropriate to each will be found.
to be of the following kind,
1 shall begin with the elevated style, to which
to-day the title “ eloquent” is given. Elevation
consists in three things: “thought,” “ diction,”
“ appropriate composition.” According to Aristotle,
the paeonic rhythm is elevated.* There are two
kinds of pacon, the “ procataretic ” (Gnitial), begin-
ning with a long syllable and ending with three
short ones, as úp£aro dé: amd the “ catalectic ”
(terminal), the converse of the former, that is to say,
beginning with three short syllables and ending with
a single long one, as 'Ápafia,
In the elevated style the members should begin
with a procatarctic paeon and be followed by a
catalectic paeon, as in this passage of Thucydides :
“ Now it was from Acthiopia that the malady oxigin-
ally came.” * What, then, is the reason why Aris-
totle advised this arrangement ofsyllables? Because
the opening member should both begin and end
impressively; and this will be so if we begin with a
* Aristot, Rhei. iii. 8. .
* Thucyd. ii. 48. There is a similar English rhythm in
the words “ Oh that my head were waters, and mine eyes
a fountain of tears,” Jeremiah is. 1. The marks over long
and short syllables given in the Greek test of 85 38, 50
are found im the Paris manuscript 1741 which is followed
minutely in this edition.
325
 DEMETRIUS

nai eis popa Afywpev. qfúcer yáp peyaleiov 1

paspá, «al mpoheponévm qe mAjoce edbbs moi
imodiyovoa é peydda Tivi Karadeimes tOv diou-
ovra. mávtes yolv idiws TOY TE TpúTWV pano
vevoper mai Té doTATWV, KOL Órô Tobrwr rvod-
pueda, úmo dé ródv peraév EXarrov ddomep Eykpurto-
pévov 9 evapavilonéver.
40 Afhov dé rodro é» rois Qovkevdidou: axedov yap
Mus TO jeyadomperês é» mãow aúTód moi 7 Tod
pubuoo parpórns, Kai rwBuvedes TO dvdpl voúrqÉ
£
muvrodumos ôvros TOU peyadomperois abr
oúrbeois pórm 7) uúdLoTA mepuroLelv TO péyuoTov.
41 Ac uévror Aoyileodar, óri Kãv ui) depiBéds Buved-
Hefa! rois redÃors meprridévar Tous motwvas êvdey
nat êvbev duporépovs, mumuvicijr ye vávrws
mwomobueda” riy cúvbeorw, olor é gaxpóv &pyó-
pevoL Koi eis paxpis roraliyovtes. Toro vão
nai "Aprororédns mapayyéndem éorcer, &As dé
rô durrôv roi malwros rerexvoÃoynnévar dpi
Belas évera. Brórep Qeógbpasros mapáderyua êx-
réberro peyadompemetas TO Totodror KdÃov, “rd
pêv epi vô undevôs ágia prhocopotvrwr”” od vãp
Er macivur axpiBOs, GANA maruvindv vi éart.
mapalafeir” jévror TOP malwva eis TOUS Adyous,
émeld? quctOS ris éort Kai dopaléorepos, TO
peyadomperes per êx ris panpãs AauBdvwr, TO
Aoyucdv de er rod Bpaxeródr.

1 Buvóueda Schneider : duráuega P. 2 mommúpeta P.

? mapadafieiy Steinberger: mrapaiagor (ho supra versum
seripto) P.
826
 ON STYLE, 1. 39-41

long syllable and end with a long syllable, For the

long syllable has in its very nature something grand,
and its use at the beginning is striking, while as
a conclusion it leaves the hearer with a sense of
elevation. Anyhow, we all remember in a special
degree, and are stirred by, the words that come
first and the words that come last, whereas those
that come between them have less effect upon us,
as though they were abscured or hidden among the
othexs.
This is clearly seen in Thucydides, whose verbal
dignity is almost in every instance due to the long
syllables used in his rhythms. It may indeed be
said that, while the stateliness of that writer has
many sides, it is this marshalling of words which,
alone or chiefiy, secures his greatest clevation.
We must, however, bear in mind that, even if we
cannot exactly fumnish the members with the two
pacons at either end, we can at all events give a
paeonic character to the arrangement, by beginning
and ending with long syllables. This is seemingly
what Aristotle * recommends, although, for the sake
of precision merely, the two soris of paeon are
prescribed in his treatise, On the same principle
Theophrastus has given as an instance of elevation
the following member: “ Those who philosophize
in matters that are worth nought.” » This particular
sentence is not precisely composed of pacons, yet
it is paeonie in character. The reason for empleying
the paeon in prose is that it is a mixed measure and
so safer, deriving its elevation from the long sylliable
and its prose quality from the short ones.
2 Aristot, Rhet. Hi, 9, * Theophr. Llepl Affeus,

827
 DEMETRIUS
42 OS do, O pêv jpdos ceuvôs ral od Aoyuxós,
daN” mxcddns: oúde elpuluos) dAX dpvôuos? cdig-
mep 6 Totócde Exer, fico dudv eis tijy xedpav”
7 yãp murvórgs Tr paxpOv dmeprimres od
àoyscod puérpou,
43 “O dé lanfos edrekis nai rj ródv moAAdiv Adéei
ôuoros. smoMÃoL yodr uérpa ioufuca Aahodow odk
ecibóres. O dé malwv duçoiy uévos Kai pérpios, mal
ômoios cuyierpanévos. % gév 07 matuvia) év Trois
peyadomperéo: oúrbeois Do dr mws Auupávorro.
44 Toi dé xai rá pijrm TOv Kdwv péyedos, olov
207. “ Bovevdiôns "Alnvaios | furéypape Tôv mólepor
ródv Iedorovoiwr Kai "Abnvalwr,” «ai “Hoo-
dórou “Alixapracéws iotopins dmódebis ade.”
Tô yãp roxéws dioorumáv eis addÃov Bpaxyd rara-
cjuipúver vijv TO Adyov cepvórgra, Kdv 9 dmo-
Keruévm Butvota peyaÃomperr)s 7, cdr TA dvógara,
as Meyalomperes SE xai TO ck mepraywyis TI
cuvbéce. Aéyerv, olov os Movevôiins: “o vãp
*“Axyeddos moranós péwv êr Ilivdou Bpovs* Sd
EA v

Aodorias nai "Avypravév ral "Audióymr, dvwber

mopã Zrpirov véhw és Bdiaovar Bdiéreis map”
* fupubuos P. 2 &pvôgos Victorius: árápuôgos P.
3 &xei Radermacher: éxet P; cf. 8 16.
4 6pous P, 5 “Aypad» codd. Thucyd,
“ The spondaic feet in a hexameter line seem here to be
meant. * Ser, Inc. ; ef. 8117,
“Cf Aristot, Poet. c, d, 1449 a 26. Dickens, whether
knowingly or unknowingly, in impassioned prose often
writes iambie lines: for example, in Martin Chuzelewit
e. xy, “As for the burial of yesterday ; |... All hushed, all
noiseless, and in deep repose, | Save the swift clouds that
skim across the moon, | (And the ecautious vwind,) | As,
creeping after them upon the ground, | Itstops to listen, and
sas
 ON STYLE, 11, 42-45
Among other feet the heroicº is solemn and ill-
adapted for prose. It is clangorous; not full of
good rhythm, but without it. Take, for instance,
the following words : “ This land, our land, reached
now by me.”» Here the reiteration of long syllables
exceeds the bounds of prose.
The iambic measure lacks distinction and. is like
ordinary talk. Indeed, many people speak iambic
lines without knowing it.” The paeon hits the happy
mean between the two, and may be said to be com-
posite. The paeonic structure may, accordingly, be
employed in elevated passages after the manner
thus described.
Long members aleo contribute to grandeur of
Style, eg. “Thueydides the Athenian wrote the
history of the war between the Peloponnesians and
the Athenians,” 4 and “ Herodotus of Halicarnassus
sets forth in this History the result of his inquíries.” é
& sudden drop into silence on a short member
diminishes dignity of expression, elevated though
the underlying thought and the words may be.
Elevation is also caused by a rounded form of
composition, as im the following passage of Thucy-
dides: “ Egr the river Achelous fowing from Mount
Pindus through Dolopia and the land of the
Agrianians and Amphilochians, having passed the
inland city Stratus and discharging itself into the
goes rustling on, | (And stops again,) | And follows, like a
savage on the trail” So, in c. xx. itis said of “ A lovely
evening in the spring-time of the year” (Alexandrine) that
was “ A time when most men cherish good r !
sorrow for the wasted past; wlen most men, lookirr on
the shadows as they gather, | think of that evening which
must close on all, | and that tomorrow which has none
beyond.” EN
3 Phucyd. à. 1 inibe * Herod. À. 1 int
889
 DEMETRIUS

Olmádas, mai vv módy adrois mepiluválor

dmopov votei Úrô rob vdaros é» xyeruódv. orpared-
eobar” cúpmaca yãp n) Tori peyadompéreia,
cx tis mepraywyis yéyover, mal éx TO) pÓpis
dvamados adrdv TE Kai TOv dxovovTa.
46 Ei 3º obrw Biaicas adrô elmo: ms “OS váp
Axedbdos moranos pel mer éx
x El
Ilivôov ôpovs, A fm 1 3 E) ? õ Es

exfbaMe.
3
de map”
TAM
Oivddas és OdÃavoar po
dé >
de O: VEN 3 OA, . ! 8é

rijs ExBoAis vô Oimadóiv medtov Aluyyr motel, vor

rm 3 Em 4 » Lol Eq z a e >

aúrois- mpôs rs yeiiepivás epódous ródv = moÃepumwr

;
êpupa «ai mpóBinua vivecdar 7ô domp” el d%
rig obrm peroBaldv epumvelocier aúró, moMás
ue» dramavhas mapéfe TO Adyw, TO méyedos
é" dpapioerar.
a7 Koabdrep vôp vàs paxpás ddods ai cuvexeis
KaTaywyoL uuxpãs smotodorw, ai 8 eonuias dv
vais uucpais ódois Eupaciv viva Exovol púKous,
qabrô dm námi rr KúAwr dv viyrorro,
48 Iloei De mai dvoqevia ourbécems ér troMhois
géyedos, olov Tô
Alas 3º 6 péyas aiév eb” "Exropi yalrxoropvor?).
áMws per váp iows ôvojroos ) TOr ypauudrer
EA A A EA Ed q A 4

* Thucyd. à. 102, A splendid example is the “ Prayer

of St. Chrysostom ” as given in the Book 0f Common Prayer :
“ Almighty God, who hast given us grace at this time with
one accord to make our common snpplications unto these;
end dost promise, that when two or Lurec are gathered
together in thy Name thou wilt grant their requests: Tulhl
now, O Lord, the desires and petitions of thy servants, as
may bc most expediont for them ; granting vs in this world
knowledge cf thy truth, and in the world fo come life ever-
lasting;”
330
 ON STYLE, nm, 45-48
sea near Oeniadae, and surrounding that town with
a marsh, makes a winter expedition impossible owing
to the foods.” « Al this impressiveness arises from
the rounded period and from the fact that the his-
torian hardly allows a rest to himsel and the reader.
Tf the sentence were broken up and made to rm
as follows: “For the river Achelous flows from
Mount Pindus and empties itsclf into the sea near
Oeniadae ; but before reaching the outlet it converts
the plain of Oeniadae into a marsh, so that the water
forms a defence and protection against the attacks of
the enemy in winter,” —if the phrasing of the sentence
wexe to be varied in this way, there would be many
resting-places in the narrative but its stateliness
would be destroyed.
Long jouneys are shortened by a succession of
inns, while desolate paths, even when the distances
are short, give the impression of length. Precisely
the same principle will apply also in the case of
members.
In many passages a great effect is produced by
words hard to pronounce in combination, as for
example by the line :
And Aias the mighty at Hector the brazen-helmed evermore
Was aiming his lance.» '
No doubt the clashing of letters is, as a rule, un-
* Hom. ZE. xvi. 358:
Alas 3 à uéyas alto dg “Exropi Kalxoxopuorr
ter” dxovrivom,
For the harsh sound ef. Tennyson, “ AU thro' the crash
of the near cataract hears " (Geraini and Enid); “ Then et
the dry harsh roar of the great horn ” (Last Tournament). En
the passage of the Iiad, Alas and eiév “ clash,” as do the
final syllables in Alas and uévyes; and ô-mpdyas (1 this is the
scansion) would not be easily uttered.
881
 DEMETRIUS

cópmÂnêis, drepBoA) 8º eupaivovca sô péyedos

z

roõ npmos: Aeiórms ap Kai Tô eúmjioov cú rdvu

év ueyadompemrela yepav Exovoir, el ui) mou év
dAiyors. wai é Oovxvdiôns dé smarraxod axcdov
34 * 1 e n y a N

deúyer TO Aclov Kai óuadês rig cuvbécews, Kai

del uãAAdv ti mpockpovovri Eotev, momep oi TAS
rpaxeias ddods mopevónevor, êmdv Adyn, “Om TO
nev O) éros, ws cduolóymTO, dvocor és TÃs dAÃas
ny 87 ” e € Aó »” > A AVI

dodeveias êriyyaver ôu pãov peév vap Kab nôtov

OS dy ris elmev, ôre “ dvocor és rãs GMs dode-

QI s E) [TRR) a A A 3

veias &v erbyxyavev,;” admpnro 8 adrod viv peyado-

a > a

mpérerav.
49 “Dorep yãp ôvoua Tpoxd uéyedos Spyáterau,
e, Ny E) 1

ore cúvbecis. dvógara dé tpaxéa. Tó TE É re

spayds ” dyri rod “ Bodr,” ab Tó“ puyrigeror ”
».4
dvri robA “e depdpevor,”
4 » o y o
olos mãow! 1 € p
à Bovrvdidns
xpiror, ôéuora Aoubdvor vd ve drógara ij
cuvbéGer, rois Te dvógaor mI)y cúvieor.
so Táovey dé TÃ Orógora xp?) TÓvêE TOP Tpómor.
A

mpórao uév rudévar Tá pu) pdÃa évapyi, deúrepa

dé «Kai Úorara TA evapyéorepa. oiTm yãp ral
To mpúrou ãxovodueda cs evapyois, Kai Tod
mov ger” abrô dis evappyeorépov. el 8 uu, Odéouer
> 3

cimodermnévas, roi? oior raramentwnréros dao

toxuporépou émi dobevés.
2

5 Iapddemyyua dé TO Tap rd HAdrum Aeyópevor,

[ra

ôr “ êmdv? uév TrS povOLcA) TaApéxT KaravÃeiv moi

raroxeiv' da ródv drwr” mod yap tó Bevrepor
3 otos vão» Hammer: cf erãow P.
2 xal post dino derynéver ins, edd.
3 gray Platonis libri, * raraxeir vis puçis Plat,
882
 ON STYLE, n. 48-51
pleasant to the ear; but here the very excess brings
out the greatness of the hero, since in the elevated
style smoothness and pleasant cadences have no
place, except here and there, Thucydides almost
invariably avoids smoothness and evenness of com-
position. He has rather the constant air of a man
who is stumbling, like travellers on rough roads ;
as when he says that “ from other maladies this year,
by common consent, was free.” * It would have
been easier and pleasanter to say that “ by common
consent, this year was free from ather maladies,”
But this would have destroyed the effectiveness of
the sentence,
Composition * makes style impressive in the same
way as a rugged word does. Instances of rugged
words are “shrieking ” in place of “crying,” and
“bursting” in place of “charging” Thucydides
uses all expressions of this kind, assimilating the
words to the composition and the composition to
the words.
Words should be marshalled in the following way.
First should be placed those that are not specially
vivid; in the second or last place should come those
that axe distincily so. In this way what comes first
will strike the car as vivid, and what follows as more
vivid stil. Falling this, we shall seem to have lost
vigour, and (so to speak) to have lapsed from strength
to weakness,
An illustration will be found in a passage of Plato :
“when a man suffers music to play upon him and to'
flood bis soul through his cars.” * Here the second
“ Tincyd. H, 49.
8 ae, word-arrangement, here and elsewhere.
E Plat, Rep. il, 411 4,
M 883
 -. DEMETRIUS

evapyéorepov TO mporépov. «ai váhm mpoitiy

dmow, “óra Be raraxéc” ij dr), dA enAd,
Tô 37 perô robro 7 rúicer nat deiBec” Tô
vão “AeiBe” rod “eúre” duburueorepor al
exyyurépw momuaros. ei BE mpocêjveyrer adro,
dolevéorepor dv vó mer ” Emupepopuevor Eddy.
52 Koi “Oumpos de émi rod Rúlcdcmos dei êmaúger
mv dmepBodju, mai exavióvr em abris Eorcer;
olov
cú vão Eres
dvôpl ye orrobdym, AMA pi dAgevre,
Kal mpogér àbnÃod ôpovs rob Umepdomonévou rédr
AM ópiir, dei yãp Kairos peyóda ôvra
à TA mpó
repor iirrova quiveras, peclóvwv aúrois Tv perá
rara Emupepopévu.
53 Xp dé Kai rods gurdeopovs E) pda dyrarro-
Sidogbas drpiBós, otov 7 “ uév ” cuvôéuues vóv
CBé". mupomperes ydp q dxpibeia dAMA mal
draxroTépus mes poda, rabimep mou 6 “Avre-
Boy Aéyerr ij pe yáp* víjoos a, Exojtev, BiAm)
pév ral róppubéo cart» DrbrgÃa) Kai paxeta: Kal
Tô per xpúciqa Kai cpyácipo purpô. eóriis doi,
tê de dpya 7oMÃO ojupãs abrijs dons Tpeoi
vdp rois “ uer” curôéouor eis O “Be” dyrago-
didoros.
54 Todas pévros telévres mus êpeéis cr
1 narogéum | P: êmboam Plat, a Eotren, ed. : om, P.
3 à uv Yap Capperonnier: % ydoP.
* dr êxoptra dim P,
s Plat, Rep. Hi 4115. The passage of Plato should. be
read as a whole (odiod» drav . . mandarôr cixugrór) Et
is much in Demetrius's mind ; ef 8 1988-185,
884
 ON STYLE, un. 61-54

expression is far more vivid than the first, And

ferther on he says: “ but when he ceases not to
flood it, nay throws a spell over it, thereupon he
causes it to melt and waste away.” 2 The word
“yyaste ” is more striking than the word “met”
and approaches more nearly to poetry. Jf Plato had
reversed the order, the verb “melt,” coming later,
would have appeared too weak.
Homer, also, in describing the Cyclops, augments
continuously his hyperbole and seems to mouni
higher and higher on its steps :

Not like to the sons of men, bui seeming a forest-clad crest ?s

and what is more, the crest of a lofty mountain and

one that'towers above al its fellows. For great though
they may be, the things which come first always
seem lesser, when greater things follow them,
Connectives, again, such as pévr and 66, should not
correspond too nicely. There is something trivial in
excessive nicety. À certain negligence in the use
of particles is desirable, just as Antiphon somewhere
says: “for the island we inhabit can be seen from
a distance to be lofty and rugged. Those parts of
it which axe tilled and useful are insignificant, while
the uncultivated portions are many, small though
the island is.” é There is here only one dé to answer
to the thrice-used pér,
On the other hand, it often happens that connee-
à Fiom. Od. ix. 190:
obdê dixer
drdpl ye crrodáro, UXMA dlp Dhmjevm
Vim» dpéwr, U re Guireras olov dm ANMor,
“ Antiphon, Fragm. 50 (Blass)
335
 DEMETRIUS
deouo. ral Td geuspô peydda mortow, Os map'
"Ouijpw vó» Borriacôr mólemv rã dvópgara
edrehT; dura Koi uLcpê ôyrov ruvá Exet Kai géyedos
Sid rods quvdécuovs epelis rocoúrovs redévras,
olov é Tô
Exoivóv re EndAdv re, modkvmuár "Eremvór.
55 Tois dé mapaminpuparinois ouvôéonois xpy-
oréor, oby Os mpoclfxais xevois Kai olov mpoo-
púuaow 7) mapatvopacew, momep vevês TD “87”
xpôvras mpôs ovdér sai rm “vv” wai TD Cmpó-
repor,” dA dv cuuBdAMwvral ri TO peyéder rod
5858 AdAdyou, rabdmrep
os
mapa à Dá
Hdr, es
“à uevdy Do 4
dy) uéyas 1

é» odpar Zevs"" roi map” 'Ouipo,

A 1 >

dA)” dre 817) mópov Bor éippeios moranoio.

dprrixos vãp Tedeis O oúvôeouos Kai dmoondcas
ré» mporépwy Tà Exóuera peyaleiov 71 cipyácaro.
ai yãp moMhai dpyal ceuvórnro Epyálovrar, ei 8
dide elmev, “ dAA? Gre émi TOY mópov ddikovro Tod
moranod,” pixpohoyoDvr: ésbrer mal êrL cs mepl
évôs mpáyuaros Aéyovri.
57 AouBávera dé nai malgrinds! molháxis 6
civdecpos obros, domep emi ris Ralulois mpós
róv "Obvocéa,
i uévos iryeudy Plato,
2 imográvas Finckh: árormagõeis P.
3 mabiyruis ap. Greg. Cor.: aafyrexois PD.
* Hom, Zi. ii. 497.
* The reference is to the complementary (mapaminpo-
poruroês, *employed to 8] up” connectives (guiécuos: a
wider term even than * particles,” as the illustrations show)
used to eke out metre or rhythm.
* The author seems to he thinking of the apparently
836
 ON STYLE, mn. 54-57

tives which follow one another in close succession

make even small things great, as in Homer the
names of the Boeotian towns, though ordinary and
insignificant, possess a certain pomp and circum-
stance owing to the accumulated connectives, for
example in the line :
And E Schoenus and Scolus, and midst Eteonus” hill-clefts
cep.

Expletive particles? must not be employed as

pointless appendages and excrescences, so to say, or
expansions, as dj and vu and mpórepor" are some-
times aimlessly used. They must be introduced
only if they contribute something to dignity of style,
as in Plato, “lo mighty Zeus in his heaven” &; and
in Homer :
But lo when they came to the ford of the fair-flowing river*
The particle placed thus near the beginning of the
sentence, and severing what follows from what pre-
cedes, makes a dignificd impression. For amplifed
beginnings have a stately effect. If the poet had
said “ but when they arrived at the ford of the river,”
he would have seemed to be using trivial language
and also to be speaking of one definite occeurrençe?
The particle &j is also often used with a touch of
feeling, as in the words which Calypso addresses to
Odysseus :
pleonastie use of mpórepos in the locution mpérepor +. mpi
* Particle “ must be understood in the broadest sense.
4 Plat. Phgedy. 246 =; ef. Soph, EL, Hd.
* Hom. 1. xiv. 488, xxi. 1.
* &.e, the single prosale fact that they had reached the
river, as contrasted with lhe whole picture of an advancing
army which “Lo!”, uttered slowly and as if you meant
it, conjures up.
337
 DEMETRIUS

Aroyevês Acepridôn, molvuixar” "Odvoced,

oirw Bd) olxóvde qidyv és marpida yatay;
ei yodv 10» cúvdecuor égédois, cuvebapigeis Kai
> Fal / ê je EM z h

rô mábos. robódou yáp, bomep O Hpaéubirms

A E !

- ; ,
ess ónciv, dvri puyuôr | mapedanBávorvro ot Totadros
cúvdecgor Kai orevayubrv, dorep TO Cal ab” 4

nal vô “ed,” mai “arotóv vó or; ” cos adrós

mor, Tô “ua vó x odvpopévorow ” Empepev,
eupaciv tura êxov oikTpoÚ dvogaros.
58 Oi dé mpós ovder dramAnpodrres, mol, TOv ovr- a À

ôecuor eoixaci Tois Úmorxptrais Tois Tô Kai TO

mpôsY otdeév
594% z
Eros Adyovar, a
oiov elsf Tig de
” t
AéyoL,
Kolvôwr uêv gde yoia Teloreias yBorós,
peo.
év dvrimópônors med!” Exovo” eddaiuova,
ab, ab.
os yôp mapélxes TO ai al Koi TO dei evÔdde, olre
Kai 6 muvraxod uármv euBadhóncros olvôecnos:
59 Oi uév d) oúvdeopor rjv cúvdeoi peyadompemi
motodow, «s elonras, rã dé oxiuara ris Adéeds
éort pêv «Koi abra ovvdécens T% eldos: TO? ydp
à) Tã aúrã Adyew Bis Semhoivra 7) Exavapéporra
à dupaNMneros cúvdecgos ap. Greg. Cor.: éufaxhôuevros P,
2 à Vietorius: rã» P.

“ Fom. Odyss. v. 208.

? Praxiphanes, a disciple of Theophrastus,
* Hom. Tl. xxiii. 154 nat vb x” ddupondrory Ev pos peNlora:
also Odyss. xv). 220, xxi. 226. Possibly xat ru fancifully
suggests roive, T slay.”
-* Eurip. Meleag, (Cêurip. Fragm, 515 Nauck3), The first
Tine is attributed to Sophogles in Aristotle's Bhetoris, lil. e. 1,
88
 ON STYLE, u, 51-59
O Zeus sced, son of Laertes, Odysseus of many an art,
Lo even thus home to thine own dear land art thou faín te
depart? 9
Remove the particle, and you will at the same time
remove the feeling conveyed by the line. In general,
as Praxiphanes? says, such particles used to be
employed in place of moanings and laments. In-
stances are “ah me!” and “alas!” and “oh, what
isit?” As he himself says, the words raí vó xe were
fttingly applied to men who are “lamenting,” since
they suggest in some degree a word of mourning.º
But those who use expletive particles aimlessly
resemble, so Praxiphanes says, actors who employ
this exclamation or that without rhyme or reason,
as though one were to say
Calydonian soil is this, whose fertile plaing
(Alas!)
Look o'er the nartow seas to Pelops" land
(4h me 1).4
For as in this passage the“ ahme !” andthe“ alas!”
are merely dragged in, so is any particle when
inserted causelessly and indiscriminately.*
Now while the connectives, as has been said,
elevate the composition, the figures of speech are
themselves a form of composition, since it is practi-
cally a matter of arrangement and distribution when
you say the same thing twice, whether through
but the scholiast (Rabe, p. 197) is probably right in assign-
ink to Peorinidos, Demetrius (or Prasiphanes) humorously
tea “ ' actor opens the Meleager with
in Pelops' land,” and then adds
Pas a
, 1
may, having (by his misplaced
pausc) pitehforked Calydon into the Peloponnese!
* Cf. Shakespeare's burlesque line “ With hey, ho, the
wind and the rain,” in the song which ends Tuelfth Night.
839
 DEMETRIUS

7 dvbvmalldocorra dararronévy «ai geraour

n 2 L EA +

rubévri Eoucev. Bigranréor dé Tá mpóchopa abrdv

xaparrip.
K éxdorm, olov OD jeyadompene? quév
mepi oú mpóxeirar, raira:
a
mpórov uêvivrjv dvburaMayiy,
êvbumaaviy, dis “O "Oumpos,
cos
so
oi dé dio crómeÃo. O uév oúpavor edpdv ixdver
A!

mokd yáp oiro peyoderórepor evalÃayeions mr»

bh) 1 e + : + £L

cews, 9, cirep obrws

À :
Eb,
a 1 4 ! £ 1 > A! EA
Ter dé ôvo ctcomédor O ger ouparvor evport

cuvrjlws yãp éxéyero. máv Bé TO ourmbes jurpo-

f A ML Co) 4 À EA

mperés, Sô Kai dfaúuaoTor.

81 Tóv 5é Nipéa, adróv TE Óvia juxpôv Kai tá
mpáyjara aúroD pucpórepa, rpeis vabs xal dAi-
yous dvôpas, péyar! ral peyóda êmoimoer «ai
moMÃa dvr” SAiywr, TO oxúuare BinÃO Kai puta)
xpncdpevos €É emavadopãs ve ral drlvcems.
9 A

Nieds ydp;” dmor, “rpeis vias dyer, Nipeds

+
Avdaims viós, Nipeds, Os «dAlLoTos drip!
A al, e.
1 te
N Ed ay IA a f Rd “

dp émravadopã ris Aéiews êmi 70 adrô êvoga rôv

Nepéa, nai À dtdAvois, mAfõos
na ri eugaiver mpay-
uárer, Kuitor ddo 7) Tpuódr dure,
2 uéya P,
s i.e. substitution of one grammatical case for another:
here “the twin rocks” is subsliluted for “ of the twin rocks,”
* Hom. Odyss. xii. 78.
* Hom. JL ii. 671:
Nipeis oO Ebuyfew Eye rpeis pijos dícas,
Nupeós "AvyAgiys vids Kopómaió 7º Evaxros,
Nupeis às xáAMoros drip úmô "Extov Jader
Tê EhMur Aral per” dpómora Iyhelwra,
340
 ON STYLE, rr. 59-61

repeating it, or through echoing it, or throngh

changing its terms, The appropriate Bgures must
be assigned to each several style. To the elevated
style, our present subject, must be assigned first
of all:
“ Anthypallage,” & as in Homer's line,
And the twin rocks--ons of the twain with its peak towers
up to the skies,?
With the gramatical case thus changed, the line is
far more stately than if the poet had written :
And of the twin rocks one with its peak towers up to the
skies.
That would have been the ordinary way of putting
it. But everything ordinary is trivial, and so fails
to win admiration.
Again, take Nireus—he is personally mean, and
his power is meaner still, three ships and a handful
of men. But Homer has made him and it great,
and has multiplied his following, through using in
combination the two figures of “repetition ” and
“ disjunction.” “ Nireus,” he says, “ brought three
ships, Nireus Aglaia's son, Níveus the goodliest man,“e
The recurrence to one and the same name “ Nireus ”
and the avoidance of conjunctions give an impression
of copious power, though it is composed of but twe
or three items,
In this ilustration, as in others elsevhere, Demetrius follows
Aristotle who, in Rhet. iii, e. 12, quotes the passage and
comments happily on it. In English cf “ Elaine the fair,
Blaine the jovable, | Elaine, the lily maid of Astolat,” Tenny-
son, Lancelot and Elaine, init. ee dé used to begin four
successive lines (Jl. à. 436-9) is a striking example of the
effective repetition of a preposition together with a
conjunetion.
Hz s4l
 DEMETRIUS

os Kai oyeBóv draft Tod Nipéws dvouachévros éy

TOA Bpduare mepvíucda obdev frrov
2 1mono
Tod "AxuA-
ms £ 3 Ea
Aéws «Kal Tod "Odvocêws, rairo: ari éxos
éxagrov"
e g
Aadoupévwv 2
cxedóv.
o) 2.
airia 2 8
7 e
Toi El

k , e
oxjuaros Súvapis: ei 8 oúrws elmer, “ Nipeds d
“Avatas vios é Eúums rpeis vias Tyev,” mapa-
sto a em Ep 3

ceounmnxóri eder róv Nepéar demep yap év vais A A 3 m

éoridoeo. Tà odiya Siaraxbévia mws moda pai-

veras, obre Káy Trois Adyois.
cs ToAaxod pévro. Tô évavrior q Aúcer, 1 ouv-
sa £ A 2, f a L €

ápeia, peyédous airiov yiverar juãAÃov, olov Gr

“ corparevovro “EdAnvês re Kai Kãpes mai Avira
dd ; PU ara
nai Iáuduio. rol Dpodyes” 1 ydp TOD adrog
ouvôéouov Déoss Eupaiver TL Emerpor mAidos.
64 Tô dé rordro “ xuprd, palnpiówrra,” qi efa
pécer rod “ rat” ouvôécuou peyaleiórepor dréBn
uôMov, à) ei? clarev, “ xuprã Kai Palnpiómera.”
es [To]! meyoleior uévror é» trois oxjuaciw rô
sv. ude | émri mis adris péver mrócemns, ds Qou-
«vôiôns, “xai poros dmoBaivwv em rijy dsro-
Bábpar Exermobiynaé TE, «ai srecóvros adrod és
Ti» mapebepeoiar” gold yêp ourus ueyadeió-
repov, à) elvep êmi Tjs adrijs arúcews oirws Edy,
1 «urá ro» (ub videtur) P: rara Gregorius Cor,
êxdorur P,
3 ei ante elrer add. Victorius. * à seclusi,
º For ôpâua as applied to the Jliad ef Longinus, De
subi. ix. 13. In & 156 Demetrius uses dpómara of the
mimes of Sophron, .
* Ser. Inc. There are great examples in Revelation vi.
15, vii. 9; and an interesting instance in Matthew Arnold's
Solrab and Rustum, “Kalmucks and unkempt Kuzzaks,”
eto,
342
 ON STYLE, rr. 82-65
Thus, though Nireus is hardiy once mentioned in
the course of the action, we remember him no less
than Achilles and Odysseus, who are spoken of in
almost every line. The influence of the figure is
the cause. If Homer had simply said “ Nixeus the
son of Aglaia brought three ships from Syme,” this
would have been tantamount to passing over Nireus
in silence. It is with writing as with banquets,
where a few dishes may be so arranged as to seem
many.
in many passages, however, the opposite figure to
separation, namely combination, tends to elevation
of style, as “ To the war flocked both Grecks and
Carians and Lycians and Pamphylians and Phry-
gians,"» The repeated use of the same conjunciion
gives the impression of an innumerable host.
But in such a phrase as “ high-arched, foam-
crested ” the omission of the conjunction “ and ”
lends an air of greater distinction to the language
than its insertion would have done: “ high-arched
and foam-crested.” º
In framing a sentence it is well, in order to attain
elevation, not to keep to the same construction, but
to follow the example of Thucydides yhen he writes +
“ And being the fist to step on to the gangway he
swooned, and «vhen he had fallen upon the forepart
of the ship his shield dropped into the sea” 4 This
is far more striking than if he had retained the same
º Hom. fl. xiii, 799. An inserted “ and” wonlã be even
more hurtfal here than (say) in Tennyson's “ iron-jointed,
supple-sineged ”' (Locksley Hail).
à Thucyd. iv. 12 roi mepinevos dvopalvar drvecóry dra
ro» "Abmvalwy, noi vpavpiriodeis moxha emopbxngé ve rol
mecórros adro) é rim mapebepecias % domis mepeppóg és rip
Sáhareas, KTA,
843
 DEMETRIUS

órt e êmesey és riv mapegepeoiar Kai ámébade

so dormida,”
Kai dvadimÂmors 3” éxous cipyácaro péedos,
côs “Hpódoros * “Bpdeovres Sé mou, " pnoir, É orar
ev TD Kovráoy uéyedos,) tea puéyedos Kai mAidos."
Bis óndér vó “ uéyeldos” Byror quá vf épunvela
gapéoxer.
67º Xpiala pévrot Trois cxúuaos ju) quivois
dsretpónaÃor var roi mapepupaivóv Tua 700 Aóyou
dvopaliar. oi voy dpxaior moMa oxjuara é»
mois Adyois tubévres ovybéorepor vô» doynuari-
arwy eioiv, did TO évréxros tibévar.
68 Mepi de ouppoúsews durmévtur iiédafor
do: dA. qIooxpárs pé yãp EguAdarero
oupumijocem adrá, Kai oU dr? atrod, Ao: Bé
rives cs Eruxe guvérpovoar Koi morrámag det de
vbre Dywôn moreiv mjv obvêeci, dréyrws adra
oupumAgocorra rob cos, êruye Siormao pó) zãp 199
Adyou Tô rotobrov sab drappigber CoLrer: oUTE pijy
mavreXôds dulácaeadar tm” ouvéxeiay Tv VPag
pru Aetorépa quêv vãp obras êdcrar lows q)
1 sul drudemicas 8º Eros elpyáguro uévedos à “Hpúdupos +
Spdropres dé, moó quo, foar é tr Kavidap Pavpaçgrol rô
péyelos, Kal uutyedos Kat mhijãos Orth,

a The nearest parallel (a very doubtful one) in Herodotus

will be found in his First Book, e. 203. Emil Orth (in
Philologischa Wochenschrift, 1925, No. 27, pp. T78-88)
argues, with much probability, that the passage is quoted
from the Argonautica of Heradorus É Heracleia; see
critical note. The odd Greek of the best manuscript seems
to mean titerally“ serpents there were about in the Caneusus,
a big species--a big species, and a lot of them.” What
Demetrius has in view is some such repetition as that of
344
 ON STYLE, 11. 65-88
construction, and had said that “he fell upon the
forepart of the ship and lost his shield.”
The “redoubling” of a word also conduces to
elevation, as in the following passage of Herodotus :
“There were huge serpents in the Caucasus, both
huge and many,”S The repetition of the word
“huge” imparis a certain impressiveness to the
style.
Overloading with figures* should, however, be
avoided, as betokening lack of taste and producing
a certain inequality oÉ style. The ancient writers,
it is true, employ a number of figures in their works,
but they employ them so artistically that their writ-
ing is more natural than that of those who eschew
them entirely.
With regard to concurrence of vowels different
opinions have been held by different persons.
Isocrates and his followers avoided it, while others
have admitted it wholesale wherever it chaneed to
occur. The true course lies between the two
extremes. The composition should not clang, as it
will if the vowels are allowed inartistically to colide
justas they fall together, producing the impression
of a jerky and disjointed style. On the other hand,
the direct contact of such letters should not be
shunned altogether. The composition will perhaps
the word “black” in Milton's JE Penssroso: “ Oerlaid
with black, staid Wisdom's hue: | Black, but such as in
esteem | Prince Memnon's sister might beseem,”
d je. special forms, constructions, shapes, gestures,
attitudes, poses, of language. es
* Cp. Fope's “ though oft the car the open vowels tire.
A certain metallic resonance (cf. 88 40, 174, 299) seems to
be meant by Demetrius. “To jar” is perhaps too strong:
SST A
á 345
 DEMETRIUS

oúvdeois, duoucorépa dé Kai Kwbr] dreyrds, moA-

4 > Eq aa 1 h) a Ea

Av eupuvias dpapelcioa rijv yuopévmv é vis

cuyrpodoems.
o) Exenréov Sé mpúror uév, Óri Kai 7 cuvideia + A

abr) ouumdjrre: Tó vpdguaro vaira! rois dvó-

pac, xatror oroxaloném mdlioTO eúpwvias,
+

EN > A 14 N 7 1 A 1 ,
oiov é TO Aiarôs mas xiuir. moMã dé rai did
póvmr róv pwméviwr ouvribyorw dvógara, olav
Alaim «ai Etros, ovdér ve Ivopwrórepa rr
3. / 1 x 4 LA t a

EMwy écrit Tadra, AN lows Kai povoLkeciTepa.

x” 3 + Eos 2 as” N TA

no Tá ye uv momrind, olov TO médios, Smpnjévor

Kal cuyepovógevor eritydes, ecdpwrórepór doru
vo6 jdios mai Tó Gpéwv? 100 Opódv. Exer váp viva
% Adois Kal 1 obynpovois olov dv êmyronérp.
moMã dé «al da év ouvalobi) pév Aeyópeva
Svopopa iv, Staspebévra Bê ral cuyrpovolévra
cibwvórepa, cos TO “mdvra pér rá vêa Kai sold
dor” ei dé cuvaleitas elmois “ xadd “arm,”
Bvodwrórepor orar TO Aeyóuevor Kai edrede-
orepor.
ma "Ev Alyórr dé nai rods Ocods úurodor Bd Tó
éra pwvnévrwr oi lepeis, Epeéiis Yxoivres adrá,
Kai dvri aUÃoO ai dvri rifdpas rOv ypoundrop
robrmv O dixos drxoveras óm epwvias, dote O
eéopódr mv cbyrpovor aoddêr dAÃo à) juédos
2 vã é (“intra vocabula”) conj, Roshdestwenski,
2 ópéwr P.

“ i.e. vowels; q. 88 68, TI.

à Cf fairy im Milton's “fagry elves” or Keats” “ fatry
lands forlorn.” | Such words are specially “ musical,”
346
 ON STYLE, 11. 68-71

be smoother in this way, but it will be less tasteful

and fall quite flat when robbed of much melody
made by the concurrence of vowels.
K is worthy of remark, in the first place, that
common parlanee itself, though it aims at euphony
above all things, brings these letters º into contact in
such words as Aiuxós and yuór. Tt also forms many
words of vowels and of vowels only, e.g. Aiaty and
Eitos, and these, so far from being less pleasant
to the car than others, possibly seem even more
harmonious.?
Poetical forms such as jélios, where the resolution
and the concurrence are designed, have a better
sound than 7jÃ.os, and the same is true of ápéwr as
compared with ópó». The resolution and the con-
currence have the effect cf actually making the words
sing themselves. Many other words would be dís-
agreeable if run together, but are pleasanter when
they are separated and chime, e.g. rávra pêv Tô vêa
Kai saká êorev If you were to fuse the vowels into
Kuhd “ori, the expression would be less euphonious
and more commonplace,
In Egypt the priests, when singing hymns in praise
of the gods, employ the seven vowels,? which they
utter in due succession; and the sound vf these
letters is so euphonious that men listen to it im place
of fute and lyre. To do away with this concurrence,
therefore, is simply to do away entirely with the
e Ser. Inc. Cj.8207. “ All things young are also fair” ;
or (to Keep some of the short syllables) “ everything that is
young is pretty.”
é For “le chant des sept voyelles grecques ” see €. E.
Ruelle in Revue des Études grecques, il. 88-44. AlsoJ, M.
Gesner, “ Geohoyobpera de laude Dei per vii Vocales ad
Demetrinm Phalereum,” Guitingen, 176.
: 347
 DEMETRIUS

drexvds efapsi voô Adyou xal pobcav. dd

mepi roúrev juév OU Koupós junrivery lows.
mo “Ev dé TOO peyudomperel xaporrip. cúyxpovors
mapadanBávorr” dy apérovca roi Bd parpr,
às vó “ Aar dv cbeone” Koi yáp O orixos
232 v. (ejÓS Tt doxer Ele TÃs cuyrpoúsems, i ral puepué
pnros rod Aibou jp dvafopáv ai Biav. doaúrus
mai 70 “pum ijmepos elvar ! vô Bovubider,
cuyapodovras xai diployyor dubbóyyors, “ raúryv
rarprgoar pév Reprupaior vixoTns dE eyévero.”
73 Iori uêv oôv Koi Tê udrã paxpã cuyrpovó-
peva péyedos, Kal ai adrai diployyor. ai dé dk
Stapepóvrwr cvyrpoúgers doi «Kai uéyelos motod-
cw «ai moucidior er vis modungias,* olov “je,”
é» de 0 “oinv” ou uórov diabéporra TO ypdu-
pará éoriv, GAMA ral oi dxor O per Daois, d Sé
filós, dare molha ávógora elvas,
7d Hal é cdais dé rá gehlonaro émi rob évds
yiveras TOU aúroU uaxpo ypáuuuTos, olor day
emenfoouévor ais, dore À ródv duotmr ay»
1 rãs od mokumxlos P: oó om. Victorius.

* Elom. Odyes. xi. 505:

f ro. 6 uêr camprevrógeros xepolv re mwoviv TE
Aãor ro úlcoxe mori hópor dAN dre pódio
EA 39 tro, vêr dmocrpépares apurado
[To ca vo tr”. KuMlvdero Aãas draidie.
For the long syllables in the second line cf Pope's “ When
Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, | The line too
Inbours, and the words move slow ” (Jssay on Oriticism).
Eustalhiuss comment on the Homeric passage is: “It is
renowncd for Ha composition (word-arrangement), as
indicating lhe hard labour of the pushing by the juxia-
position of the vowuls. These stuff the mouih and won't
348
 ON STYLE, 1. 71-74
music and harmony of speech. But perhaps this is
not the right time to enlarge on these matters.
It is the concurrence of long voxrels which is most
appropriateiy employed in the elevated style, as in
the words, “ that roek he heaved uphillward ” (fra
aferxe).e The line has gained length through the
hiatus, and has actually reproduced the mighty heav-
ing of the stone. The words of Thucydides “ that
it may not be attached to the mainland (uy ijmepos)
furnish a similar example! Diphthongs also may
clash with diphthongs, eg. “ the place was colonized
from Coreyra ; of Corinth, however, was its founder ”
(Repeupaio.: oixirrijs).e
Well, then, the concmrence of the same long vowels,
and of the same diphthongs, contributes to elevation
of style. On the other hand, the concurence of
different vowcls produces, through the number of
sounds employed, variety as well as elevation, an
instance being the word jus. In the word cbr not
only are the letters different but also the breathings,
one being rough and the other smooth, so that there
axe here many points of unhikeness.é
In songs, too, trills can be made on one and the
same long letter, songs being piled (so to say) on
songs, so that the concurrence of ke vowels may be
allow the words to trip along. So the language procecds
relnetantiy, in Eesping with the laborionsness of the heavy
heave uphill (rã doywiig rod due Bica)”
» Thueyd. vi. 1 dielpyerm vê u” jimesços dat
e pato, olxtriys
ms.
ke others of the
same kind, be a late add Possibly oi
»

should be retained beloro zoM 5 ing the rather

forced sense “even though the br Eoings (lhe unaspirated
two vowels im jus) are lie same.”
S48
 DEMETRIUS
Kpovois pucpóv Bora TL «pois pépos Kai pelioua.
mepl per dO) cuprpoloems, ral ws yivorr” dy
peyaÃompemis ouvbeois, Ackéxlm Tocuira.
1 “Eor dé nai é» mpdyjao: Tô geyadomperés, dv
neyidy roi dramperis melomaxia 7) vovpaxio, 9)
epi oUparod 7) mepi vis Adyos à Yap 7TOb peydÃou
dxodwr wpiyuaros cdbds Kai qóv Adyovra? oieras
peyóÃos Aéyeiy mAovauevos: dei yãp od TÁ Aeyó-
pevo ckomeiv, GAMA ms Aéyerar Eort ydp mai
ueydÃa uecpls Aéyorra dmperês moteiv r) mpdy-
port. O Kat Deirods TiváS Pac, borep Kal
Oedmoumor, deivã od des Aéyorras:
76 Nuxias 8" O Emypápos Kai rolro eúbis ENeyev
elvor ris ypapieis: réxums od junpór jpépos TO
AuBóvra vAnv edpeyédy ypápem, cai um) Karaxep-
uorile iv Téxuno eis prcpá, olov dpridia 7) dvBn,
MM immopaxias Koi vavpoxias, évda moMA pev
cxúuara delgetev dy TIS immar vódv ney Dedvray,
réu Bê dyficranévmwr Spbdr, dAAwv dé óxha-
tdvrwv, moAhods 5º drovrilovras, molhods Bê
Karonimrovras Tv imméwr Qero yãp Kal qiy
ômóbeciy abrir pépos eira rijs Cwypapuciis réxems,
domep tods púdovs vódv vomráv. oúdév oby
à Heryad P: fortasse peyiAy 7 legendum,
ral Aéyorra Ps vor add. eda.
3 Agyovras Goeller: Aéyopra P.

& i.e, the vepeated 7 in = frepos may be regarded as a

singer's til or shake. The study of prose-rhythm has, in
ancient and modern times, had results which would have
astonished rugged thinkers like Thucydides or Carlyle.
* Theopompus (b. about 380 s.c.), a pupil of Isocrates, is,
3850
 ON STYLE, m. 74-76
regarded as a bit of a song, in factas a trillº These
remarks must suffice on the question of hiatus and
of he Eind of composition appropriate to the elevated
style.
Elevation resides also in the nature of the subject
matter, when (for instance) the subject is a great
and famous battle on land or sea, or when earth or
heaven is the theme. For the man who Eistens to
a great subject is promptly heguiled into thinking
that the style itself is great. “ Beguiled,” 1 say:
for we must consider not so much the things narvated
as the method of their narration, since great topics
may be handled in a manner that is mean and below
the dignity of the subject matter, Whence the
saying that there are forcible writers, like Theo-
pompus, who give feeble utterance to forcible
conceptions?
The pointer NiciasS used to maintain that no
small part of the artistic faculty was shown in the
painter's choosing at the outset a theme of some
amplitude, instead of whitiling down his art into
small things, little birds (for example) or flowers.
The right subjects, he said, were such as naval battles
and cavalry engagements, which give many oppor-
tunities of representimng cs charging or rearing
high or crouching low, and their ríders burling
javelins or being thrown. His view was that the
subject itself was a part of the painter's art, just as
the ancient legends were a part of the art of poetry.
in this treatise, represented as a “ forcible-feebie ” or “ feeble-
foreible”: 58 75, 240, 247, 250. Cf. Roberts in Classical
Review, xxil pp. 118-122 (“Theopompus in the Greek
Literary Critics: with special reference to the newly-
discovered Greek historian "), .
* Probably the contemporary of Praxiteles.
851
 DEMETRIUS
Bavuagrór, ei Kai év Tois Adyois [ral]! éx mpay-
prev peyódwv! peyalompéreia yérmrar.
gm Tv Sé Agi Ev TO xapuripr robrm meprrriy
elral det xai EE mMaypérmy rol dovriôn ESAÃov:
oúr yãp éger TÓv eyrov, % dé rvpia «ai cumbns
cagris pé, err? dé nal eúraradpóvitos.
w Ilpóira per oôv perapopais xpnoréor abro vãp
udMoTa, al WBovijp cup fáMovras rois Adyois ai
néyedos, Hm) péviol muRvais, émei rot SibipanBov
dyri Adyou ypibonev pre pi móppeodev gere
crqreyuévais, dA” adródeu Hal éx rod ópoiou, oloy
doucer àMjhous orparmyós, ruBepriros, “ivioxos»
mávres vêp orou dpyovrés cio, dopalOs odp
êpei Kai 6 rôv crparnyór ruBeprirmv Aéymwr vis
móÃews, mai dvimadw O TOP KvBeprirmr dexorra
tis vós.
79 Ob nãos pévror drromodidorvrar, domep ai
mposipnnévar, éxei miv ômpeiar pêv vis "Tons |
a22 v. moda ESijy eimeiv vóv momrjr, róv de rob dvbpimou
móda oUéri dmepetoy eisrety.
80 “Emdv uévro rivôvvedbns E) peragopã dorij,
gerada Bovérda eis eiragiay gire vão dopa-
Acorépa yiyvorr” dv. eixaoia 5 dort jeragopã
mieoválovoa, oiov ed ris TA Cróre TO Húbem
Tú friropr, péovro no6” Dpudy mpoobeis eimor,
“eomep péovrs ra” dude” E] odrw quer vãp
* xa? secl, Spengel,
* peyile» scripsi Hammerum secutus: meyáAy P.
P der Spengel: del ví P. * 5 Victorius; GAN P,
5 rj ante róre add. Gale.

s Or (with the manuseript reading) “. .. words, though

always clear, are also (in a way, Tê: qf q% $ 103) Hable
asa
 ON STYLE, 1. 76-80
So it need awalten no surprise that, in prose writings
also, elevation results from the choice of à greet
subject.
The diction employed in the elevated style shonldbe
superior, distinguished, and inclined to the unfamiliar,
Tt will thus possess the needed gravity, whereas
usual and current words, though clear, are unim-
pressive and liable to be held cheap.”
In the first place, then, metaphors must be used;
for they impart a special charm and grandeur to
prose style. They should not, however, be crowded
together, or we shall find ourselves writing dithy-
rambic poetry in place of prose. Nor yet shoukl
they be far-fetched, but natural and based on a true
analogy. There is a resembiance, for instance,
between a general, a pilot, and a charioteer; for
they are allin command. Accordingly it can safely
be said that a general “pilots” the State, and con-
versely that a pilot “ commands ” the ship.
Not all metaphors can, however, be used convert-
ibly like the above. Homer could call the lower
slope of Ida its “ foot,” but he could not go further
and call a man's foot his “ slope”?
When the metaphor seems daring, let it for
greater security be converted into a simile. À simile
is an expanded metaphor, as when, instead of saying
“the orator Python was then rushing upon you in
full flood.” we add a werd of comparison and say
“was like a flood rushing upon you.” In this way
++” Neither Aerós (“plain”), nor its more usual form
Airós, is used elsewhere in the treatise,
Cf. Hora. Il, ii. 824 and xx. 59 with xx. 218. Demetrius
is commenting humorously on a classification well known
in the Peripatetic school; cf. Arist. Rhet. li. 4 fin.
* Demosth. De cor. 136.
853
 DEMETRIUS

eixacta yéyover mat dopalécrepos S Aóyos,

êxcivws Sé perogopã Kai «wduvwléorepos. Bó
roi IMAdrwv êmopolés Ti dorei soil perapopais
sãMov xpúpevos 7 eixagias, O pévro: Bevodôr
eixavios gov.
a “Apiory de Soxei ueragdopã TO "Aprororéde
Kará evépyeray radovuérm, Orar tê dibuxa êvep-
yotvra eiodygros Kabárep êmbuya, cos Tô êmi rod
Bédovs
dévBeris nab” éuidov éxumrécta. pevealvu,
Kai vô
nuprã Palnpiówrra,.
mávra yáp vara, 16 “ dadnpidavra” nal vó
“ ueveaivar,” Emrucois evepyelors doucer.
e2 “Ema jévro. capéorepor é tais peradopais
Adyeras rol rupuotepor, dmsp! é» adrois mois
rupiois, cs vô “Edpriev Sé udyn” oU vãp du
tis aúrô perafioAdy Bd rupluv our dAndéorepor
elmror ore copéorepov, Tó» vãp er rd» Bopáruwy
KAóvor Kai vor! yógevov Toúrois ipéua dyor
cuvexôo Gpiocovoar pdypr mpoonyópevcer, xa
duo emeliqural mes vis Kar” êvépyerav peradonãs
tis mpoepupérms, Tv uáxmv fplovew eimey
.demep tdo,
es Ac pévror ui) Auvldvemy, Ori êxar peradopal
pirpompéreav sotodor pãMor d) méyelos, xairo
tis peragopão vpós óyrov AauBavonérys, ds Tó
1 eimep P, 2 vai róv ins. Spengel,
» De subl, xxxil. 8 (after Aristolle and
8 Ariotot. Jhcé. fil. 1. * Hom. A iv. 126.
854
 ON STYLE, nm. 80-82
we obtain a simile and a less risky expression, in the
other way metaphor and greater danger? Plato's
employment of metaphors rather than similes is,
therefore, to be regarded as a risky feature of his style,
Xenophon, on the other hand, prefers the simile.
In Aristotle's? judgement the so-called “ active ”
metaphor is the best, wherein inanimate things are
introduced in a state of activity as though they were
animate, as in the passage describing the shaft :
Sharp-shot flies at the crowd the angry shaft?

and in the words :

High-arched, foam-crested.?

AM such expressions as “ foam-crested “ and“ angry ”

suggest the activities of living creatures,
Some things are, however, expressed with greater
cleamess and precision by means of metaphors than
by means of the precise terms themselves : as “ the
battle shuddered.”* No change of phrase could, by
the employment of precise terms, convey the mean-
ing with greater truth or clearness. The poct has
given the designation of “ shuddering battle ” to the
clash, of spears and the low and continnons sound
which these make. In so doing he has seized upon
the aforesaid “ active” metaphor and has represented
the battle as “ shuddering ” like a living thing.
We must, however, not lose sight of the fact that
some metaphors conduce to triviality rather than to
grandeur, even though the metaphor be employed
in order to enhance the effect. An instance is the
line:
5 Hom. Ji. xill. 799: quoted, for another reason, in 8 64
* Hom. Ji. xiii. 389.
355
 DEMETRIUS
dubi 8º dudimeyéer péyas oúpavós
odpavôr yáp dAMv tixodvra ode expijy mpooeuedoa
Yxovon cdAmruyy, mA eb ni Tu pal dimoÃoyoiro
ómep roê “Opúpou Aéyeoy, «às obrus* Mxnoer péyas
oúpavós, cs dv dxnoerer coadmilw dÃos obpavós.
4 “Erépar odv empojowpev peragopar uucpóritos
airiar yropéviv parÃor 7) meyédovs: deT ydp ex
ré» pecbóvur jeradépe eis Tá ixpá, od TO
êvarrioy, oiov Às à Eevobiv dmow, “ êmei dé
mopevonévev cberúunve Te vis” pálayyos” may
vãp tis Táfews maperrpomjy êxruparodon ba-
Adown elkager sal mpocwvógacer. «ti Bé ris pera-
Bale eixos êxpalayyicacav rijv OdÃacoa», ráxa
pév oUdE oixeiws peroícer, mdvim dé mdvras
HLKpOTpETÓS.
85 “Emo dé nai dopaditovra ras uerapopãs émt-
Béross êmupepopévors, dray aúrois «tduvders
Sonda, às O Qéoyuis maparideras TO Tóim
“ bóppopya càxopôor * “ êmi TOO TO Tóéw Béa
Aovros" ) us váp Pópuys rwvbuvides émi roi
rágou, TO 08º dxópõm joddioras.
ss Idvrav dE nai vódv dAmv À) cuvijêea «ai
1 &po edd.: du DP.
2 bs oirus ap. Greg. Cor.: úoabras P,
Bm ris Xenophontis librie ris P,
4 rÊ TóEw dópuyya auch Tb» rogopópuiyyo P,
à O
2 Hom. J!. xxi, 888.
» Criticism and defence alike scem laboured. But we can
see from Arist. Rligé. iii, 3 (Jatter portion) how different
ancient views of metaphor were, in some ways, from modern.
Would Aristotle, and Demetrins, have disliked Wordswozxth's
line ** The cataracts blow their trampels from the steep ” in
the famous Intimations ?
356
 ON STYLE, 1. 83-86

AN round the great sky trumpeted.

The entire firmament when resounding ought not
to have been likened to a resounding trumpet, unicas
on Homer's behalf the defence be advanced that
high heaven resounded in the way in which the
entire heaven would resound were it trumpeting?
Let us, therefore, consider a different kind of
metaphor, one which leads to pettiness rather than
to grandenr, Metaphors should be applied from the
greater to the Jess, not the other way about. Keno-
phon, for example, says: “om the march a pari ví
the line surged out.” c He thus likens a swerving
from the ranks to a surging of the sea, and applies
this term to it. If, however, it were conversely to
be said that the sea swerved from “line” the
metaphor would possibly not be even appropriate ;
in any case it would be utterly trivial.
Some writers endeavour by the addition of epithets
to safeguard metaphors which they consider risky.
In this way Theognis applies to the bow the expres-
sion “lyre without chords” when deseribing an
axcher in the act of shooting.? Itis a bold thing to
apply the term “ lyxe” to a bow, but the metaplhor
is guarded by the qualification “ without chords.”
Usage, which is our teacher everywhere, is so

TAS quiayyos: “ Auctuated,” Goldsmith (Fa

“ Metaphor “3, “This well-known chapter of tu dr
(1. 8: it describes the battle of Cunaxa) supplies illustra-
tions also in 88 108, 104; again with slight deviations from
the accepted text. Cf also 218.
& Theog. trag., Nauck?, p. 760. n
e Common usage; ordinary, everyday, familiar speech.
Of. Horace, Aro P, 71, 72 “usus . . « norma loquendi
(= raro, 8 87).
837
 DEMETRIUS
uádiora perapopódr ddorados* pucpod ydp oxe-
dor! mávra perapépovca Aavbávei dia vô dapadóis
agr. eradéperr, Aeurerjo Te pevij Acyovea, | Kai óéuv
dvBpormov read poxo los Kai pacpór Priropa, Kal
TéMa, doa oUrw peragéperas povos, gre
épota doreedy rois Kupíors.
87 Toirov éyio ravóvo Tibepas ris, év Aóyors gerar
popãs, id Ts ourqbeias ré elre pÚow. ora
yodv éva perijveyicer 7 cuvjbeia Kadôs, sore
ovdé rupiwy Eri eijbmper, da Hepuéimqicer à
perabopá Karéxovoa tor TOB rupiou, rómov, dis
6 ris dumédou dphaduos” xai ei T+ érepor
TotobTov.
88 Egóvivhos perros mai rÃeis ti Emi TOO auparos,
Kai kréves, O) KoTá perapopãr cdvóuaorat, GM
rob duotórmra Bud, vô éotkévar TO gév KTevi pépos,
Tó dé Jedi, Tô de cpovôúdea.
so “Emêv pévros eixacior monde Ti” perapopdv,
os mpolédexras, oroxagréoy 799 ourrógou, Kai
vol under mAdov rod? “dorep' " mporibévas, émei
é
rot dvr” eixacias mapafoAm êorar nom,
ofov vô rod Eevoóivros, “ domep Bé Kúay yervaios
dmpovojrws émi rámpov Péperas,” not “É domep
irmos Audeis Sud mediov yavprdr mai daroAaeri-
* an delendam vel pespod vel oxedor?
2 rob ugõi ro Pe q mAéov of in margine P.

º Lit. “white”; “vox candida )( fusca,” in Quintilian

5,
tie “pud” or “shoot”; cf cculus in Latin, So
“ heart of cal,”
“ig “like a hound” or “like a horse,” without detailed
points cf comparison.
358
 ON STYLE, n. 80-89

particularly in regard to metaphors, Usage, in fact,

clothes almost all conceptions in metaphor, and that
with such a sure touch that we are hardly conscious
ofit. It calls a voice “silvery” 0 a man “keen,”
a character “ rugged," a speaker “ long,” and so on
with metaphors in gencral, which are applied so
tastefully that they pass for literal description.
My own rule for the use of metaphor in prose is
the art—or nature—found in usage. Metaphors
have in some cases been so well established by usage
that we no longer require the literal expressions, but
the metaphor has definitely usurped the place of the
literal term. For instance, “the eye? of the vine”
and so forth,
The parts of the body, however, which are called
“vertebra” (odbóvinhos), “ collarbone” (aheis),
and “ribs” (rréves), derive their names not from
metaphor but from their resemblance to a spindle-
whorl, a key, and a comb respectively.
When we turn a metaphor into a simile in the way
above described, ve must aim at conciseness, We
must do no more than prefix some such word as
“Bke,)'º or we shall have a. poetical comparison in
place of a simile. Take, for example, Xenophon's
“ Bke as a gallant hound charges a honr recklesç,º
and (another writer's) “like as a hors win un-
loosed bounds proudly prancing over the plain.” &
é Ken. Cyrop. à &, 21, and Ser. Inc. In one of his
letters Charles Darwin writes: “When a horse is turned
out into à ficld he trots with high elastic steps and carries
histailaloft.” Thatis the language ofprose. The unknown
author of the second example quoted by Demetrius employs
a full-blown simile which contuins poetical, or semi-poetical,
«words: even umoAauriçer iz not cakeerifor.

859
 DEMETRIUS

Cv". adro ydp ode eixaciaç Ert Eorcer, AMA

mapaBodais momrucais.
so Tas dé mapaBoiàs radras obTe padiws év rois
melots Aóyois Tudérar del, ouve dveu mheiorns
puanis. «oi wepi perapopãs uev vocadra! «os
rómep elmeiy.
81 Anmréov dé nai cúvbera óvóngara, ou Tà Suu-
panBicos cuyreiuera, ofov “ Beorepárovs mAávas,”
otde “ dorpwv Sopúrupor orparór,” dAM” éoucóra
rois úmo ris cuvmbeias? ouyremévors: reabódov
vão raúrqv xavóva motobgas mdons ôvopagius,
vogobéras Aéyovcar Kai dpyirékrovas, Kal rotdõe
moMa Erepa Gopalds ouvribeicar,
“Eée: pévro: vô cúvderov dvoga óuoB rat trot-
[vo]
ta

KsAlar rua éx ris ouvbécems Koi péyelos, Kai dua

Kal cvvrontar twd. Svopa yap reljoera dvri
ôÃov Toi Aóyou, olov Oy Thu TOD olrou Kopôiy
crromopaiov Aéyns" moA) yãp oúrm ueilov, ráya
&” à» nai Avbévios dvégaros eis Adyor Erepor
rpómov ueilor yévorro, olov airou mopmi) dvri
orromopumias,
93 “Ovona 8 dvri Adyov rTiderar, olov «ds 6 Bevob
dnow ér od dv AaBeiv ôvor dypror, el um) oi
immrels Sraordvres Onper dradexópevor dvópari,
ofov óm" oi uév ômiobev édiwnor, oi S” dorm
irehadvorres mpdow, ore rOv Gvor é» péom
amodauBdvrecdas quidrTeodar pévror dunà Tidé-

1 rocafira add, Schneider; cf, 8 220.

? curgdeias Finckli: dAyfelas P. Fort. dhydcias hic sem
vandum, ct dAydois (vice curidous) legendum in 5 96.
* an dvóuare OgNôy Sri (olor Sr perperam iterante olor ds et
anmir Gr)?
360
 ON STYLE, rr. 20-98

Such descriptions have the appearance po longer of

simile, but of poetical comparisons,
These comparisons should not be used in prose
lightly nor without the greatest caution.—This con-
eludes our sketch of the subject of metaphor.
Compound words should also be used. They should
not, however, be formed after the manner of the
dithyrambic poets, eg. “ heaven-prodigied wander-
ings “ or “ the flery-speared battalions of the stars.” “
They should resemble the compounds framed by
everyday speech, In all word-formation I regard
usage as the universal arbiter, usage which speales of
“lawgivers” and “master-builders,)” and «with sure
touch frames many other compounds of the kind.
A compound word will usually, from the very fact
that it is composite, derive a certain decorative
quality and grandeur, and a certain conciseness as
well, One word will stand for an entire phrase. For
instance, you might speak of the transport of corn
as “ com-convoy,” thus using a much more striking
expression. Still, it may sometimes happen that the
same strengthened effect will be obtained by the
converse process of resolving a word into a phrase—
“ cora-convoy,” for instance, into “ convoy of com.”
An example of a word used instead of a phrase is
Xenophon's sentence: “it was not possible to
capture a wild ass unless the mounted men separated
and hunted in two parties”? The single word
(Bindexópevor) is equivalent to saying that some
horsemen were in pursuit behind, while others rode
forward to meet them, so that the wild ass was inter-
cepted, The compounding of words already com-
a Lyric. Fragm. Adesp. 128, Bergk!.
d Xen, Ánab, à 5. 2.
861
 DEMETRIUS

vor rã1 S durhãns! A

drópura: rodro yap' Efetor
ue 1
Aóyou
metoO rô eidos.
dd Tá 8 merompéva dvópgara dpilovrar pêr rá
/ 1

rarô uiunow expepógeva tmólous 7%) mpdyparos,

doses ofov eg 70 “olte” | Kal vó “ Adaropres,” mol
dé uáiora peyadompéremar dd TO oiov Wógois
1 Eq

:
! A + io 4

cormévos, mai páMiora TO éérp od yãp ôvra

dvógara Aéyer, GAMA TÓTE VivÓpeVO, KOL ÓuO. cobór
3.4 1 > A , y L vo 4

Ti qalveros dvógaros «umob yéveots, olov ouv-

mbeias: Eouxev voliv dvojparovpyódv Trois mperois
Peuévois rã dvógara.
96 Lroyaoréov mpúror pêv TOU cagpois é» TO
E) Es 3 Aa

,
mworvuévo Ovógari KoL cuvidovs, émeira tis
Guoiórmros mpôs vã seineva óvógara, cs jm o)
dpuyilem à) cnvbitem ris
/
dófer perabd
a Bi,
- 8ó 1 “ERA

vucêy dvopudrewy?
97 Homréov pévror dror TA um) «vogaguéra, olou
6 7ô riumava Kal Tédio tódv paldandy ôdpyara,
raias eimey nai "Aptororédys vôv eXepor-
vio À mapã tô Keiueva sapovopdtorra abróv, 4 f

1 gre Victorius: te P.
2 "Biyrucôr dropárur edd.: "ENAmrirois drómacur P.
* Demetrius does well to give this word of warning: the
awer of freely compounding words is of? great value in any
anguage, but it ran riot in late Greek, where preposition
was often piled upon preposition, adding length with little
added meaning. “The adviser (Demetrius) does not always
“reck his own rede.” eracurribérea, mpuavagoir, and
EmporarofyNla are found in him alone, but all three are
serviceable words. He also uses dvfrmuANdacia, cuvebalpr,
and broxaracraviço. Longinus goes much furlhe
pound words oceurriog in the Só! Due and nuwhere else are:
drfurarrãr, dorivunaxeir (in the passive), mpocuparifojgm,
rporembedonos, mpormepropitona:, arenmeéw, to which may be
added mpocéreyxos. In company with olher writers or
sa
 ON STYLE, mm. 92-97

pounded should, however, be avoided.: Such double

composition oversteps the limits of prose.
Our authorities define “ onomatopoeie ” «words?
as those which are uttered in imitation of an emotion
or an action, as “ hissed ” and “lapping.” e
Homer ? impresses his readers greatly by his em-
ployment of words resembling inarticulate sounds,
and. by their novelty above all, He is not making
use of existing words, but of words then coming intao
existence. Moreover, the creation of a fresh word
on the model of words already in use is regarded as à
kind ofpoetic gift. As a word-maker, Homer seems,
in fact, to resemble those who first gave things their
names.
The foremost aim in the formation of words should
be clearness and naturalness ; the next, Que analogy
with established words. A writer should not have
the appearance of introducing Phrygian or Seythian
words among those of Greece,
Words should be formed either to denote things
which have as yet not been named, as was done by
the person who described the ketiledrums and other
instruments of effeminate devotees as “ lecheries,”
ox by Aristotle when he spoke of an “ elephanteer ”
(elephant-driver)* Or again, a writer may inde-
pendently fashion words from existing ones, as when
alone, Longinus also has such lengthy forms as ducdwÃo-
momwúpera (pérpa), durularidesên, derkgparopeloder Exerraya
. Bo ecfiz. fonssivel, rerefardoradis,
e, Plato has
, Or manu-

Ha E es,
& ro? 6, se. 6 vrovyriis (ralher than rá memomuéro. dvônare).
* Aristot, Hist, anim. Book II. (i. pp. 497, 610, ed. Pera
368
 DEMETRIUS

olov «os vóv cxapirmr! vis Ebm TOv Tv crdgnu

êpéocovra, «ai "Apiororédys Tór avbrirmv oiop
rô» uóvor abróv ôvra.
os Eevopóv dé “Alte” dyom “O orpuróse”
rip tod éXeded drafBónow dr dveBda d orparos
cuvexós maparoticas dvópgari. emaçales pévros
Todpvov, st Edy, mal abrois Trois moimrais. «ab
vô SumÃoiv pévror ôvona eldos &r eim memom-
pévov drógaros: mãv yãp vô auvridénevov él
Tivwv yéyover Onhovóri.
99 Meyaleiov dé vi corr nai dAMmyopia, xai
uddiora év vais âmerhais, otov «os à Atovigios, óri
“oi rérruyes aúrois dcorrar xaódev*”
wo Ei BS ovrws árÃos elmev, Ort Tepei rijv Aoxpida
xcópav, Kai dpyikcórepos dy éGdrm ra edreldorepos.
vv dê Somep cuyraXiupari Toê Aóyou rj dAAy-
yopig xéxpnrar nãv yãp TO Umovooiueror doBepa-
TEpov, Kai Aos eixále: do Tu O dé caes rai
gavepóv, raragdpoveiodos eixos, momep rods dao-
deduuévous.
101 Ato Kai Tô puorípia év GAmpopiais Adyerar
mpôs êxmAnêm ral dpixyr, domep é oxóTi” mal
2 prénige Victorius: jAhager P,
ros Vilwimno erprrgyós P.
&s Victorius: xai ds P. 8 dpdrra xuuáder P,
E

garepôr Goeller: goBepôr P,

? cxórw Victorius: aurô Ps iows é abóry m, rec. in
marg. P,

* Or (in modem times) “ airman,” suggested by “ boat-

man” and “seaman,” Does ris refer, as Radermacher
thinks, to Strabo, who once (xvii. 817) uses the word csagiras
which seems to be found nowhere else in extant Greek
literature ?
864
 ON STYLE, nm. 97-101

somebody gave the name of “ boatman "a to one wha

rows a boat, or as when Aristotle called a man who
lives sole and alone (all by himself) a “ solitary.” d
Xenophon says that “the army huzzacd,” denot-
ing by this derivative the ery of “ huzza ” which the
troops kept raising continually: The practice is,
however, as 1 said, full of risk even for the poets
themselves. It may be added that a compound is
a kind of manufactured word, for everything which
is put together must, of comse, have sprung from
some existing material,
There is a kind of impressiveness also in allegorical
language? This is particularly true of such menaces
as that of Dionysius : “ their cicalas shall chirp from
the ground.” *
Jf Dionysius had expressed his meaning directly,
saying that he would ravage the Locrian land, he
would have shown at once more irritation and less
dignity. In the phrase actually used the spesker
has shrouded his words, as it were, in allegory. Any
darkly-hinting expression is more terror-striking, and
itsimport is variously conjectured by diferenthearers.
On the other hand, things that are elear and plain
are apt to be despised, just ke men when stripped
of their garments.
Hence the Mysteries ave revealed in an allegorical
form in order to inspire such shuddering and awe
» CF. S 144 infra. e Xen. Anab. v. 2. 14.
3 “Fionrative” language, but with a notion also of
“veiled meaning,” “ dark saying” 4 ef Milton's “ where
more is meant than meets the ear,” and De subi. vi 3 éy=
seraxelmew +7 Giavola mico rob Aeyendrou vê drafempoúperor.
See also $ 222 of the present treatise, .
* Explained in the next section; cf “making the
squirrels wall,” as used of a great fall of wooê. A
N 305
 DEMETRIUS

vurTi. Eouke 8é xai 7 dAAnyopia TD oxórq! Kai

Ti vurTi.
102 Duhirreotar puévror ted raúrns Tô quvexés,
os qui) aivypa ô, Aóyos. Wu» vévnras, olov 70 émi
tis cuxbas TS larpucis
dvôp” eldov mupl xaAxór êm dvépr KoMAgoavra.
Koi ob Adives moAhd, é» àMnyoplas EXeyor
erxpoBobvres, oiov 7ô “ Arovócios év Kopivôw ii
=pôs Dilummo, Kai àMa Totaúra od óliya.
103 “H ouvropia, de mw uv Heyadompemijs, od
udliora À dmocusmors: éma vãp um pndévra
peitova paiveras eai | dmovonbévra pBMov" 9 de
Hucpomperis. noi yôp é Soyémis viveras ué
yefos, oiov us Hevopóv, “rã dé dppara epépero,' '
ómoi, “rã pev ô abr tv qriwv, TA dE Kal
OU abr ródv moheuicwv” soAd yãp our pellor,
7 cimep dO elmev, “rol da ródr prAlmwv, Kai dia
104
ver modentwr abr”
asd r,
[| NoMaxoU de mal vó mAdyrov ueilov vob
cúbéos, oior “W dé yráum pv, ds eis TAS TÁÉeis
Tó» EMojreny EXcvruy” eai Buarconfóvrey * " dori
rod “ Brevoodpro EAdoo Jeab Bucuredifras.
105 EvpBéBara dé roi m ôporóris rô» evopuáreor
xai 7 dvodwria % pavopérm: Kai yãp Tô Bvo=
Gwvov moMaxoU dyrnpór, Donep
2 gxóry Victorius : avrô (sic) P.
2 exbvror Ken, libri: eNbrrwr P.
g Gleobulina, Fragm. à, Bergk* (f. Arist. Filet. ili, 2).
+ Cf. 858
e À sudden drop intô silence; a suppressed word or
clause; cf. 85 149, 253, 264,
366
 ON STYLE, u. J0l-105

as are associated with darkness and night. Allegory

also is not unlike darkness and night, '
Here again excess must be avoided, lest language
become a riddle in our hands, as in the description
of the surgeon's cupping-glass :
A man i beheld who with fire had welded brass to a man's
esn,

The Lacedaemonians conveyed many of their threats

by means of allegory, as in the message “ Dionysius
at Corinth ” addressed to Philip, and in many similar
expressions?
in certain cases conciseness, and especially apo-
siopesis,º produce elevation, since some things seem
to be more significant when not expressed but only
hinted at. In other cases, however, triviality is the
result. Impressiveness may result from verbal repeti-
tions é such as those of Xenophon, who says: “the
chariots rushed, some of them right through the
ranks of friends, some right through the ranks of
foes.” * Such a sentence is far more striking than
if Xenophon had put it in this way: “right through
the ranks both of friends and foes.”
Often an indirect construction is more impressive
than the direct: as “ the intention was that they
should charge the ranks of the Greeks and cut their
way through them,” rather than “ they intended to
charge and cut their way through.” ?
Similarity of words and manifest dificulty in utter-
ance may contribute to the same result, For such
difficulty is often impressive, as in the words
& Of. Genesis xlvii. 9 and Book of Denial iii. 1-184 two
fuller and more “ impressive ” examples.
* Ken. And. i. 8. 20.
* Xen. And, à. 8. 10,
867
 DEMETRIUS

Alas 5º 6 uéyas aiév Eb “Exropt.

moid yão uãhov Tóv Alarra péyar evébnver 1)
A 1 a A x E 3.* f

mov dio cúuminêis ris érrafoeiov domidos.

306 . To 1 dé 91 empurmna
& 4 4
mahoúuevov es
Opilorro per4 dv
ris Ad erucoouodoav, éort dé TÔ peyaomperé-
oraror év Tois Adyois. tis vãp Aéfews 7) ey
úmnperel, À dé éminocue. mnperel uér À
Tod,
:
ola dv údrivdor é olpeoi Wouéves dvôpes
mocol KaraoreiBovor,
émukocuei dé TO Emubepóngevor Tô
xamuai dé re móppupor avios
1 4 4 ES

êxeviverrar yap robro Trois mpoermveyévors Kó-

ouos caps ral KdAÃos.
107 Meori BE rodrur Kai 1% Opmjpou molnois, otor
éx xomvod xarébnc, êxei odkéri rolow Eder,
ois rô mápos Tpoinvde ruby Karédermer *Oduoceds.
e 1 / f A E > Z

mpôs O" Eri roi róde upeitov émi ppeciv Enade

1 3 x” v f Ed 24 + Eu

dai,
mijtws olvwbévres, Epiy orjcavres év div,
f É) Ed ar 4 , Ses

dAAjÃovs TpúonTe.
eira êmpwvel,
adrôs yáp êpédxera: dvôpa ciônpos.
108 Kai ralóÃou Tô êmpivmua rois Tv mÃovoiwry
º Hom. Ji. xvi. 858: cf. 5 48, where the complete line
is quoted.
2 For such “ clanging ” sounds in English ef. “it strikes
On a wood, and tales, and breaks, and cracks, and splits ”
(Tennyson, Princess); “ Grate on their serannel pipes of
wretched siraw ” (Milton, Lyeidas).
368 .
 ON STYLE, nm. los-108
And Aias the mighty at Hector the brazen-heimed evermore
Was aiming his lance.”
The clashing of the two words (Alus, aiéy) brings
out the greatness of Ajax more vividly than his
famous sevenfold buckler)
The so-called “ epiphoneme ” e may be defined as
language thai adds adornment. Tt produces eleva-
tiun of style in the highest degree, Language can
convey the sense; it can also add adornment. It
conveys the sense in such words as:
Like as the hyacinth upon the hills
Is irodden by the shepherds with their feet,
but the adornment comes with the added clanse :
And low on the earth lies that purple fower?
For the addition thus made to the preceding lines
clearly adorns and beantifies,
The poetry of Homer abounds in instances, as
“1 have taken them out of the smoke,” say thou, “ for they
Seem no more
Like those that Odysseus left when he sailed for the Trojan
shore
But marred, wherever the wreaths of the fire-rcek were wont
to roll.
And another fear and a greater Cronion hath put in my soul,
Lest perchance ye be heated with wine, and ye break into
strife and jar,
And ye wound one another, and shame the feast, and your
wooing mar.” º
After this he adds as a finishing-toueh :
For the steel of itself hath a spell and it draweth men on
unto war.*
In general it may be said that the epiphoneme
* Concluding esclamation, finishing touch, culmination.
& Sappho, Praga. 94 Bergk!; Edmonds, Lyra Graca,
à p. 286, * Cf. Hom. Odyss, xvi, 288-204, ix. 71-13,
s69
 DEMETRIUS

Eotcev emdelyuaciy, yeigors Aee Kal TpuyAúpo!s

nai moppúpais mÃaretass ofoy vdp TL Koi adró
Ted é Aóyots mÃoúrou enpeióv corur,
109 Aóéerer 8º dv eai o) bóia êmupwviparos
eldós 71 elvau, oUx Oy uév oÚ yap xócuou éverer,
dAÃa drodeitews mapalanfidverar, mAjy Emdevó-
gevóv ye empuwmpuaruciis.
110 “Qoarreos de nai ) prum Empwvouuére revi
Former émi mpoepmpévois, SMA” odS” abr émupa-
vouá éori" Kai vap mpodéyeras monAdris, Aau-
Báver pévror xcópav more Empwriparos.
NL Tó é,
vimos oUS” dp” ExeAde xaxás úmo «ipos dAvéem,
ovo” abrô embcivmja. àv em od yãp emléyeros
ovde émicoouei, odo” Aus empwmjnar CoLcev,
ima mpoofewvipar 7U) Emucepropriuami.
uz Tó de motTucor é» Adyots órt per Jeyodo-
mperés, Koi TUPAD Boy paot, mad oÉ er env
mávu xpôvra. 1% uijoe. vó» mowráv, nã
€ od puprjces, ima perabéger, rabdarep “Hpóboros.
13 VourvBiôns pévror nãv AáBm tapã mom Tod qt,
Bicos cor xpepevos tbiov 76 Andlev morei, olov
ó pêv mormris êmi tis Koirs bm,
Korg tes yaí” for! uécw évi olvom móvra,
Kad) Koi micpa, mepippuros.
6toa
ger 8%)124
êxi roda peyélovs
4 ENT)
êxpjcaro TM"ag ce“ mepip-
,

1 yai! tor; codd. Homeri: 4º évri P. 2 expijcaro vô P,

& The laticlave of the Roman senator seems to be meant.
* Hom. Il. xii, 118. Probably Demetrius has in mind
some definite writer who had quoted this Homeric line as
an example of the epiphoneme.
e“ As plain as a pikestaf” ”: cf 8 280.
sro
 ON STYLE, rx. 108-118

bears a Hkeness to the things on which the wealthy

pride themselves—cornices, triglyphs, and bands of
purple: Indeed, it is in itself a mark of verbal
opulence.
The enthymeme might be thonght to be a kind of
epiphoneme. But it is not so, since it is employed
for purposes not of adornment but of proof. Though,
to be sure, it may come last after the manner of an
epiphoneme,
Similarly a maxim resembles in some points an
epiphoneme added to a previous statement. Never-
theless the maxim, in its turn, ís not an epiphoneme.
Though at times it may come last like an epiphoneme,
it often comes first.
Again, the line
Poor fool! he was not to escape hard fate?
will be no epiphoneme. For it is not final, nor is it
ornamental, It has no likeness at all to an epi
phoneme, but rather to an allocution or a taunt.
A touch of poetic diction adds to the elevation of
prose. Even a blind man can see that, as the proverb
has it. Still some writers imitate the poets quite
erudely. Or rather, they do not imitate them, but
transfer them to their pages as Herodotus has done.”
Thucydides acts otherwise, Even if he does
borrow something from a poet, he uses it in his own
way and so makes it his own property. Elomer, for
instance, says of Crete :
A land there is, even Crete, in the midst of the dark sea-swell,
Fair, fertile, wave-encompassed,*
Now Homer has used the word “ wave-encompassed ”
& Demetrius may be thinking of such famous things in
Herodotus as Emecri do oq decmóras vópgos (vii, e. 104).
* Hom. Odyss. xix, 172.
aa
 DEMETRIUS

puros,” O dé Movevdiôys duorociv rods Dure-

mv. Accóros «Kadov olevar elvar, yis ôvras | ôs ai
mepippúrov, Kai radrá! mávra elmeov, viy Te dori
vijcou Kal mepippurov ioaúrws, ôumws Erepa Àé-
peu doxet, dióru oUx «os mpôs uéyedos, AMA pôs
óudvoray abrois expijcaro. epi pév Om) peyado-
mpereias rocadra.
Há “Lomep dé mapórero: dadlá qua dorelors
muoiy, olov Bdppes pev 10 Bpágos, 7 O aloxóvm Th
aidoi, rêv abróv Tpóxor Kai tis épunvelas Tois
xapartipow mapáxemrtoar Bmpaprquéror tivés.
mpóra dé mepi TOD perruidvros TO peyaÃomperei
Aéfouev. dvoua nev odv abr buypóv, ópilerar
dé vô buypóv Qeóppacros obrms, fuxpóv éori Tô
úrepBdAÃov my oixelav darayyediav, otov
imuvôdrwros ob Tpazelodras KÚMÊ,
dvri rod dmúluevos êmi rpasmélys mÚMÉ od riderar.
Tô váp tpêyua omepór dv» ou déxerar ôykov
- Es

vogobror Aéfems.
, ; VA 1a nu
15 Diverar gévror Kai TO uypór ev Tproir, vorep
Kai Tô geyohompereés. 7 yáp ev Bivoia, ralirep
1 qaúra P,.
º Thueyd. iv. 64. 3 1ô dé Súumrar yelroras duras ral Euvolxous
utãs xwpas Kai meprapórou kal Broua Bv rechquévams Etredióraso
Hermocrates of Syracuse is the speaker, and is urging his
felow-Greeks of Sicily to pnt aside intestine feuds, and to
resist as one man any invasion of their island-nome.
Thucydides (as author of the speech) is supposed by
Demetrius to give a new turn to the familiar lines in which
the great national poet of Greece had described the sea-girt
iske of Crete. The sea may resemble a huge rampart; it
may also, with the help of traitors, afford a landing to the
ships vf the invader,
s7a
 ON STYLE, mw. 1198-115

ta indicate the great size of the island. Thucydides,

on his part, thinks it a right thing that the Greek
settlers in Sicily should act in unity, as they belong
to the same land and that a wave-enconypassed one?
Although he employs just the same terms as Homer
“land É in place of “island,” and likewise “ wave-
encompassed “—he seems nevertheless to be saying
something different. The reason is that he uses the
words with reference not to size but to national
unity-—Thus much with regard to elevation of style,
But as in the sphere of morals certain bad qualities
exist side by side with certain atixactive ones
(audacity, for example, corresponding to bravery,
and shame to reverence), so also the leading types
of style are matched by distorted varieties. We will
first speak of the faulty style which is next neighbour
to the elevated. Its name is “ frigid,”? and “the
frigid ” is defined by Theophrastus º as that which
overshoois the expression appropriate to the thought,
for example
A cup unhased is not intabulated.é
Here the meaning is: “a cup without a bottom is
not placed upon a table.” The subject, being trivial,
does not admit of such magniloquence.
Frigidity, like elevation, arises at three points,
One of these is the thonght itself, as when a writer
b *Prosty”s cf. 86. With all its fery ambitions, such
a style is what modern actors call“ a frost.” IN falls fat,
a Theophr. ilepi Aéiews.
à Soph. Tripiol. fragm. Sec Pearson's Soph. Pragm.
3. p. 241, with his comment, “We are perhaps justified in
recalling that the play was probably an early one.” Is it
a case of [8 Zoporkis] deumemaxas vor Aloxúkou byror (Plai,
Mor. 79 =),—an instance of deliberate burlesque?
NY 873
 DEMETRIUS

êmi roi Rúxhwros Adopohoivros Ti» vaiy rod

"Odvacémws Eb tis, “ depouévov Tod Aibou alyes
evéuovro ér adrp.”
LATA
ex yãp roi drepBeBAnuévou
3 E ZA x Ny ed € A L

ris dravoias ral dduvárov q fuxpórms.

16 “Ev dé Aége O "Aprororédys noi viveobas
A 1 €.3 , FERA Rm »
rerpaxõs, * « "cos "Adxidduas “ dypór idpóra,
7 é cuvbér, rar ôtbvpauBeiôns cuvrel q di-
A E 4] Fr 4 ê [4 sô On € 8é

mAwois Tod drógaros, os TO “ EpnuomAdros "

” ] sta EA, e t Ed ' f
Em Tus, Kai eb? r1 EAÃO oUTms répoyrov. yiverar
dé Kai év perapopã vô fuxpór, “ rpégorra Kob
xpã Tá upiyuaras” terpaxós per odv Karã
Tiv Adémw oúrews dv yiyroiro.
17 Dúrôeois dé fuxpã À um) ebpvôuos,* dAMA apub-
nos odca Kai dd márrwr uarpáv' Exovoa, dormep
n tordde, “ijrav duédy ele vjv xúpar, máons
Wu» ôpbfs ovons.”
ç -
odbér vyãp Exer Aoyixov oúde
q E) ar ERS FENDA 1X EA N AND

dopolés dd mv cuvéxerar vv paxpóv cvAdaBór.

> 1 A ! EA El E E

us Fuxpôv dé Koi vô uérpa tibévar cuvexi, rabá-

mep Tuvés, Kai um) Khemrógeva ÚmO tis ouvexelas-
1 hiatum indicavit Victorius.
2? ciom. P: add. edd., cf. 5 64
& rpiyuara Victorius (cf. Arist. Rhet. iil. 8): ypdumara P,
4 elpuêuos Finckh: éppvômos (sic) P.
* uaspãr Schneider: naxpôr P.

“ Ser, Inc,
» Cf. Avist. Rhet. iii. 8 yAdrrous « » « Exubéross,
* Alcidamas, fragm. The rhetorician Alcidamas was a
pupil of Gorgias: cf. 5 12.
é Ser, Inc. (? Gorgias: ef, Arist. Ithet. jii. 8).
* Ser, Íne.; qf. 88 40-42, 246, So, in verse, “ And ten low
374
 ON STYLE, u. 1115-118

once said, in describing how Homer's Cyelops cast

a boulder after the ship of Odysseus: “ when the
boulder was in mid career goats were browsing on
it” e The words are frigid because the conceit is
extravagant and impossible,
in diction Aristotle ? says that frigidity is of four-
fold origin, arising from [(1) “ strange terms”; (2)
“epithets"]...as when Aleidamas speaks of
“moist sweat” ce; (8) “ composites,” when words
are compounded in a dithyrambie manner, as with
the expression “ desert-wandering ” which someone
uses, and with other pompous expressions of the
kind; (4) “metaphors,” eg. “a crisis pale and
trembling.” é Frigidity of diction may, therefore,
arise in four ways.
Composition is frigid when it lacks good rhythm,
or lacks all rhythm, having long syllables from begin-
ning to end, as “This land, our land, which 1 now
reach, which 1 find all upstirred.” e Owing to the
unbroken succession of long syllables, this sentence
is highly questionable and entirely lacking in prose
rhythm.
It is also a mark of frigidity to introduce, as some
do one metrical phrase after another in prose,
the close succession of which thrusts them on the
words oft creep in one dull line” (Pope, Vssay on Criticism),
But the poets can also make most expressive use of accumu-
lated long syllables, as in Tennyson's “ The long day wanes
the slow moon climbs: Lhe derp | Nioans round with many
voices”: and in Shakespeare's “ If thou didst ever holil
me in thy heart, | Absent thee from felicity awhile, | And iu
this harsh world dra thy breath in pain, | To tel my story.”
CF. Dionys. Halic. De comp. verb. ce. 15, 18. Catulhus
(cxvi, 3) has a hexameter line consisting of spondees only:
“ qui te lenirem nobis, neu conarere.”
7 As Dickens and Blackmore in English, Cf 8483,
875
 DEMETRIUS

moviua yôp dkupor fuxpór, Gomep Kai TO drép-

peTpor,
119 Kai Kabóiou ômoióv rá doruy j dAaboveia, rotbrou
Kai % Puxpórns" ó Te, yãp Gabe rá e) mpogóvra
air abxel ôuuws <s mpocóvra, é TE juiepois
mpdypacw mepiBaMAwy ôyrov, Kai aúrós év puspois
dÃalovevonévey êoucer. «Koi ómotóv TL TO év Tf
mapotuia rocuoÚueror Úrepoy, ToLoUTOV TÊ Cort Kai
TO év Ti) Epuavelo EEnpuévor év uucpois mpdyuadiw.
120 Rairo, Tuês baor deiv TÃ uecpã peyádos Aéyem,
Kai onueiov robro nyotvraL vrepbaMovons durá-
gews. ey Bê Iovepdrei pêv TD púropt ovy-
xwpo êyropudlovte « x! ws 'Avanégvova év
dyrebérors rai perapopais rai mão. Tois eyrepua-
ortxois rTpómois: Emalev yváp, ovx eomovdaler,
ai abrôs ris vpapis O ôyieos qratyróu dart.
maibei pev d%* êéGTo, cds Saut, Tô dé mpérov év
285 Pp. mavri mpárypuam Pukaxreov, vodr” éori mpodidópws
Epumvevtéor, TA Ev puxpá juKpÓS, TA meyódo dé
peyálmus.
12] Kabúmep, Bevopr émi too TnheBda moranod
perpod ôvros rei rahoD dmoiw, “obros dé moragós
dv péyos pé» od, nodos dé" rj vôp Bpaxiriri
Ts ouvbécems Kal 7% dmokiée: rj eis ro “Be”
póvor olx êxéderiev úuiv uucpdv morauór. Erepos
dé Ts Eppeqvebeor ôuorov Td EnÃeBóa morapd Edm,
ds “ dmó Tv Aavpucôv ópémwr Cppuguevos éxdidoi
2 Jacunam statuit Victorius. 250).
* The contemporary of Isocrates, who addressed his
Busiris to him.
* The name of some contemptible person, such as Thersites,
seems to be missing in the Greek text.
376
 ON STYLE, 11. 18-12)

attention. A bit of verse ont of place is just as

inartistic as the transgression of meétrical rules in
poetry.
There is a sort of general analogy between impos-
tre ond ». The impostor boasts, facts not-
, qualities belong to him which do
PTAND E rmer, also, the writer who invests
trifles with pomp resembles one who gives himself
airs about trifes. A heightened style used in con-
nexion with a trivial subject recalls the “ ornamented
pestle ” of the proverb.
There are, however, people who hold that we
ought to use grand language of litile things. They
regard this as a proof of surpassing power. For my
own part, 1 can forgive the rhetorician Polyerates “
who eulogized? ... like (another) Agamemnon
with antitheses, metaphors, and every trick and tum
of eulogy. He was jesting and not in earnest; the
very inflation of his writing is but pleasantry.e 1
have no objection to jesting, as E say. But fitness
must be observed, whatever the subject; or in other
words the style must be appropriate--suhdued. for
humble topies, lofty for high themes.
Renophon obeys this rule when he says of the
small and beautiful river Teleboas : “this vas not
a large river ; beautiful it was, though.” 2 Through
the conciseness of the construction, and through
placing the “though ” at the end of the sentence,
he has almost brought before our very eyes a small
viver. Another writer, on the contrary, when writ-
ing about a river like the Teleboas, said that “it
rushed from the hills of Laurium and disembogued
* Pun, sport, playfulness.
* Seu. dnad. ivo dy 33 cf. 8 8 supra,
8
 DEMETRIUS

és Odhagcav,” rabárep rôr NeiÃor éeounveiwr

rarampnurilógevov 7) Tor» “lorpor exBdAovra
mávra oUv Tá Totadra Wfhuxpórms Kadeiras.
122 Tiveras pévTOL TÀ puxpã ueyiÃa Erepor rpómor,
ob dê Tod dmperois, dAM! éviore dr” aváyims.
olov ôrav pucpã xaroplwcavrá tiva orparmyór
etuipev Bovicipueda os meyáda rarwpiwróra,
<> olov dr; ébopos é Aaxecdaiom TOv aept-
éoyes ai ok Empis cparpioavra, euagri-
pace reúre" yáp aúródev jump dxovoBijvar
ôvri Emtrpaywdouer, vs OÉ TÁ pixpa movmpã E0m
édivres dd0v Trois geiloor mornpois dvoryriovow,
Kai Ort émi vols pucpois rapavouúuaci xp?)
rodálemw por, odx émi rois peyddors. mai tiv
mapowiar Erotcopev,! dpym dé Tou uau aarrós,
às doueviar TodT' TD cup rard, 7) no! óru
ovdês raxôv pucpóv éoru.
123 Olrus uév dy dééorw Kal TO jicpôv ror-
óplmpa efaipey péya, od ui” dote dmperés ru
motel», dAN domep mai Tô névoa raracuepúveras
xpncipaus molháris, ouros dr Kai Tô pespór
éfaiporro.
124 Mdáliora dé ) ÚrephoA) buypóraror návrar.
rpurri dé dor 1 yap nad” duotórgra expéperas,
1 êxBdhhopra Gennadius: êuBáMhorra P,
3 pinserul; cf, adn, 6 infra, Fort. 7) Iyhmer ór.s CÊ. 508,
3 robro P.
4 êxolooger Hemsterhuys: éranjraner P.
8 rodro P: roúry TE m, rec. P.
8 «ai P: à supra versum add. m. rec. P. "5 P,
a“ Ser, Inc. Cf Pope's mock-heroic lines, “To where
Fieet-ditch with disemboguing streams, | Rolls the large
tribute of dead dogs to Thames,” Dunciad, book ii.
78
 ON STYLE, n. 121124

into the sea,” “ as though he were writing about the

cataracts of the Nile or the mouth of the Danube.
Al expressions of this kind are called “ frigid.”
Small things, however, may be magnified in
another way, and that not an unbecoming but some-
times a necessary way, for instance when we wish
to exalt a general who has succeeded in some small
enterprises as though he had actually won great
txiumphs. Or we may have to justify the ephor at
Lacedacmon for scourging a man who played ball
like an exquisite, not like a native of the country »
The ofence at first strikes the ear as a trivial one,
Conseguently we solemnly descant upon its gravity,
pointing out that men who permit small malpractices
open the way to more serious ones, and that we ought
to punish for small transgressions rather than for
great. We shall, further, adduce the proverb “the
thin end of the wedge,” * showing how it bears upon
this trifling offence; or we shall go so far as to
maintain that no offence is trifling.
In this way, then, we may magnify a small success,
but without doing anything unhbecoming. As what
is great can often be depreciated with advantage,
so can what is lowly be exalted.
“The most frigid of all figures is hyperbole, which is
of three kinds, being expressed either in the form of
» The player was too much of a dandy to please the stern
Spartan magistrate. For the sense of meplepyos here ef,
Pluiarch, Moral. 693 B ai yuralxes puroúnera. Kai puprlbuerou
“al xpuodr popoloer ral muppúpor imeplepyor doxoDer,
e Cf. Plat. Laws vi. 758
E py vãp Adyerar pêv iuou marrôs
ty vais mapomims Epyou, and Polyb. v. 89, 1 duppidr yãp dv ris
eliror, otx Meco vir dpxir elvar TOb aavrós, ANNE Kai impôs Tô
rédos demrelve. Demetrius gives a tum of his own to a
proverb which usually meant “Well begun is half done.”
Pythagoras is supposed to have been its author.
319
 DEMETRIUS

ds vô “Géew 3 dvéuorom óuolo,” 1) wab? ómep-

oxijr, bs Tô “Aevórepo. xtóvos,” 7) xará Tó
dôuvarov, cos 7O “ odpard eoTipiie nápn.”
125 Ilãoa ué» odv úrepBod dônvarós écoru' odre
váp dv xidvos Acurórepov yévorro, or” dv Avé
Béem» ôuorov. aúrm pévros 7) úmepBod), À eipn-
pé) SE upérios óvonálerar ddvraros. do By
Kai uáliora fuxpã Sorel nãoa úmepBodj, dióri
dduvárm oucev.
126 Aià voiro de pdAora «ai of «wpydomooL
xpovras abri, Ori ex rod ddvvárov EPédxovrar vô
yeÃotov, domep emb rr Lepor ris ámAgorias
imepBadAduerós tis Edm, óru “media eféxelor
da,” Kai óru “ Bois év rats yrádos Epepov”
127 Tof dé aúrod eidovs éori Kai TO “ dalaxad-
repos eddias,” mai Tô “ rodoxidvys dyiéorepos:”
vo dé “xpvo xpvcorépa” vó Bompeucov ev
úrepBok Adyeras noi adro xai ddurárws, why
air ye TO dduvirp xápy êxes, od ifuxpórira.
ô à) nai uáMiora Davpdosier dy TIS Bampois vis
Deias, ri púces rvdureddder mpdypars nai Sucrar-
opleires Expivaro Emixapirws. Kal mepi per ipuxod-
enTos xai UmepBohis rocadra. viy dé mepi Toú
yAagupod yaparrtipos Aéfouer.
2 uévror roi (six) 7 bmepfoAi à clpyutvy P,

* Hom. il, x. 486:

rob 0% KaNhiorous tmmous tdov 40ê meylorous!
Aeuxórepo: xóros, Bete O! dvémoroiw Ôuoiol, KTA.
* Fom. J. iv. 448:
ocupar deripie aúpm, sal érl xbovi Balva,

380
 ON STYLE, 1. 124-127

likeness, as “a match for the winds in speed”; or

of superiority, as “whiter than snow ”;º or of
impossihility, as “with her head she has smitten
the sky”?
Indeed, every hyperbole transcends the possible.
There could be nothing “ whiter than snow,” nor
anything “ a mateh for the winds in speed.” How-
ever, the particular hyperbole already mentioned is
specially called “impossible” And so the very
reason why every hyperbole seems, above all things,
frigid, is that it suggests something impossible.
The chief reason why the comic poets employ
hyperbole is that out of the impossible they drag in
the laughable, as when someone said hyperbolicaliy
of the voracity of the Persians that “ they voided
entire plains,” and that “ they carried bullocks in
their jaws.” é
Ofthe same character are the expressions “ balder
than the cloudless blue ” and “lustier than a pump-
kin”à Sappho's words “more golden than all gold”:
are themselves hyperbolical and impossible, though
from their very impossibility they derive charm, not
frigidity. Indeed, one cannot sufficientiy admive
this in the divine Sappho, that she can so handle
matter by its very nature hazardous and intractable
as to invest it with charm. These observations on
the subject of frigidity and hyperbole must suffice,
We shall next consider the elegant style.
* Ser. Inc.
4 Sophron, Fragmm, 108, 84 Kaibel, C.G,F.: Sophron,
the fifth-century writer of the “ mimes," in Doric rhythmical
prose, which Plato admired.
* Sappho, Fragm. 128 Bergki.

381
 DEMETRIUS

HH
128
285 v.
A 'Q .PAodupós Aóyos xaprevrionós Kal iXapos
óyos éori. Tó dé Xapires ai uév cio peiloves
Kai oepvóTepas, ai Tó momród, ai dé eóredeis
HOMor ai rwpieciepar, ciciuuaoi éeotaviaL,
color ai *Aprororédous xdprres mai Ecúbpovos Kai
Avolov' Tô vãp “js pãov dv tus dpLôujoeer rods
ôdóvras 7) Tods daxtidous,” Tô Emi vis mpe-
cúridos, nai Tô “Boas déios dy AaBeir mAnyds,
Tocuúras elinper dpaxuds,” oi Totodror doreionoi
oudév diapépovorw crwuudTev, 0Udé TÓpplw yeAmTO-
motlas eioi.
129 Tô 8
ro dé 9 dua Nóubo
mailovor yéynbe dé ve! dpéva Agra
Kai
pela 8º &pryveiry méleras Kadai dé ve vãca
[nai]?va abral
esa
etow aí e Aeyópevar
4
ceuvoi 4 xápires
z

Rei HeyóÃaL.
180 Rpira: dê adrais “Oumpos rai mpôs deivwowm
eviore nai Eupacir, Kai mailwv poBepcrepós ore,
SA 1 4 1 ! EA E 2

mpódrôs Te edpnrévar doxei qdoBepás xdpiras,

domep TO émi vob dyapirwrárou mpoacrou, TO
1 EJA Aa

1 véynbé ve sine 38 P, 2 «ai sec], Schneider.

* They are “ urbanities ” which are not urbane. The

Greek. word (here and in & 180) may be a conscious equi-
valent (as doreiórys seems to he) of the Latin urbanites
and so point to authorship in Roman times. For examples
of such witticisms see Falstaff's concluding speech in Act gm
Se, ii. of Second Part of King Henry [ A
82
 ON STYLE, rr. 128--130

HI
Elegance of expression includes graceful pleasan-
tries and gay, genial speech. Some pleasantries
—those of the poets—are loftier and more
dignified, while others are more commonplace and
jocular, resembling gibes, as is the case with those
of Aristotle, Sophron, and Lysias. Such witticisms é
as “whose teeth could sooner be counted than her
fingers ” (of an aged woman), and “he has received
pounds where he deserved poundings,”? differ in no
way from gibes, nor are they far removed from
buffoonery.
Take, rather, the lines :
While the daughters of him whose shield is the Aegris sport
at her side,
The beautiful nymphs of the field, and Leto beholds her
with pride,
And by face and by radiant head above the rest is she tail,
And, where lovely is every one, they are all by her outshone :
So did the maid unwed outshine her handmaids all.º
These ave the graces that can be called dignified
and lefty.
Homer uses such means sometimes in order also
to make a scene more intense and telling. When
he is jesting he is all the more fearful, and he seems
to have been the first to devise fearful pleasantries,
as in the passage describing that most unpleasant
* Lysias, Fragmm. 5, 275 Baiter-Sauppe.
* Hom. Odiyss. vi, 105:
rã dé 0º Eua vippos, rolpo Aids alyióxaio,
dyporógo maltovor véyude Sé Te bpéra Agro
wacéio O brêp & ye xépy Exer HO HÉTUTA,
peiá q” dpryrbrm méderas, nodal dé ve miga
às Ay Eupirbhor: perénpere mapoéros dôpis.
388
 DEMETRIUS

émi rod Rúrkwmos, vô [od]! “ Odry ey qó-

pavor êdopar, Tods dê Aormods mpúrovs," Tô Toê
Kvú Z a
vimos Eévior?: obE) yãp, ourws
E) SÃO
abrôv BL
evébnver
8
emor é vv dAAwv, drav ddo Bermvi) éraipovs,
) 3 Ea EA e 8 EA õ o e ,

ouô” àmo tod Ovpeoi 7) ék TOU porddov, ws Er

RASEA > 1] o mom » m . FA e 2

Tovrou Tod doreiouod.

Bi Xoira: dé TO rotor elder nai Bevobóv, Kai
airôs Sewórgras eladyei éx xapirewv, olov émi rijs
evóriov Spyncrpidos, “ Epwrnbeis ómó vos Naçia-
st > EE Es 1 £ A a

yóvos, ei xab ai yuvaixes adrois cuveroAémour,

” a
Edy aúra: yãp, xai 1»Erpepav róvç Baoiléa,”
1.34
Serri)1
yàp Eupalveras 7 dewórns êx tis xápiros, ) uêr
ôri od yuvaines aúrois elmovro, dA? "Agalóves, 7
e 3 A KA Es A > 3 > + e

é nora Baothéws, el obras jr dodevis, ws viro

dé A Aé z a os 3 5) Z e f s

yuvancor due.
ti2 Tã uév od» cin vd xapirmv rtocdde Kai
rode. eioiv dé ai pgêv év rois mpdypao xépires,
olov vuupolo: «imo úpévaroL, êEpwres, 6Am
Bompois molgois. à vp vordra, Kôy únd
“amovarnrtos Adyyrar? xaplevró dori, nai adrô
ihapór 7ô mpôyua cÉ cavrod: oddeis yãp dy
.z Sou À £ PSê
Úuévaror Gdo! dpyilóueros, ovde vó»A AD) "Epwra
s
Epuwdv movjose” r% Epunvela À viyarra, obdê
A 4 os LAR f IRA
TO A
yehêv nhaiem.
Toby P, om. edd,: fort. delenda sunt verba omnia rô
xl... tô ob
8 Féveror P, 3 Aéyera: P: corr, edad,
* Bm Schneider: le P.
à moreer Hammer: gos é P,
384
 ON STYLE, ur. 1380-132

personage the Cyclops: “Noman will I eat last,

but the rest before him "that “ guest-gift” of
the Cyelops.” No other detail reveals so clearly the
grimness of the monster—not his supper made from
two of the comrades of Odysseus, nor his crag-door,
nor his club-—as this show of urbanity.
Xenophon, too, is familiar with this form of writ,
and can (like Homer) give a startling tum to a
pleasaniry, as in the passage describing the armed
dancing-gir), “ A Greek was asked by the Paphla-
gonian, whether their women accompanied them to
the wars. “ Yes he replied, “for they routed the
Great King.'”» This pleasantry clearly has a
startling effect in two ways, implying in the fivst
place that it was not mere women who accompanied
them, but Amazons ; and the other hit is at the
Great King, who is taunted with being such a poor
creature as to be put to flight by women.
Grace of style has, therefore, a certain number of
forms and characteristics. The grace may reside in
the subject matter, ifit is the gardens of the Nymphs,
marriage-lays, love-stories, or the poetry of Sappho
generally. Such themes even in the mouth of a
Hipponaxz, possess grace, the subject matter having
a gaiety of its own. No one would think of singing
a bridal song in an angry mood; no gifts of style
can change Love into a Fury or a Giant, ox trans-
mute laughter into tears.
a Hom. Odyss, ix, 369, where the Cyclops says to Odysseus
(º Noman “3:
Obru ey miparor dono peró ols érdporos,
roós 6º dMhous mpócder' vô dé vor Fevjior Bora,
Cf. also 85 152, 262. * Zen. dnad, vi. À. 13,
* The sourrilons sixth-century writer who invented the
“limping” jambic, Of. 85 251, 301.
885
 DEMBTRIUS
o “O cl 2 4 14l ori. Tá BE
183 ÁluTE Mm éV TIS EV TPOYMACL XÁpiS ÉGTL, TO Oé
Kai q Aééis moi êmxapiresrepa, olor
às 3º re Iavôapéov? rKoúpn, xAwpyis dyduy,
Kadóry deiôgow, Eapos véov larapgévoro
evraddo vãp Kai 1) anda xápier ôpvibioy, Kai 7O
a Le] A 1 < > A (4 3 2, N 1

êap búcer xdprer, mod de êmucexócunras 78

cpuqueia, Kai dori xapréorepa To re XAmpris '
Kai vo! “ Iavôapéov” rodpm ” eixeiy êmi ôpribos,
axep Toi momrod iôd dori.
RH AAd. 8é 1 h) 1 4 Em mo»
194 OMAGKIS OE KaL TO ev TPayLaTO TED co TEL

púcer Kai orvyvá, dmo dé rob Aéyovros yiveras

tiapd. volto dé mapã Bevopipri doxel mpárm
eópiodar Aube yêp dyéAaoror ampócwrmor Kal
oruyvóv, tó» "Ayhairddar, Tó» Ilépoyy, yélwra
4 1 > a! 1 Ed Eq

cóper éÉ adrod xapievra, Ore “ pao éori mp

agem |ErTpla: do 008 À yédwra”
135 Aúrm Bé Cor nal à duvarerárn xépis, Kal
udMora é» Tô Acyovri. Tô pev vão mpóypa ral
gúce oruyvór dy ab modéoy xdpure, borep
eai “Aydairádas. 58 Domep evôelrvuras, ôru rob
dirô Tédy rotodT TOoVv maibew éoru,
é cdomepel Kai úrô

Bepnoô fúxeobar, Depuaiveoda, dé bnô rr

uxpóv.
136 Emei 68 TÃ ciôy Tv xapirmv Bédecerar, viva
2

2 mpáyuno. Victorius: mpáymear P.

à Ilardapéou codd. Fomeri: Hevdapéy P.
Srpre... xalry Finckh: róre., . calrô P,
* Mavônpén PL 5 dão» codd. Ken,: pidior P,

º Fom, Odyss. xix. 518. When he used the diminutive

êpritior in the next sentence, Demetrius may have been
386
 ON STYLE, ir. 1383-136

While grace is sometimes inherent in the theme

itself, at other times diction can lend an added
charm, as in the lines:
Às Pandareus' daughter, the wan-browa nightingale,
Singeth a lovely song, in the opening spring.”
This passage refers to the nightingale which is a
dear delightful songstress, and to the spring which is
a delightful season of the year; but the wording has
greatly embellished the idea, and the whole picture
is the more delighiful because the epithets “ wan-
brown ” and “ daughter of Pandareus ” are applied
to the bird. Now these tonches are the poet's own.
E often happens that, unattractive and. sombre as
the subject matter in itself may be, it grows merry
in the writer's hands. This secret seems to have
been first discovered by Kenophon.? Dealing with
so grave and gloomy a personage as the Persian
Aglaitadas, Xenophon makes at his expense the
pleasant jest, “ Qne could sooner strike fire from
your skull than laughter,” *
This is, indeed, the most effective kind of charm,
and that which most depends upon the writer. The
subject was in itself sombre and hostile to charm,
as was Aplaitadas. But the writer demonstrates as
it were that, even with such matexial, one can jest;
there is the possibility, so to speak, of being cooled
even by what is hot, or warmed with things cold.
Now that the varieties of graceful style, and its
taintina afoi its application to the nightingale in Aristophanes,
indi
O Zeus and King, the little birdie's voice!
O how its sweetness honied all the copse!
(tr. B. B. Rogers).
& hit, “in XKenophon.” * Xen. Cyrop. xi. 2. 15.
887
 DEMETRIUS
dori Kai é» Tic, vôv ral TodS Tómovs mapa-
deifouev! dp” dy» ai xópires. doa» dé muiv ai
pnév év 17) Aééei, ai dé Ev rois mpáyuaow. mapa-
deigouev oUv «ai rods Tómovs Kal” exdrepa mpod-
rous dé rods ris Adéecms.
137 Eúdds ob» mpuúrm eori xápis 7 éx cuvropias,
Orar ô aúrô umruvópgeror dyapi yérmraL, úmô dé
TáxOUS xúprer, momep mapa cCevopóvri, “rd dvr
rodra" oder Méreor ris “EAddos, émei ea
abrôr eidoy, somepei Avôóv, iuupórepa Tã Ta
rerpummmpévor? Kai elyer pirws Tô ydp émevó-
pevor Tô “ eixev oórus “ ómô tis curonias ti)
xápuw mote, ei OE eCuntúvln did. mÃeróveuv, óm
É éleyer rodra dAnBG, cadós vãp ererpúmiros”
Sujynpo dv fio» êvévero dvri xápiros.
188 HoMáxis dé eai dido dpdieras &” évds pôs
TO xáprer, olov ém ris, Apatóvos sabevBadons
ébm mis, óri “vó rógov evreranévor êxeiro, Kai v
gurérpa vAdpms, Tô yéppov émi cê repalg Tous
dé Evorípas ou Aúopras év vip Tora noi 6
vógos elpros 6 epi 700 Emoripos, Kai ôrt obx
Exvoe Tó» Euoripa, rã Bio mpiypara did juãs
eppveias Kai ámo tis cuvronias vaúrns yha-
pupóv Ti éoTt.
139 Aeúrepos dé vógos éorix dmô às rágems. vô
yãp aúrô mpdror mev vebev 7%) uécor dxapr
piverar émi d8 vo) TéXovs xápiev, olar cóg ó
Eevobiy now émi rob Kúpov, “ Bidwou dé abri
Kai ôbpa, immov Kai crokijv Kal oTperróv, nah
1 mapudsizoner Gale: mapadelioum P. 2 roiro P,
3 rerpumrmuéror codd. Xen. vera,
“a Ken. Anob, il. 1. 31. CC TrSeino
388
 ON STYLE, rr. 1936-139

elements, have been indicated, we will next state

its sources. Às we have already said, it consists
partly in expression and partly in subject, So we
will state the sources severally, beginning with those
of expression.
The very first grace of style is that which comes
from compression, when a thought which would
have been spoiled by dwelling on it is made graceful
byarapidtouch. Xenophon will furnish an example:
“This man has really no part or lot in Greece, for
be has (as I have myself scen) both his cars pierced
like a Lydian'; and so it was” < The elinching
stroke “ and so it was ” has all the charm of brevity.
If the thought had been developed at greater length,
under some such form as “ what he said was true
since the man had evidently had his ears pierced,”
we should have had a bald narrative instead of a
flash of grace.
The conveyance of two ideas in one sentence often
has a graceful effect. A writer once said of a sleep-
ing Amazon : “ Her bow lay strung, her quiver full,
her buckler by her head; their girdles they never
loose”? At one and the same time the custom
concerning the girdle is indicated and its observance
in the present case—the two facts by means of one
expression, And from this conciseness a certain
elegance resulis,
Grace of style comes, in the second place, from
arrangement. The very thought which, if placed
at the beginning or middle of a sentence, would have
no charm, is often full of grace when it comes at
the end. This is the case with a passage of Kenophon
relating to Cyrus: “as presents he gives him a
horse, a robe, a linked collar, and the assurance that
389
 DEMETRIUS

tir xúpar umnéri dprdlecda..”

A TA E) s 4 2
é vãp Tobrais
2 A Eq

as: a
ro gév vedeuraióv Cort TO Tv
a
xdpir moriy Tô
Er
rijv xeopar
1 A
unnéri E
dpráleoda:”
< t 7>
Bia 3
Tô h]
éévor
A

5 Só VM 384 x A Ar e
to8 Scópou «ai tj” idtórgra. alrios de O Tómos
vis xdprros. ei yolv mpódrov éráxom, dxapire-
repor dr, olov órt “ Sidwom aúrd ôpa, TH» TE
xópar unxér: dpráleoBa, Kai lmmov mal oroAmj
Kal orperróv” vor Be mpoeurir Tô eiliouévo
êcipa, Televralov emjreynev Tô Éévor nai dndes,
éÉ dv dmávrwr ouvira 9) xépis.
mo Ai dé dmo Tó» oxmudrev xápures SijÃaé elouy
Kal mAciora, mapã Bamgoi, olov éx Tijs dra-
durAdoems, ômov! viu LA
pôs iv apleviav “ 1 4 A f

gnoi, “maplevia, maplevia, moi ge Aumodoa oixn;

n dé dmoxpiverar mpôs adriv TD adrO exqjuari,
1 Lol

oúér: méw mpôs cé, ouxéri Em”

se > Z
mAciwrv vãp
e Ny 7 7 ? <A > + A

xdpis êupaiverar, 7% elmep dmak

Es 3 L “1 ” irá É
eXéxbm nai dveu
Ea A v 4

voD oxúgaros. Katror 1) dvadimAmos impôs dewó-

raras pãMov Boxci eúpiodor, 7 de Kai Tois
EMA ô End Elm 3) 4 1 1 na 8
Dewo-
rárors saraxpirar Emixapires.* f

141 Xapievriteroar dé more Kai CÉ êvapopãs, «bs émi

1 ômou edd.: mod P.
2 émuxapiros Finckh: ém: (sic) xápiros P.

s Xen, Anab. i. 2, 27,

* Cf. the repetition of “all made of” in Shakespeare,
«ds You Like fé, v. ii. Other examples in Roberts's edition
of the De elocutione, p, 265.
* Sappho, Fragm. 109 Bergk*; Edmonds, Lyra Gracca,
ip. 294.
s90
 ON STYLE, rr. 1939-141

his country should be no longer plundered.” a

is the last clause in this sentence (viz, “ the assurance
that his country should be no longer plundered ")
which constitutes its charm, the gift being so strange
and unique. And the charm is due to the position
of the clause. Had it been placed first, it would
have lost in charm : as (for example) “ he gives him
as presents the assurance that his country should
be no longer plundered, and also a horse, robe, and
linked colar.” As it is, he has put first the accus-
tomed presents, and added in conclusion the novel
and unusual gift, and from this combination comes
the charm,
The graces that spring ftom the employment of
figures of speech are manifest, and abound most of
all in Sappho. An instance in point is the figure
“ vedoubling,” as when the bride addressing her
Maidenhood says
Maidenhood, Maidenhood, whither away,
Forsaking me?»

And her Maidenhood makes reply to her in the same

figure:
Not again unto thee shall 1 come for aye,
Not again unto thee ! º

The thought, thus presented, has more grace than

if it had been expressed once only and without the
figure. “ Redoubling,” it is true, scems to have
been devised more particularly with a view to giving
impassioned force to style. But in Sappho's hands
even the most passionate force is endowed. with
grace.
Sometimes also Sappho makes graceful use of the
891
 DEMETRIUS

708 Eorépou, “Eorepe, mávra gépers,” noi,

“ óépeis ói,
à pépeis alya, Gépeis parépe maia.”
«ai yãp evraddo. Ny1) xápis doriv dx tis AéÉems ris
“ dépers ” emb Tô adrô dvapepopérs.
142
| HoMãs 5º dy tis xai Mas expépo. xdpiras.
28€ v.
yiyrovrar dé Kai dmo Adéemws ydprres 7) Ex gerar
dopãs, s émi rod vérruyos, Carepiyor 8
úmonamyée Ayupãv doiidv, 6 TE mor àv pAdyLor
rabérav Emmtágevor rarauvÃsi???
143 “H éx ouviérou rov" dvóuaros Kai SdvpauBio,
“ Béomora Hovrev! pelavorrepúyey, TOoUTI dewor
mpô mrepóyur aúrô moincor”” à uáMioTa DM
Kwudica malyma éoTi Kai carupirá.
144 Kai CE iOmvrixod dé óvópgaros viyreror, ds O
“Aprororédms, “dom yádp,;” moi, “ povrns eiui,
pdiouubórepos yeyova.” «oi dx memomuévov, ws
0 aúrós é» TO avr, “ dom vãp aúrirns Kal pordrns
ciut, ihouvlórepos pépora.” Tô pév vão “ uoro-
mms” iBuorikurépou éDous On ori, TO de
“otrirns " memormuévor éx Toi adrós.
à giy Paulus Manutius: oivor P.
2 varavhei: à) Finckh: raravdety P.
3 vor Radermacher; 7oi P, Sed cf. 8275,
* Uhotruv Bergk: mhorov P,
5 varupiçá Cale: ourópia P.

º Puttenham calls this the figure of report, “when we

make one word begin and, as they are wont to say, lead the
daunee to many verses ín sute.”
* Sappho, Fragm. 93 Bergk!:; Edmonds, Lyra Graeca, À.
a Aleaeus, Fragm, 89 Bergk*. Assigned to Sappho in
Edmonds, Lyra Craeca, i. p 252, where see text and trans-
ation.
892
 ON STYLE, um, l4l-144

figure “ anaphora,” * as in the lines on the Evening

Star :
O Evening Star, thou bringest all that's best :
The sheep, the goat, thou bringest home, to rest :
The child thou bringest to the mother's breast.
Here the charm les in the repetition of the phrase
“thou bringest,” which has the same reference
throughout.
Many other examples of graceful language might
easily be cited. It is attained, for instance, by choice
of words or from a metaphor, as in the passage about
the cicala :
From 'neath his wings he pours
A strain of piercing notes :
Far up that fiery vapour-veil it soars
Which o'er the landscape floats.*
Another source is dithyrambie compounds such
as:
O Pluto, lord of sable-pinioned things,
This do thou-—twere more dread than all their wings!
Such freaks of language are best sutted for comic
and satyric poetry.
Even pedestrian expressions may be a source, as
when Aristotle says “ the more deserted 1 am, the
more myth-enamoured 1 become.” e Coined words,
again, are a source, as in the same author and passage:
“the more solitary and deserted 1 am, the more
myth-enamoured I become.” The word “ deserted
is of a rather pedestrian character; the word
“ solitary ” is coined from “ sole,”
! Lyric. Fragm. Adesp. 126 Bergk4,
“ Aristot, Fragm. 618 (ed. Berol.). Cf. 88 97, 164, and
Jaeger, Aristoteles, p. HE.
398
 DEMETRIUS

l45 IloMã dé dvóuara ral mapó iv Béom viy êml

Tivos xapterrá éoruw, olov “O vãp dpvis obros
nódaé dori xai róBados"” évradda Y xápis dó
708 cxidba. ro» Gpviy maldrep Gvbpwmoy, Kal ôri
Ta um cvmjdn édero dvóuara Tr ôprili. ai uêv
oô» roradrar xápires map aúrãs tds Aééeis.
146 “Er 06 mapuBoNijs Kai émi rod cféxorros dvôpós
7 Berpw dna,
méppoxos ws Or doidos é AéoBios dAlodamoio.
évraúãa yãp wápir emoinoer À mapafoh) uãMov 7)
uévyedos, rairos ebiv elmeiv méppoxos dDamep 1
4 A» »
cediim rédv dv dorowr, 7)see
O hos ée Aauipó-4
repos, 7 dca dAÃa dori mormrikcrepa.
147 Logpwv dê nat aúros éml rod ópoiov eidovs
not, “ Gâvar, dc dúAla Kai Káphea rol maides
rods drôpas PaMhilovre, olóv mep Garri, dida,
A »” 4 er Fr Lá

rods Tpôdos rôv Aiavra TD TAAD” «ai yôp

êxmadda emixapts m mapafBolj éori, ral tods
Todas Smailovoa domep maidas.
ore dé tis iBlws xápis Larpu ex pero
ad o) dé St + bx “ s =.
148
Bokis, ra» 71 eirodoa peraBaMntos Kal womep
ueravodon, olov “ dou" d%,” dmot, “ Tô pédalpor
dépare réxroves: yauBpos elodpyerar loos “Ápmi,
drôpôs pueydÃou molÃO eilmwr,” domep émAau
1 vôguÃos Wilamowitz: xóraxos P.
? you edd.: vipo Ps: fort, leg. tyw vel tipo
s Ser, Ine.
* Sappho, Fregm. 92 Bergk*; Edmonds, Lyra Gracca, À.
p. Bá,284,
* Sophron, Fragm. 82 Kaibel, O.G.F.
p Sappho, Fragm. 91 Bergk!; Edmonds, Lyra Grasco, À.
Pp. 284.
894
 ON STYLE, mi, l45-148

Many words owe their charm to their application

to a special object. For example: “why, this bixd
is a flatterer and a rogue!“ Heye the charm is
due to the fact that the bird is upbraided as though
it were a person, and that the writer has called the
bird by unusual names. Such graces as these are
due ta the language pure and simple,
Grace may also spring from the use of imagery.
Thus Sappho says of the man that stands out among
his fellows :
Pre-eminent, as mid alien men is Lesbos” bard.?

In this line charm rather than grandeur is the out-

come of the comparison. It would have been
possible, had the aim been different, to speak of a
superiority such as the moon or the sun possesses
in brightness over the other orbs, or to use some
still more poetical image,
The same point is illustrated by Sophron too, who
writes :
See, dear, what rain of leaf and spray
The boys upon the men are showering,
Thick as few Trojan mud, they say,
At Alas huge in battle towering.*

Here again there is charm in the comparison, which

makes game of the Trojans as though they weve boys.
There is a peeuliarly Sapphic grace due to recanta-
tion. Sometimes Sappho will say a thing and then
recant, as though she had a fit of repentance. For
example :
High uprear the raftered hall,
Builders, of the bridal dweiling !
The bridegroom comes, as Ares tal.
A tall man's stature far excelling.º
895
 DEMETRIUS

Bavopém, cauris, ôri ddvráre éxpúgaro Úmep-

BoAi, Kal Ori obdeis rá "Apr igos éoriv.
19 Tog dé aúrod ci8ous Kai Tô mapã Tyleudyo,
Ori “Bio wúves dedéuro mpô tis adAis, cab
ôuvanar Kai Tà ôvógara eimeiv ródv muvdr. dAMA
ri àv gor Boúkorro rá drógara tadra;” ai
yãp odros jreraBoAdgeros peraéd moreicaro Kai
dmocuyidas à dvópara.
150 Kai dao oriyou dé dAorpiou pivera xdpis, cis
ó “Apioropavas orcimrwv gov vêr Ala, ôrm od
Kepavvo? Tods movnpoús, Pnoir,
dAAA róv davrod vea Báhhe, mai Boúmov dipov
“Abyró.
momep yobv odxéri O Zeds rempupôeiodar Borel,
dAM” “Oumpos nai O orixos 6 “Oumpieós, nai dio
rovrou mhciwy éoriv ) xdpis.
15 “Exovor dé 74 orepalÃov ral dAAmpyopiar Tuvês,
[o

deep vó, “ AcApoi, maior duidr à reútur déper.”

Kai rá Beúbpovos de rã éh Tv yepóvresy, “ evbdde
err ov | eiyo map” due rode opórpixas egopjui-
Copas, mhdov dorcálcu móvriov: dprém* ydp VE
rois radixoiode ral? dyrupar” doa Te émi tv
1 evôdde O» Sehmeider: êxbnicor P, s
2 rbvrior dprémi Kaibel: mopriva P,
3 rabinos déru P,

s Ser, Inc,
» Cf. Byron, Don Juan, canto 1, st. 58 (of colleego), “ Por
there one learns-—'tis not for me to Doast, | Phough E acquired
but I pass over thai.” See 8 108.
º Aristoph. Nub. 401:
Nha tor airoi ye vem Báihe sul Zoúvior Expor *Abyvéwr.
396
 ON STYLE, mt. 148151

She checks herself, as it were, feeling that she has

used an impossible hyperbole, since no one is as tall
as Ares.
The same feature appears in the story of Tele-
machus: “Two hounds were fastened in front of
the court. 1 can tell you the very names of the
hounds. But what use would it be for me to tell
you their names ? “« “The narrator, with this sudden
turn, urbanely puts you of, and fails to disclose the
names!
Charm may also spring from a reference to the
verses of another writer. Aristophanes somewhere,
when mocking at Zeus because he does not smite
sinners with his thunderbolt, says :
Nay, his own fane he smites, and his thunderbolt lights
Upon “ Sunium, Attica's headland.” «
En the end it seems as though it were not Zeus that
is burlesqued, but Homer and the Homeric line ; and
this fact increases the charm.
Certain veiled meanings have a touch of common
talk about them, as in the words : “ Delphians, that
bitch of yours bears a child.” é Another example
will be found in the words of Sophron with regard
to the old men: “ Here E too in your midst, whose
bair like mine is white as snow, Wait, ready to put
out to sea, until the fair wind blow, Yea for the old
the word is still, “ The anchor's weighed,' I trow.” *
Ham. Odysa. iii. 278:
aNN bre Eolvior ipôr aguróuel”, Anpor "Abyréwp,
Demetrius gives the first part of the Aristophanie line in
prose, with the rare accusative vei. The travesty of Homer
comes in the words Eodrior dkpor 'Abyvóy,
* Lyric. Fragm, Adesp., Bergki il. pp. 42, 743: prob-
ably an equivoque, (1) “ carries à child,? (2) is with child”
* Sophron, Pragm. 52 Kaibel, C.G.P,
[o 3897
 DEMETRIUS

puras GAAnyopei, clov ém ixBdwy, “ cmAíves,

Tal 3 Ed x ao É [A “e ”s

yAvkirpeov royyvliov, ynpãva yuraccôrv2034Alyvenpa

Koi uuecirepa? rã rowirá éori mai aloxpd.
152 “Eor: dé tis Kai À mapã tir mpocdoxiar vápis,
tôs | rod Rúrxiwmos, óri “ doraror Sopa Odriy”
ou vip mpoccôdóra rorwtro Écmor obre *Oducocds
obre O droyurdormr. rol O "Aprorobdms Eri Tod
Ewxpárous, jenpôv damitas,
4
, ónobo, . ira sá by) 4 + EA er -,

deafirar Aafcdv, éx vis vadalorpas iuárior

ipeitero.”
153 “Hôy pévror éx Bvo rómemv évruddo, eyevero 1
xdpis. od yáp mapá mpocdoxiar uóvor êrnvéxOn,
SMA ado” mrohovúder Trois aporépors: 7 Bé roraúrmy
AN o” 2 AM 50 ” [4 « € dé Ed

dvaroÃovbia «aleizar vpipos, dorep O tapã

Ewdpor prropeimv Boviias. oúder yãp drd-
A
ovdor aúrg!
[2]
Aéyerr Kai mapã At:
Mevávôpw dé d
Aé . 1 À M f. o) dé é

mpókoyos ris Meconvias.

154 IloAAdris dé nai roda ópoia exolnoer xápur, Ee) 3 L Eq

ws é e
“Aniororédys,
£ “A
“er per próv;” dnoty,
ZA ts 4 “AB ml > A

ee
eye eis Eráyeipa Jabor
2 A, >
dd vóv Baculéa vor
“t f AO E) A ! Aé: y

péyar éx dé Erayeipov eis "Abvas dd róv >

xequva vóv péyar” raraliéas yãp é dugoré-

2 Myvevua ap, Athen, ii, 5 r Pp,
à peuucórepa VicLoriuss ii. Pe yp. gol menpórepa
in margine P, 3 Edveror P, * adrô P,
s Sophron, Fragm. 24 Kaibel,
* Hom. Odyss. ix, 369: qf. 85 130, 202.
* Aristoph. JYub. 149, 179. A well-known English
example of the “ contrary-to-expectation ” pleasantry is,
“ Here thou, great Anna, whom three realms obey,
| Dost
sometimes counsel take-—and sometimes tea ” (Pope, Raps
of the Lock, il).
“i.e a rambling ambiguous mystífication. Boulias, on
the bench, was a past master in the art of wasting the time
898
 ON STYLE, mr 1651-164

Sueh, too, are his dark sayings about women, as

when he speaks of fish: “ razor-fish, and oysters
sweet, The widow-woman's dainty meat.” º Jests
of this kind are ugly and suited only to the lower
varieties of drama.
There is also a sort of wit in the unexpected, as
in the Cyelops' words: “Last of all will 1 cat—
Noman,” % À guest-gift of this kind was as little
expected by Odysseus as it is by the reader. So
Aristophanes says of Socrates that he first melted
some wax, and
A pair of compasses the sagre then grabbed,
And from the wrestling-ground-—-a coat he nabbed.º
The charm in these instances is derived from two
sources. Such pleasantries are not only added
unexpectedly, but they have no sort of connexion
with what precedes them. Such want of sequence
is called “griphus”;2 and an example of it is
furnished by Boulias who, when orating in Sophron's
mime, delivers an utterly incoherent speech. An-
other instance is the prologue of Menander's Woman
of Messenia* .
Again, a similarity in the members of a sentence
often produces a witty effect, as when Aristotle says :
“ Twent from Athens to Stageira because of the great
king, and from Stageira to Athens because of the
great storm.” ? Et is through ending both members
of his own comt by cloudy pretentious talk. ypigos, a fish-
basket or creel, was used of things intricate and puzeling,
riddles and dark sayings.
* The Messenian woman in the play seems to have been
always “ taking back ” (drarifeutry: the alternative title),
retracting, eating her own words, revoking her moves on
hife's draughi-board.
* Aristot, Pragm. 669 : cf 8 29 supra.
389
 DEMETRIUS

pors TOÊs wcdÃows eis TÓ aúrô dvona emoinoer Tip

xp. càv 5º odv dmoxóibys rod érépou rcÃov TO
éyar,” cuvaparpeiras ral À xdpis.
155 Ko) rarnyopia, dé dmorerpuuuévos êvtore
ôuorovra. xdprom, domep vapã Eevopórri À
'Hpaxheidys O mapã vO Bevde mpocudr Té
cuvleirvwv Exdorm, nai meidwv Seupeiodar Bieúde
ô mi! êxor rara vão rali xápiy tevê êupalve,
Kai Karnyopia. eiviv dmorexpungévos.
156 Ai uéy odv KaTá Tiv Epunveiay ydpires Tocadras
Kai ob Tómor, é dé Tois mpáyuao. Aaufidrovra
xdpires ér mapomuias. dice yáp xápiev mpâyuá
cor; nopormia, ws é Eúbpwv pév, Haióhns,*”
ey, “6 rôv marépa mriyav” rat aMayóbr tou
dmcw, “éx rod ôruxos váp Tóv Aéovra Eypaev:
ropúvav éfecer rúguvor Empioer*” wai yap dual
mapomiims Koi rproiv éradigÃos xpira, ds érmts
mAnbvmvra: abri) ai xdprres: oyedóv ve mácas Ex
ré» Bpunáruwr aúrob vás mwaporuias exhéias cortv.
157 Kai júbos dé AouBavógevos ropiws edyapis
dorum, ro: O Keinevos, dg à "Aprororédys émi Tod
derod duo, ori Ad Brjoxe êmudparer TO
1 8 rm Selmeider: ó ris P.
2 "Hrióhys Raibel: emiys P.
2 &rpurev Hemsterhuys: domeer P.
s Xen, Anabd, vii. 8. 15 ff. The proposal of Heracleides
that the guests dining at Scuthes' table should offer gifts to
their royal host is embarrassing to Xenophon and his needy
fellow-Greeks. Demetrins seems to sec a graceful, witly,
bantering side to Feracleides” “ veiled reproaches.”
» Sophron, Fragm. 68 Kaibel.
* Sophron, Fragm. 110 Kaibel, For “Proverbs in the
De elocutione” cf. Roberts's larger edition, pp. 259-262, with
the notes there given. Epioles ( = Epiales, Ephialtes) is the
400
 ON STYLE, ur. 154-157

with the same word (peyar) that he produces this

pleasant effect. If from either member you strike
out the word “ great,” the charm thereupon vanishes.
Another point. Persifiage can sometimes be made
to resemble witty remarks, In XKenophon, for ex-
ample, Heracleides who is with Seuthes approaches
each of his felow-guests and urges him to give
whatever he can to Seuthes.º There is some wit in
this, and persiflage at the same time.
Such are the graces which appertain to style, and
such the sources from which they are derived. Among
the graces which relate to subject matter we must
reckon those which spring from the use of proverbs.
In its very nature a proverb is a sprightly thing.
Sophron, for instance, speaks of “ Epioles who
throttled his sire”» And elsewhere: “He has
painted the lion from the claw; he has polished a
ladle; he has skinned a flint.” * Sophron employs
two or three proverbs in succession, so as to load his
style with elegances. Almost all the proverbs im
existence might be collected out of his plays.
A fable also, when neatly introduced, is very
piquant. The fable may be a long-established one,?
as when Aristotle says of the eagle: “ It perishes of
hunger, when its beak grows more and more bente.
demon «who fastens on you in your sleep and strangles you
his father (i.e. the man who has bred the nightmare and,
presumably, deserves this unfilial treatment). The other
proverbs explain themselves: (1) “from secing but a claw i
The Bion would he draw” (of a person who founds big con-
clusions on slender premisses); (2) “he had such an artistic
soul | That he polished the scullery bowl” (of an enthusiast's
abanrte (9) Ne splits cummin,” Le. he is a skinflint
;-splitting pedant (il coupo um qheveu

401
 DEMETRIUS
páudos: máoye. Bê adró, dr: dvbperros cv more
motenoer éévor. O pêr ody vD reuévm uódy
KéxonTOL KOL roivD.
lis IloAods Sé xai mpocmAdoconer mporpópovs
Kal oixelovs Trois mpdyuacm, cdomep mis mepi
aihoúpou Adywr, Ort cuuplive. ri) cehjuy [ral] d
aihoupos «ai cvpmaxóveras, mpocémiager* Br
[AE
évDer xai 6 uobos dorm, os 1) celjva Erexev tou
rã) ve Rd] 4 5 f 4 A EA La 1

aihovpor”" ou ydp móvor Kar” adrijy Tijy mAdow

' cs DDS LS E ADA But
ecra 7 xápis, MO Kai O uobos Eupaiver xdprév
as
Tt, athovpor motódy cedivys raida.,
159 IloAAdas de ral éx PóBou aMacoonérov
estv yiverar xdpis, ôórav | danevis tis qpoBnbi, olov
Tó» iudrro Os óbiw 9) TO” KpiBavov cos xdopa TIS
vis, árep Kai adrô mewpedueeyrepá éoriv,
l6o Kai elxacia S eiciy edydpires, dv róv dAex-
; 4 “os e
vpvóva Mid eledons, ôr: Ti»so «vpBaciar
4 2 As
óplnjy
déperr flaoide? dé, órt moppúpeos édorm, q órt
4 Cal f Ed 4 t 3 x e

Bojcavros dAextpvóros drarmôduer, comep Kai

Bogéws Bonoarros, Kai boBoiucda.
lg61 “Ex dE úmrepBoAOr yápires udMoTa al év tais
Kwpeolms, mão dé úrepBoM) abúvaros, cds
, za À e A 3 2 €

»
Aproropdyns E
em E
vis
£s
âmAgorias
> E
ro» Ee
Ilepoir
Ea

2 «ei seclusi,
? mpocériaces Victorius: pós Erhacee P,
3 duBnêj Schneider: gopi P.

S Aristot. Fist, Anim, book ix. (vol. i. p. 619 ed, Berol.).

» Ser. Ine.
* The earthen pan, used by the Greeks as a bread-oven
and narrower at top than at bottom, might perhaps be
402
 ON STYLE, mr. 157-161

This fate it suffers because once when it was human

it broke the laws of hospitality.” « He thus makes
use of a familiar fable which is common property.
We can often also adapt fables closely and suitably
to the matter in hand. À writer once referred to
the belief that cats tbrive or pine according as the
moon waxes or wanes, and then added, as a touch
of his own, “ whence the fable that the moon gave
birth to the cat.” » The pleasantry will not simply
depend on the adaptation, but the fable itself
sparkles with a certain charm, making the cat the
child of the moon,
A pleasantry is often the result of a revulsion ftom
fear, as when a man groundlessly fears a strap mistak-
ing it for a snake, or a pan * mistaking it for an
opening in the earth. Such mistakes are rather
comie in themselves,
Comparisons, also, may be pleasant-—f (for in-
stance) you compare a cock to a Mede because of
its stif-upstanding crest,? or to the Persian king
because of its brilliant plumage or because when the
cock crows we start with fear as though we heard
the loud call of the monareh,
The pleasantries of comedy arise specially from
hyperboles, and every hypexbole is of an impossible
character, as when Aristophanes says of the voracity
of the Persians that
mistaken for a pot-hole. Aristophanie oxen, “ baked in a
pan,” are mentioned in 8 161, The reference in $ 159 seems
to be to good “ business” on the comic stage.
& Cf. Aristoph. Ao. 487, and Fragm. 405: also Hesvehius
and Pollux. Hesychius says: «upBacia 8pôh vudpa. vaúry
de oi Iepolr Paorheis nóvror exporro. mal nomnçi dhêrtepos,
The second meaning (coel's crest or comb) is adopted in
the Lranslation,
408
 DEMETRIUS

not, ór. “ ebmtouv Bois «pifaviras àduri dor.”

émi Bê vor Oparôy Erepos, ôrt “Mundorns ô
Baoiheds Body Edepey ôAov éu pede
162 , Toôê de adrod eldovs xai TÃ orurá, dorm,
“Umidorepos «ohorvvrns,” «al “ dalaxpórepos
eúdias,” ral tá Bampicá e moXo mantidos!
idupelcorépa, xpvcod xpucorépa.! mão pap
ai torabrar xdprres ex tv úmepBoldd» elpnvra,
[mai qt Brapbépovor.]?
163 Asadépovor Bé TO yelolor ral elxopr mpóra
uér ri Um" xapirwrv pév yãp dAm vupupaio: KijmoL,
cpwres, ámep od yedârar yélwros dé “Lpos ai
CGepoirns. Tocodrov od» drotcovoiy, dcov O Qep-
cirns Toi “Epwros. No Vo,
164 Avagpépovor de ai 77) Aéger abri). TO pêv yáp
clxapi perã rócgov exgéperas nai dr dvopdrmy
KaAódo, [À pádurra motel Tás xáprras, olov Tô
“motel deras pev vaia mokverepavos *“ read To
“yAmpnis dyddr” só dé yeotov ea Svopdire
éoriv eúredddv eai rorvoTépam, domep éxer É door!
vão abriras Koi govirns ciui, drÃouubórepos
véyora
165 “Ereira dparilera úmo Tod Kócuou tis épum-
velas, tod dyri yedotou Baia pivera. au juévros
xdpurés, eia quero, cuppocúvms, Tô dé dxppálemw rá
védoa Suoróv dote nas raMwmibew mibnicor,
3 wokuracridos P,
2 verba col 1 Bisgépovo. secl, Spengel ex margine nata
esse ratns col, titulo 8 30, 3 fort. boys cê. GI4L,
a Aristoph, feh. 86. * Ser, Ine. e 8 12%.
* Sappho, Fragmm., 122, 193 Bergkt: Edmonds, Lyra
Graeca, À. pp. 22d
404
 ON STYLE, mm. 1861-165

For loaves, they roasted oxen whole in pipkins; º

and of the Thracians another kind of writer says
* Medoces their king was carrying a bullock whole
between his teeth,” »
Of the same kind are such expressions as “ Justier
than a pumpkin ” and “balder than the cloudless
blue” ;º and the lines of Sappho :
Swceter-tuned than the lyre by far,
More golden than all gold.”
All these ornaments, different as they ave from one
another, have their source in hyperbole.
The laughable and the graceful must not be con-
fused. They differ, first ofall, in their material. The
materials of grace are the Gardens of the Nymphs,
loves, things noi meant to bc laughed at; while
Iaughter is provoked by Irus or Thersites.* They
will differ, therefore, as much as Thersites differs
from the God of Love.
They difer, further, in actual expression. The
graceful needs for its utterance some ornament, and
1b uses beautiful words, which are a chief sonrce of
grace. For instance: “ Barth myriad-garlanded is
rainhow-hued,” and “the wan-brown nightingale.” ?
Humour, on the other hand, employs ordinary and
rather common words, as in the sentence “the
more solitary and deserted I am, the more myth-
ensmoured 1 become.” 4
Moreover, humour is spoiled by verbal adornment
and is turned into a freak, Graces of style are gond
in moderation, whereas the elaboration of humour
is like beautifying an ape.
º Irus, the “common beggar' in Odyssey xviii 1
'Thersites, the vgly commoner in Miad il. 8211-297.
7 Cf. 5 188 supra. » Cf. 85 97, Ldd sigpre,
02 AOS
 DEMETRIUS
º E
166 Ao xai ) Comp mepi pév sãAÃovs ddovoa
KoAALemjs dort Kai jôcia, mai mepi Eporewy OE ai Ens 1 1

dapos! xal mepl dAxvóvos, ral darar aAdv êvona

A Es

ao a ss j
evipavra. abris ri) momoe, TA Dé nai abri
cipydgaro.
3 *

167 “AdAws dê oRdmre. rôv dypotkov vupuplou, nai

f Ny x r Y

+ôv Gupmpdr róv év Trois yáuors, ebreléorara

a - a o
ral ev melols dvóuaor pãMov 7) é» momriunois,
dare abris paMhov êor Tá morjuara vadia dLa-
Adyeobar j Gde, ovê dr àppuócar npôs Te xopôu
mo 1235 ig t 1 x s

% mpôs mi Aúpay, si pu mus cly xopôs diakeirurós.

ig Máliara Sé dragpbépovar mai Ex ris mpompécems»
od yãp ógoia mpoupeirar O edxdproros Kai é
a
velewromodry, ,
dA! O per cibpaivem, óeaô€ yeda-
obijvar. mai áro ráv emarcoÃovbobvrey dé rois
pé yãp, védeos, rois e êmauvos,
A A 4
A , En 1 7;

169 Kai ék rómov. évdo pêv yãp yéluros véxros

roi xapirev, é carópy Kai év ropmôlos. qpa-
vadia dé xdpiras per mapadanBáves éy moMois,
à dé yédws éxlpos rtpaydias: oddé ydo em
Ê E)

;
voncerer dv TIS Tpaypdiar mailovoar, 244,cdrupor
éxel
ppdies avri rpoywôlas.
Z,
no
>
, 1
) t

no XRpjcorra dé more Kai oi dpóvigor yeÃoiors

wpós Te rods xespols, olo» é édoprais ral év
cupmociors, mal év Smim Age de mpôs ode
4 Na! ! y

Tpupepwrépous, 4
ds O tnhauyis
€
dúlaxos, xa 1
* tapos Gale: ágpos P.
* Horace (Ars P. 220 ff.) is at pains to bring out the
afinity of the Satyric drama with tragedy rather lhan
comedy. Itis here regarded as akin to both.
º Probably góhaxos is a cant term for the protuberant
body —the “ bread-basket,” “pouçh"-—of a mpoydorwp.
So Svade: in modern Greek, and rásul cow
406
 ON STYLE, 111. 166-170

When Sappho, therefore, sings of beauty, she

does so in lines that are themselves beautiful and
sweet. So too when she sings of love, and spring-
time, and the haleyon. Every lovely word is in-
woven with the texture of her poetry. And some
ave of her own invention.
It is in a different key that she mocks the clumsy
bridegroom, and the door-keeper at the wedding.
Her language is then most ordinary, and consists of
prose words rather than poetie words. These poems
of hers are, in consequence, beiter suited for use in
conversation than for singing. They are by no
means adapted for a chorus or a lyre—unless indeed
there is such a thing as a conversational chorus.
The two kinds of style under consideration differ
most of allin their purpose, the aims of the charmer
and the laughter-maker being diferent,. The oe
desires to give pleasure, the other to be laughed at,
The results, likewise, are diferent—laughter in the
one case, praise in the other.
Again, the provinces of the two kinds do not
coincide, There is, indeed, one place in which the
axts of laughter and of charm are found together, in
the satyric drama and in comedy. Tt is different,
however, with tragedy, which often welcomes chamm,
but finds in laughter a sworm fo, A man could
hardly conceive the idea of composing a sportive
tragedy; if he did so, he would be writing a satyric
play rather than a tragedy.º
Even sensible persons will indulge in jests on such
occasions as feasis and carousals, or when they are
addressing a word of warning to men inclined to good
living. A reference to “ the far-gleaming meal-bag” >
may then be found salutary. The same may be said
407
 DEMETRIUS

28: Kpúrgros morri, | Kai Gdaris exyropuor &y

dvayvd tis é» Tois detrous: Totobros de «ws TO
mAéov mai é Kuvixôs Tpóros: TA ydp Totabra
yedota xpeias Aanfáve. rdéw Kai yrdgums.
im "Eori Sê Kai TOU mbous TIS êugaois êx TD
yedoimv «ai 7) mayvias 7) dxoducias, cs Kal Op
olvor vôv mpoyvbévra émoxcdr tis “ TinAda! dyri
Oivéus.” À yáp dvribeos 1) mepi rà óvógara nai
o) Ppovris eupaive. vera fuxypórnra Tous «ai
dvaywyiar.
1º Wepi dé crwuudrwrv pév, olov elxacia ris dorur
À yêp dvribeors edrpárelos. ypúcorrai ve vais
rorarars eixacios, ws “ Alyurria rAnuaris)”
parpóvdv Kai uol pélavo,
él Kai E ro To “ Baldocir
cv mpóBaror,”
mpóBarov,
TO» púpov TOL év TÍj Padácon. TOÊs pé roLotTOLS
xpijsovra ei dE uú, pevédueda TA cróuuara
womep Aotdopias.
173 Moi dé elxapr iv épuavelav Kai Tá Aeyó-
peva Kadã óvógara. pioaro 5 abra Beódpaoros
oúrws, réAÃos óvógarós éori TÔ mpôs Tv don)
q mpôs riv df 7ôU, 1) TO Ti] dtaroia Evripor.
2 grloxwr (sic) rá cnjham, » supra versum addito, P; fort.
wmpogeimré res.
& The Theban Crates (cynic philosopher, pupil of Diogenes,
contemporary of Theophrastus) wrote in prose and verse,
praising simplicity of hfe,
D de“ wise saws and modern instances”; for “ ridentem
dicere verum quid vetat?” Demetrius is not obsessed by
à Propriá (which term indeed he does not use), but is speale-
ing as an unpedantie man of the world.
* “* Nothing,” says Goethe, “ is more significant of men's
character than what they find laughable.” George Eliot,
who quotes the remark in her Essay on Heine, would say
“ culture ”” rather than “ character.” Cf. end of$ 171.
408
 ON STYLE, ur. 170-1783

of the poetry of Crates 4; and it would be well if you

were to read the “ Praise of the Lentil” in a party
of free-livers. The Cynic humour is, for the most
part, of this character. Such jests, in fact, play the
part of maxims and admonitions,?
There is some indication of a man's character * in
his jokes—in their playfulness, for instance, or their
extravagance, Somebody once dammed the flow of
wine which had been spilt on the ground and muttered
words about “ Oeneus (otros) turned into Peleus
(=jAós) 3 The play on the proper names, and the
laboured thought, betray a character that lacks taste
and breeding.
In nicknames a sort of comparison is implied, there
being wit in a play on words. Writers may use such
comparisons as “ Egyptian clematis “ * of a tall and
swarthy man, or “ sea-yether” ? of a fool on the
water. They may, 1 say, indulge in harmless jokes
such as these, but if we cannot stop there, we had
better avoid nicknames as we would seurrility.
The so-called “ beautiful words ” also conduce to
grace of style, According to the definition given
by Theophrastus, beauty in a word is that which
appeals pleasantly to the ear or the eye, or has noble
associations of its own.?

“ Gf. Athen, ix. 883 0; Eustath. ad dl. p. TI2,

“* Cf Diog. Laert. vii. 1, 2 xol "Avokhdras dé fysm 6
Túpios fre ioxrôs dy (se. Zojrav], droudeys, pendyxpos, Gdev mes
airór eixev Alyurriar ahqnarida, naBa poe Spúcurmos é” mpirep
Hapouity. So “corn-stalk” of a New South Wales man.
See additional note, p. 501.
* Cf. Seneca, Dial. ii. e 17 (Chrysippus again). A land
inbber on the water is a veritable “ sheep at ses.”
7 Theophrastus, Ilepi Aéiewss qr Arist het, iii 2,
1405 Db 6-8,
409
 DEMETRIUS
ra pós per vir ôfuv úôéa rã rotadra, “ podo-
xpoov;” “dvbopópou xpóas.” doa yàp ódpãras
ndéws, ralra wal Aeyópievo Kadá éori após dé
riv drojy “ Kalhiorparos,
A > A tr AU “À.
"Arvodr” Ms 2,
dj TE yâp
4 A

ré» Adubôa cúyepovoss dxódés te Exer, nai

ro vô ypaupdrav.
115 Koi dus Tó vô 8 engeviar! edédmorra, of
Arrucol “ Ammoodévyy
> Y “e f
” Aéyovres rai
4 2
De- 1 te

npármv.” 9% Buavola de Evrina TA TotairÁ éoTi,

otor rô “ ãoxaior”
+
dvri rob
A
“alaroi”
SE 3 Ea > > ] mo tt nas
êvrinó-
2 ,

repor oi yãp dpyaio: dvôpes evriuórepoL.

176 Ilapa de rois povorcois Aéyerai ru droga Aeior,
y ) ” - 4 2 EA E)

Kai érepor Tô tpaxó, ral dAÃo edmayés, Kai dAA

1” X 4 y ” E) Eq v ES >

ôyunpóv. Alo» pév oUv cor ôdvoua Tô Bá

4 n 4 " Só Aeió ” ”
Pwrnévrmv 1) mávrar q da mÃedvwv, oior Áias,
rpaxd dé olov BéBpwrev nai aúrô de rodro Tô
” 1 f + DA A Ee) A

Tpaxd ôvopa rarã piumomw céemjvertas davrod.

edmayés Os êmanporepito” sal ueuypéror iows
vols ypduacr.
n t

rm Tô dé óyenpôr év prol, mAdrer, uúxei mAd-

1 1 3 4 3 EA 9 z E

cuart, olov Bpovrã dvri Tod Bpovry' Kai yáp tpa-

1 cipwriar Gale: emular P, 2 emauporenttwy P,

º Cj. bella and donna in modern Italian pronunciation.

* Demetrius is right in saying that the aceusatives
and Avuordéryr ave found, in Attic writers, as
wi :, and Angocdém. In Aristophanes, Úlouds
188, 1465, 1477, the best manuscripts favour Ewrpdryr,
though the nu may conceivable (but hardiy for metrical
reasons) have been introduced by transcribers into these,
the only, examples of the accusative in Aristophanes. Plato
uses Ewxpéry, Xenophon Bwspdryv. Ii may well be that
410
 ON STYLE, ur. 1974-177

Among expressions which call up pleasing images

may be mentioned “ roscate-glowing ” and “of
blossom-laden huge,” Everything that is seen with
pleasure is also beautiful when uttered. Pleasing
in sound are such names as “ Callistratus ” and
“ Armoon,” in which the double “1” and the double
“nº have a sort of clang.”
in general, it is out of regard for euphony that the
Attic writers append an Cn,” and speak of Agpuo-
cbémy and Dorpiryr (instead of Anpocbém and
Swrpár)* Among words with noble associations is
ãpxeiors (Cmen of the olden time), which is
superior to ralmeoí (“ ancients "), since it implies
greater respect,
Musicians are accustomed to speak of words as
“smooth,” “rough,” “well-proportioned,” “weighiy”
A smooth word is one which consists exclusively, or
mainly, of vowels: as Aiss. DéBpwse (“he has
devoured “ is an instance of a rough word; and the
very roughness of its formation is designed to imitate
the action it describes. A well-proportioned word
is one which partakes of both characters and shows
a happy blending of various letters,
Weight consists in three things: breadth, length,
formation. Bpovrá (the Doric equivalent of Bpovri,
“ thunder “> may serve as an example. This word
some «riters preferred Buxpóryr for euphony—to avoid
histus. But ii $ 195 Demetrius gives Ebperiõe: in place of
Es pra! É Chan po ruestion of euphony arises)
: Attic inscriptions,
“ui the Classical Writers of
Greece are chiefly in the writer's mind. ápyatos, like the
Latin priscus, is usually a term of praise (“ venerable,”
“ ancient and standard,” “exemplary “), though also found
in a depreciatory sense (“ old-fashioned,” “ cut-of-date,”
“ back numbers,” “the old gang”).
41
 DEMETRIUS
;
xUrmra éx1 risus mporépus
: cuAdafisa Exei, Kui 13êx
ris devrépas uíjxos uév 8d Ty poxpdv, mÃaró-
e e 1

rnra dé dd vóv Amwpranór mÃaréa

1 A 1
Aadodo: yãp Lia A Ly A A m A

A
máxra ob e Amwpris. a
Smep4 5013
ode Z
Exmudovv dwpi-+
covres, GAMA eps drrinilor À) yãp “Arruo
El z Y e

vABoca oureoTpanpévor TI Éxei Kal ÔmjroTuKÔr iaú

Tais roLaúrass edrpamenlas mpéror.
Tad » 5 ovelodo É a
atra pév ô7 maparexvoloyelodo dXws. rd
E
et

SE cionpévwr Ovopárwr Tá Aecia povo Annréor «ds

vAugupór Tu Exovra.
119 Tíverar dé Kal dx cuvbécews TO yhagdupór Ear
Her oôv od pádior mepl 700 Tpórou rod totide
a oúde ydp Tda mpivVoaelonrai tur epi yÃa-
eimeiv:
dupôs auvbécems. rarã TO Buvarôv Dé Ópuus
E q

meipuréov Aéyeim.
e “mp ão Sd É SSovi 4 , 38
180 Taxa vap OM €oTAL TIS TO0VT) KOL vEpiS, Eav
e 45 13 z 4 A Ng a
dpuólwper êx pérpor jr oúvbecy à) Amwv à
quicewy od uy more paivecfos adrã uérpa ér
s

sos v. TO cure Tr Adyeur, | dAA”, ei Siayewpiltor res

rob” & Exaorov rai Sripivor, róre dm) dp” juv
gº a “ 4 ê Ed 4 y tis e El

adrórv dwpácia uérpa dura,

181 Kdv perposiõh de jd, mv abrir momos xydpi
Cx od x A

Auvbavóvras dé Tor mapadveras À él TÃS Touabrs

Ed Eos

moovisso xdpis, rat 1 mAciorov

o
uér 7ô Towirov
Ee)
elbós
doi mapã trois Iepuraryruxois xai mapã Ilá-
Tur nai mapã Bevopódvri ral “Hpodóre, ráxa
de «ai mapa Amuocôéve. moMaxod: Movevdidys
1 m

perros mépevye TO eldos.

* douálonev P, ? dopiotu P,
sda
 ON STYLE, um. i77-18i

derives roughness from the first sylable ;* and from

Lhe second it derives length owing to the long vowel,
and breadih owing to the Doric form, the “Dorians
being aceustomed to broaden all their words.? This
is the reason why comedies were not written in Dorie,
but in the pungent Attic. For the Attic dialect has
about it something terse and popular, and so lends
itself natur ally to the witticisms of the stage.
But this is a mere digression in our treatise. Of
ali the words indicated, the smooth alone must be
employed as possessing any elegance.
Elegance may also be produced by composition,
though it is, to be sure, not easy to describe the pro-
cess. Yet, although no previous writer has treated
of elegant composition, 1 must endeavour to do so to
the best of my ability.
Well, a certain charm and grace will perhaps be
attained if we frame the composition by measures—
in whole measures or half-measures. The actual
measures must not, however, force themselves on the
attention, if the words be read conneetedly ; but if
the sentence is divided and analysed part by part,
then and only then ought the presence of measures
to be detected by our own ears.
Even a general metrical character will produce the
same effect. The charm ofthis pleasing device steals
on us before we are aware. The trait is a favourite
one with the Peripatetits as well as with Plato,
Xenophon, and Herodotus ; and it may be found in
many passages of Demosthenes also. Thueydides,
on the other hand, shuns it.
8 j.o,, tha first svllahie is so formed or morilded (mhásen)
: four aceumulaled consonants, La
+ Cf Theoer. Ev. 88 êxencugedor rharesdadoca datas
413
 DEMETRIUS
189 Iapadeiyuara Sé abrob Adão rig dv roidõe,
olov às ó Amaiapyos “ ev “Bda,”
a A £ E)
dmoi, “ris
003 am 4 ” Fá c€ a)

“Irakias arpeofBióryr von vv jliciar dura ld” cód

vap noAw» duporépev aé dmodjéeis gerpoeidés Tu
Exovow, dirô dé TOD eipuod Kai rijs ouvapelas xAéim-
zera uêv TO perpreóv, Dow) O od ôMym êmeori.
183 TAdrwr pévros é» moMois adrô TO puêuo
vAupupós éorip êxterapnéve! qws, Kai ovre édpary
Exovri oUre uíjxos: TÔ pév yãp loxvôr xai dewór,
ro dé uíjcos peyadomperés. dA” olov
N 1 e 4 2 2
dAiobm ruvi
ay 4 1

êoree ra nódha, ral odr êupérpors! marrámacuw

our” dmérpors, olov év Td epi povos Adygy
2.4
emáv do ab FE“vor 8%» exéyoner.
24 Ro)

184 Kai máAm, O uvupilwv ve ral veyarwuévos dro

visAu mois
8a Biaredei POvo» Biov
ro al!
Shou” Kai Vos
mdAty,
“ró uev mpóror, el Tt Oupocdes eclyev, comep
Ea 24

ciônpor éEudAngev.” obrws pév yôp viadupor ol

ddr caps ei 3º dvaorpébas eimos, “ êud-
duéev domep ciônpov;” W “Biarede ôhov rór
Biov,” êxyeis” TOB Aóyov vv xápm év abr TO!
Puôuo odcar od yãp 87) év Ti) Sravoia, odd” eu
sais Adéegw.
185 Kal epi vv movoteddv dé dpydvur mdAm
xaprévtus mpuocer, ev ols dj dncu, “Apa dj
co Acimeras Kurã ódu” ei yãp dvacrpépas
eimos “rarã mom dAeimerar,” uelappocenéry
1 der P,
2 cuqpelas exémra (vu et er supra versum adúitis) P,
à exrerandry Victorins: exreramévos P.
* oir' eupérpors O. P. Hermann: obre gérpois P.
à êmêy pj Spengel: êrduçpo P,
3 dxtouer Victorius e Plat,: Atyoner P.
? exxeis Dahl: ctévus P. ê rg ins. Gale.
4T&
 ON STYLE, mr. 1829-185

An illustration of such writing may be quoted from

Dicaearchus, who says : “ At Elia in Ialy sojourning,
an old man now, and stricken in years.” & The close
of each member has something of a metrical cadence,
but the fact is disguised through the linking of the
words in one series; and great pleasure results.
Now Plato in many passages owes his elegance
directly to the rhythm, which is, so to speak, long
drayn out, but free from either heaviness or lengthi-
ness, of which the former suits the plain and forcíble,
the latter the elevated style. His members seem
to glide along and to be neither altogether metrical
nor unmetrical, as in the passage about musie, where
the words “as we were saying a moment ago”?
occur.
And again: “in warbling and revelling in song
he passes his life wholly.” c And once more:
“should he see any symptom of passion, like steel
would he temper it.” é Thus framed, the sentences
are manifestly elegant and harmonious. But if you
invert the order and say “ he would temper it like
steel” or “he passes all his life,” you will rob the
language cf its charm, which dwells in the very
rhythm. Certainly it is not to be found in the
thought, nor in the choice of wrords.
Plato employs a delightful cadence, again, when
saying with regard to musical instruments “ the
lyre for you is left, then, in the town.” * Invert the
order and say “ in the town is left for you,” and you
will be doing what is tantamount to changing the

2 Dicaearehus, Fragm. 33 Mitler, FELG. ii. p. 245: the

reference may be to Xenophanes.
5 Plat. Rep, iii, ll a. e Plat. Rep. iii. 411 A.
2 Plat. Rap. iii. 411 m, * Plat, Rep. iii, 399 np.
 DEMETRIUS

mowjoeis ôuotov. Tobro dé emupéper, “ xui ad mar”

dypods rois momécw cópuyé dv 715 eli” Tã pãp
éxráger read ER pojicer mávu xapiévres uepipnras
Tpómor Tuvê dxorv cúpiyyos. corar O Bijdov, ei
tes peracuvbeis Aéyor Kai rodro.
186 Tepi uêv ô) rod nara, cúvdecw yapupod émi-
Parvopévou Tocaúra, os é» BvonóÃots. ciprau de
oi mepl OD xaparripos Tod vagupoê, év doors
nal ômws piverar. sabárep dé TA) ueyalomperei
mapérevro O uxpôs xaparrip, oúrws TO yÃa-
dupD mwapdresral tis demuaprapévos. droudiw
dé aúrôv TO nowQ Svópari KaxóinÃov. yivorro!
3º &y xal otros é rproiv, domep «ai oi Aouroi
mdvres.
187 “Er diavoia uév, ds d elriy “ Kévraupos egurór
inmevwr,” Kai émi rof fovhevouérou "Adeédo-
ôpov! Bpoduor dywvicacda: "Odvpumdow êdm tis
obrmus: “"Adciuvôpe, dpdue cod rãs untpôs Tô
ôvopo.”
188 “Ev 86 dvógaow pbyvorr” dv oiros, otov * éxéda
mou podov Wúxpooy” “a Te yap petapopã 1
“ Eveha” qrávo perárevrar dmpemóis, Kai Tô oúv-
Berov vô “jdóxpoor” od” é» momuar: Deim dy
ris OxpiBs cobporôr. q) us res! elmer, “ ori
mrois úmeoúpule mirus apos” mepl per dr
189
Tv Aééw obrews. a
asa re
dúvôeois dé dvamaoruci) | Kai udAiora Goucuia

E dvondfw Galo: droudfe. P (fort. subaud, res)

2 yivorro edad. : yiveras P.
? dxegdrôpo P,
4 bs ris edd. : dores P.
E Aerruis Radermacher: &é ye vais
416
 ON STYLE, vm. 1856-189

melody. He adds: “yea, and in the fields for the

shepherds some manner of pipe shall be.” e By this
long unbroken clause he has, in a manner, quite
charmingly imitated the sound of the pipe. This
will be clear to anyone who changes the arrangement
of this sentence also.
With regard to elegance as depending on the
avrangement of words these observations must suflice,
the subject being dificult. We have already treated
of the essential features of the elegant style, and
have shown where and how it originates. We have
seen that the frigid style is nearly allied to the
elevated, In the same way there is a defective style
perilously near to the elegant; and to this I give
the current name of “ affected." ? This, like all the
rest, falls under three heads.
The affectation may reside in the thought, as
when a writer speaks of a Centaur riding himself,” é
or as when somebody exclaimed on hearing that
Alexander meant to enter for the races at Olympia,
“ Alexander, race along your own mother's name !” é
I$ may also be found in the words, as “ smiled Lhe
dulcet-coloured rose,” * The metaphor “ smiled “is
sadiy out of place, and not even in verse could the
compound “ dulcet-coloured ” be employed by any
man of sound judgement. This is true also of the
words: “the pine was piping low to the gentle
gales.” e-—Thus much with respect to diction.
The structure of clauses is affected when it is
anapaestic and resembles most nearly such broken
2 Plat. Rep. ili. 899 p.
» “ Mannered,” “precious”; “fine writing,” “ écrhe
trop bien.” º Ser. Ine,
é Scr. Inc, The name of Alesander's mother was
Ulympias.
417
 DEMETRIUS

vols; rerhnopévors ral ácénvos pérpors, ola

páMora Tà Bwrádem! Bd TO godancdrepor,
he oriÃas raúparo rádupor,” «ab
cel uedio TinAdda Sefidv nar” euor
duri 708
ceiwv IlyAdêa pediny rarã deéróy Suor
óroia ydp perapeuopdwnériw êomev O orixos,
diomep ob pubevógero: É dppévwrv peraBdMem eis
Eneias. Tovdde êv noi epi raxoiniias.

IV
go “Emi d6 Tod loxvod xaparripos Exomer? &
Kai mpiypara lows TVA uucpã Koi TO xaparrtipr
mpócpopa, olov Tô mapã Avoig, “ oixidior dor
gor derdodv, toa Exor Tà dvw Trois rárm” ray
dé Acém elvar mãoar vom mupiar noi cumn:
Herpórepor vp TO cuenbécrepor mávrwr, TO dé
dovemdes Kai perevnveypéror peyahomperés.
191 Koi unde SimÃã dvógara midévar: To yôp êvar-
Tiou xaparripos tal Tadra, unDê uv memormuéva,
uno" doa dMa peyakorpéreroy mol, uáltoTO BE
cabr xpm rijv Aééiy elvas. vO dé capés év mÃeiocur,
ma Iodira pnév é» rOis xupiois, Emerra év Tois ouv-
1 Ewrádea Victorius: cóuaro P.
2 tyomer Victorius: exet uév P. 3 ter P,

“ Sotad. Fragm, Sotades wrote verses at Alexandria

about 280 e.c., and was given to inversions and affected
rhythras.
* Hom. 4. xxii, 188.
418
 ON STYLE, im. 188--1y, 192

and undignified measures as are particularly the

Sotadean, with their efeminate gait. Examples
are: “having dried in the sun, cover up” ;% and
Upswinging the ash-beam Pelian his rightward shoulder
above
in place of
Swinging the Pelian ash-beam over his rightward shoulder.?
The line seems transmuted, as it were, like those who
(so the fables tell us) are changed from males to
females-—So much for the subject of affectation,

Iv
In the case of the plain style, we can no doubt
point to subject matter which is homely and appro-
priate to the style itself: as the passage in Lysias,
“T have a cottage with two stories, the one above
corresponding exactly to that below.” e The diction
thronghout should be current and familiar. The
more familiar an expression is the homelier it is,
while the unusual and metaphorical is elevated,
Compound words should not be admitted (since
they ave appropriate to the opposite variety of style),
nor yet ncwly-coined words, nor any other words
which contribute to elevation, Above all, the style
should be lucid. Now lucidity involves a number of
things.
First of all it involves the employment of current
words, and next of words bound together. Writing

* Lysias, On the Death of Eratosthenes, 8 9. The whole

narrative, of which a few words only are quoted, seems to be
meant
419
 DEMETRIUS
dedenévors. 70 d€ dovvõeror Kai Siadedupévor ôÃov
dcapes mãv dôndos yáp À éxdorou raÃou dpym
> q Ea) EAN 4 € € L EA a 1

ôa riv Avow, wormep Tà 'Hpaxdeirou: Kai yap

rara cxorewá movel vó mAÃeioTov f Adors.
19 3 Evayrios név odv flows uaMov 7) dtaleAvpérm
> EA X on ” EM, EN A A E

Acéis, 7 O" abr) Kai diroxprrich radeirar evei

vãp Úmrókproi 17 Aúois. pau) dé AdÉiS 1) edavd-
yrwoTos. aUrm O” éoriv 7 auvmprnném rui olor
nopalionévm tTois cvrôéonors. Gá rolro Bê nai
Méravôpov úmonpivorrar AsAupévor é» Tois mÃei-
cross, Dkjuova dé dvayuorovor.
” Or. 88dé dmoxprrixôv!
à o ÀE Avois, napádemyua
18 ;
dy-
19 4
Keiow rode,
cdctdpmr, Erucrov, éxrpépeo, pide.
ourus yap Aehuuévor dvayrdce. Kal vor ui) Dé-
e A FA a 4 As A A f

Aovra bmonpiveoBar dd rijv Avai ei BE cuvôjoas

eirors, “ edeldumv ral éricror xob exrpéde,”
moMhm» dmddeav” cols ouvdéouors cuvenBadeio>
mdvv de TO dades dvumórxpiror,
”
Eori dé a xui 1%da Gewpiuara
£ +
Umrorpirirá,4 a
oiov
a

nai ó vapã TO
1 q A E Eó
Edpiride!2) 4 “1
“Luv? d vóéu dprálor
b K f £ L

ral TO rúxvyp are» TO ôdpult, dmomarodyr

rorá vó» dyadudrorv Kal yãp auwjces molás
mapéxe: TO úmoxperi) 6 Ext vá tófa Bpógos Koi À
o m 74

mpôs rór dépa drdBhss Tod mpoccmou Biadeyo-

1 bmoxpirixdr edd,: Umoxpirucidr P,
2 Port, êxdôsar Eua; cf. 8 268 fin,
8 cuvenBakeis nos: cungadeis P: dufaneis Finckh.
4 Búpurtõe: (sic) P; cf. Zeúbe (bis), 8 155, 5 br P

5 Cf. Arist, Iohet, iii. 5.

» Cf Arist. Rhet, lil. 5, 12.
420
 ON STYLE, av. 1992-195

which is wholly disjointed and unconnected is entirely

lacking in clearness. For it is impossible to discen
the beginning of each member owing to the loose-
ness of the structure. This is illustrated by the
wuitings of Heracleitus,” the obscurity of whieh is due
mainly to their loose structure,
No doubt the disjointed style lends itself better to
debate. Itlikewisebcarsthenameof “histrionic, "since
a broken structure stimulates acting and delivery.
On the other hand, the best “literary "> style is
that which is pleasant to read; and this is the style
which is compacted and (as it were) consolidated
by the conjunctions. This is the reason why, while
Menander (whose style is for the most part broken)
is popular with the actor, Philemon is the reader's
favourite,
To show that the broken style suits the stage, take
the following line as an instance :
Thee 1 received, 1 bare, 1 nurse, O dear one.
Thus disjointed, the words will of themselves force
a man to be dramatic even in his own despite. But
if you employ conjunetions and say “ I received and
baxe and nurse,” you will at the same time make
the line quite lífeless. . And what is unemotional is
essentially undramatie,
Other aspects of the actor's art deserve attention,
Take, for instance, the case of Jon in Euripides, «who
seizes his bow and threatens the swan which is letting
fall its droppings upon the statues? Many oppor-
tunities of movement are offered to the actor by
Ton's rush for his bow and arrows, by his face up-
º Menander, Fregm. 230; Meineke, iv. pp. 284, 285.
2 Eurip. Jon 161 segg. Ion, the acolyte in the temple of
Apollo at Delphi, is the young Samuel of Greek literature.
421
 DEMETRIUS

pévou TD KúRvep, al 9 Acium mãoa Suanóppwors

mpôs To» dmoxpurijy memompuévm. GA oú eph
úrorpivems uti ra vôv O Aóyos.
196 Devyéru dé 7 capis vpadm Kai ràs dudrBoAlas,
oxjuar: de ypnolw rf eravaliibe. malovpévm.
emavdâmbis dé dote cuvôécuou émipopã 700 adrod
é» tois Gd macpo) émupeponévos Adyois, oior
“doa uer êmpaée Didenmos, ral vs tv Opdrnry
nareorpébaro, Kai Keppórgoov elhev, Kai Bubdy-
riov Emoktóprncer, nai "ApbimoAmy odx dméduner,
raúro peu mapadeiba » ” oxedov yap 6 pêv obu-
degpos emevexbeis dvéunceu Muôs ris mpolécems,
197
Kai amexaréorncev êmi rip dpxip.
280 Vo er
Zagnveias õe Exercer | eai Bidoyareoy mohAtres*
tor vdp mus Tô ouvropcbrepov 7) capeotepor*
às vyãp oé maparpéxorres mapopóvra éviore,
oUrTess Kai 1) Aééis mapaxoderas dd TO TÁxOS.
198 Dedyem dé Koi vás mhayrórgras: Kai yap Todro
doapés* domep À) Dillorou Aééis. cuvrojuirepor
de mapidempa mwAayias Adiews Kai dd Todro
doapois rô wapã* Bevopiyri, oiov “kal óru rprij-
peis 'fiouer mepimÃcoúaas dar” “Ievias els Koduciast
Táuor Exovra rãs Aareedapovicy xo? aúrod
Kvpov.” vobro yãp É cóleias uêv Bdé vas
1 mepiheiyo P.
2 à) coqéorepor edd.: ws caqéorepor P: fort. ws idem
valet ac quem (cum gradu comparativo).
3 doapis P. * vô rapã P. à ouehiav P,
a The fashioning of the whole scene to help the actor's
“ business” is meant, The writer of the treatise is much
interested in the art of acting (cf 88 58, 159, 198, 194,
226), and sees that Euripides had studied carefully such
dramatic “ effects ” as “ fetch ” am andience,
432
 ON STYLE, rv. 195-198

turned to the sky as he talks to the swan, and by the

rest of the detail “ contrived to aid the actor. Sul,
the subject of stage-craft is not at present before us.
Clear writing should also shun ambiguities and
make use of the figure termed “ epanalepsis.” >
“ Epanalepsis ” is the repetition of the same particle
in the course of a lengthy sentence ; as “all Philip's
acts indeed-—how he subjugated Thrace, and seized
the Chersonese, and besieged Byzantium, and
neglected to restore Amphipalis —thesc things,
indeed, I shall pass over.” º [i may be said that
the repetition of the particle “indeed ” reminds us
of the prelude and sets us again at the beginning of
the sentence.
For the sake of clearness the same word must often
beused twice. Excessive terseness may give greater
pleasure, but it fails in cleamess. For as men who
race past us are sometimes indistinctly seen, so also
the meaning of a sentence may, owing to its burried
movement, be only imperfectly caught.
The use of dependent cases must also be avoided,
since this leads to obscurity, as Philistus's “ style
shows. A short example of cleamness sacrificed to
dependent constructions (in the aceusative case) is
to be found in Kenophon : “ He was informed that
triremes belonging to the Lacedaemonians and to
Cyrus himself were coasting round with Tamos on
board from Ionia to Cilicia." e This sentence might
be written in a straightforward. construction with
» Lit. “a taking-up-again ”: the resumptiva repetition
of a word,
e Ser. Inc. : ef. Demosth. Or. xi. 1,
º For Philistus cf. Roberts's editions of Longinus or the
Sublime, p. 237, and Dionysius' Three Literary Letters, p, Ni
* Ken, Anab, i. 2.21.
428
 DEMETRIUS

Aéyorro: “rprópeis mpocedordvro eis Kilukiar!

moMhal pêv Adao, modhai dé Hepoides, Rúpa
vevamynbeca ém abr todrp. êEmleov 8º da
a ,
Teovias' valapyos 5º atbrais? êmeoráres Tdágos
Aiyómrios.” arpórepov ger ourws” êyévero iams.
”

capévrepor dé.
109 Kai ddws Ti) quoueg! vdée róv dvopáruv
xpnoréov, Às vô ““Emidauvos éore mods év
a ms 2 > Vo STE 5 L »> A
detia domAéovr: eis vor "Ióviov? KóAmor”- mpidror
mê vôp civéuagra rô mepi od, deúrepor de à
A a

rodrê êoriw, Ort mólis, Kai rã da eEdelijs.

mr 4 Eq 1 1 Yv 3 Ea)

emo Tópoiro uéy odv dv nal TO êutady, ds TO

“Eori móMs "Egipn” ob vãp mávry! abra
doriuálonev qijv vdéw, oUdé mv erépav dxo-
doruálonev, rabo exridéneda póvor TO quoucor
eidos vijs Táéems.
201 “Ev Sé vote deyyijumor aro do vis opbis
dprréov, ““Emidauvós dor mods,” 7) do tis
3 Eq ERR) E 4 5 4 LEA a > 1 mo)

airiuruciio, «os vô “ Adyerar "Emidauvor tv mó-

2 Em t s «rf z ” Ea 4 4

Av” ai Sé da mraves dodpedr tiva tap-

éfovor «cai Bácavor TO re Aéyorrs add Kai TA
drovorrt.
202 Ilerpãodo: de ur) eis píjxos exrelvey TAS mept-
,
aywyás:te “É vão
“é yêp "Ava
"Axeldos 4
pémwv Ee2e TiivSou É
Iivôou ôpovs
1 guxehior P, 2 abrois P. * vivos P,
. * quenf Victorius: ques sal P. E úómor P,
& mam P. "more,

2 Vis, in the plain style; its opposite, the elevated style,

will favonr an artificial, inverted, order.
à Thueyd, i. 24, * Hom. TI. vi. 152.
494
 ON STYLE, rv. 1985-202
nominatives somewhat as follows : “ In Cilicia there
were expected many Lacedaemonian, and many -
Persian ships, the latter built for Cyrus with this
very purpose. They were sailing from Tonia, and
the admiral in command of them was the Egyptian
Tamos.” The sentence would thus no doubt have
been longer : it would also have been clearer.
In general, the natural order of the words should
be followed,” as in the sentence “ Epidamnus is a
town on your right hand as you sail into the Ionian
gulf” b Pirst of all is mentioned the subject, which
is then defined to be a town, and next come the other
words in due suecession.
Of comse the order might be reversed, as in the
words “There is a town Epbyra.”* We do not
absolutely approve the one order nor condemn. the
other, when simply setting forth the natural method
of arranging the words.
In naxrative passages we should begin with the
nominative case, as in “ Epidamnusis a city“; or
with the accusative, as in “it is said that the
city Epidamnus ....” The other cases will cause
obscurity and will put both speaker and hearer on
tenterhooks.?
An attempt must be made to keep amplifications *
within due bounds. Take this sentence: “ For the
Achelous flowing ffom Mount Pindus, near the
à "Eridapvos is quite clear however early it comes, and so
is “Eriduuvor with the inânitive in indirect discourse; but .
put 'Bridduvou or "ridáury at the beginning of a sentence,
and you will keep yourself and your readers on the rack of
grammatical uncertainty till construction and meaning are
made clear.
* e lhe subsidiary clauses which contribute to the
rondeur of an elaborate period,
425
 DEMETRIUS
dveuber ev mapá Arpárov mom! émi dádacoar
Beégeror” daN atróber dsroifyem Kai diva aber
róv àxodovra obrTws' “O vãp "ÁxeAgos pet uév Ex
Hivdov ôpovs, Eécrary dé eis OdÃaooar” sodd yáp
obrws cagéorepor, momep dv ai moAd onueta
Exovoai ddoL «ai moMhas draravÃas: fyenõo! yãp
Tã epueia Eoueey, 1) de donueiwros? Kai porosôrns,
nã purpã Ti, ABnÃos dorei,
os epi prev, d cagnveias rocadra, os, óXiya éx
moMAóiv, nai pdMioTa év Tois loxvois adrf) Adyois
xpnoTéov.
204 GDevyey dé Ev TI) ouvbéoes TOD xapaxripos
roúrou mpóiror pev Tá pen ou tecó Aco" preyado-
mperês vàp wêv píxos, domep ral émi vó
Eipwinédv'] uérpwv Tó éfduerpor úpwinov [9%]
nadciras úmro peyéfous mai mpérov Npwcws |
reopeudlo. Be guvécradras eis Tô qpigerpoy 7 vêm,
205 Tá monã ody neódors mpitéTpOrS xpncópeda
tea éviore nóppuaot, Worep O pev Idreor not,
“xaréBby xões eis Ilepua pgerá Thadrcovos”-
mucval yãp ai dudmavha Kai dmodéces. Ai-
oxims dé “êxaliueda uév;” dnoiv, Céml vó
1 grporôr véu Pp.
E domtistoros P. 3 mpuixôr secl, Spengel.
+ dr tg dittographia natum) seclusi,
E pow cdd. : hpúwr P.

« Thueyd. ii. 109. C/8 45 cupra, where the sentence is

quoted more fully.
» Lt. “uniform,* “ monotonous.”
* The elevated, elegant, and forcible styles make, in the
pursuit of their special qualities, some sacrifice of. nat
cardinal virtue of clearness which Aristotle (Jthet,iii. 2)
426
 ON STYLE, 1v. 202-905

inland city Stratus, discharges itself into the sea,”

We ought to break off at once and give the hearer
a pause thus: “ For the Achelous flows from Mount
Pindus, and discharges itself into the sea.” This is
far clearer than the other. It is with sentences as
with reads. Some roads have many resting-places
and many signposts; and the signposts may be
compared to guides. But a dreary ? road with never
a signpost seems hard to track, however short it
may be.
These are a few remarks, svhere much could be
said, on the subject of cleamness. Clearness must be
practised most of all in the plain style. À
Long members must be particularly avoided in
composition é of this type, Length always tends to
elevation. Thus, among metres, the hexameter is
called “ heroie ” owing to its amplitude which fits it
for heroes*; the New Comedy, on the other hand,
is confined within the trimeter.
Accordingly we shall for the most pari employ
tximeter members and sometimes plwases, as when
Plato says, “ 1 went down yesterday to the Peiraeus
together with Glaucon,”* Here the resis and
cadences come close together. So with a sentence
of Aeschines: “ We sat upon the benches in the
places first in his definition of diction. The plain siyle
should, ex revanche, seek and ensue a perfect clarity.
4 Via. “ sentence-structure,” here and elsewhere. Writing
may be made obscure not only by terseness, but by long,
rambling sentences (of. Arist. Rhet, ii. 12),
CAs
* Plat. Rep. à. 1 initt Demetrius seems to suggest that
the reader will pause slightly after x0és, Iepê, and
Tiuirwros. The ''three measures” are the free ones of
prose, not the stricter ones of verse.
427
 DEMETRIUS

Bárewr é Avreiw, 08 oi dbhobérar róv apódva

Braridéaow.”
206 "Exérw dé xai éBpav doar rr Kúlmv TA
Téd sai Bdow, s TÃ eipmuéva ai yâp Kar TA
relevraia êxrdoers gnepadompereis, os Tá Oov-
nvdidov, “"Axelgos moragos péwv éx Ilivõou
ôpovs " Kai TA Eéiis.
gut Deveréov oby2 Kai rãs róva paxpóva orotpela
p
ouumimées é» TO xaparrips roúrem noi tó Bim
dOdyywr ôyrnpôr yãp mãoa Erracis. al eb mou
207. Bpaxéa oryrpovoréor | Bpaxéow, às “ mávra uêr
Ta véa Kalá doruv,” 7) Bpaxéa parpois, às “ajé-
Aos," à dus yé mws Bá Boayéwr: nal SAwms
cudalvera! ebxaradpóvmros O Totoiros Tpómos Tijs
3 A ú pe Y Eq e Pp X 4

Aéiews ral iduvriKós, Kd” adrd! radra memoum-

gévos.
208 Devyéro O) Kal rã onuecvôn oxúpuara: mp
vap vô mapdonnov doúmles ral ob idurucór,
rir dé evdoyerav Kai Tô milavôv pádioTa O xapa-
e Y
rrip obros embéberar epi evapyeias oUv nai
mepi mibavórgros Aekréor.
209 Ilpódrov dé sepi evapyeias: yiverar &º 1 évápyera
Em + “a ! FA rr SA

mpódra uév CE drpibodoyias xai To mwapadeimem

under uno”
Sé
exréuver, olov
8” 2
Cds 8º or” drmp
L 1.8. kd LARA EA

ôxernyôs ” «ai mãos abrn 9 mapafoh) TO vap

evapyés Exer êx TO) mávra elpiodar tô auu-
Batvorra, ral um mapaledeipla: pmdév.
f E)

* dédios Victorius: jMos P.

2 duos Finckh: &AMas P.
à Bpuxéws P, 4 êupuivera, Victorius: capalvecfa P.
E val avr Ps rám' airá dedi (cf. 8 279),
428
 ON STYLE, Iv. 205-209

Lyceum, where the stewards of the games order

the contests.” à
In the plain style the members should end with
precision, and rest on a sure foundation, as in the
examples just quoted. Prolonged endings belong
rather to the elevated style, as in the words oí
Thucydides: “the river Achelous fowing from
Mount Pindus,” ete.!
In this style we must also shun the concurrence of
long vowcl-sounds and of diphthongs, since lengthen-
ing invariably suggests elaboration. If concurrence
be admitted, let it be of short letters with short (as
in Crdrra pêv vê vê cado dor O; or of short
with long (as in “ the orb of day: úédios"); or of
short vowels in some shape or form. In general,
this variety of style has an unimpressive and every-
day effect, being in fact fashioned with that very
end in view.
Peculiar figures should also be avoided, since all
eccentricity is unfamiliar and extraordinary. As,
however, the plain style will welcome vivid repre-
sentation and persuasiveness in an especial degree,
we must next speak of these two qualities,
We shall treat first of vividness, which arises from
an exact narration overlooking no detail and eutting
out nothing. An instance is the Homerie símile
which begins “ As when a man draws off water by
a runnel,” 4 The comparison owes its vividness to
the fact that all the things that happen are men-
tioned and nothing is omitted,
s Aeschines Socr. Fragm,
+ CF. 85 45, 209. e Cf. 870.
* Hom. 1l. xxi. 257, with the five following lines. A qell-
chosen illustration.
p 429
 DEMETRIUS

gm Kai ) immodponuia dé 1) émi Ilarpórw, êv ais

Aéyei,
avo S Eúuijhoo perábpevor,
nai
aiei vêp Sipbpov! êmbjoouévorom ler.
mávra vaira evepyi) caru éx TOU undév mapa-
Acdcipõos vódy TE cuuBarvóvror roi cuuBdyroy,
em “Lore moAddris Kal m Soyia evápyeav mrotei
uãMov, ) vô draé Aéyem, momep TO “ad &
aúrdv Kai Códura EXeyes mais, tai vôv drobavóvra
vpápers raxóis” Bis yêp neiuevov Tô “ xaxDs”
evapyeorépar onpuatves vv BAacpnuiav.
212 “Ogep dé TA RKencia éyxadodorm cs ddoÃeoxo-
rép Ok vàs Orhoyias, moMÃaxi juv iows éy-
rahodom GpDOs, molhaxi dé ox atobdvorra tis
cvapyelas ToOb dvôpos' riderar ydp Taúrô Bd Tó
moMAdeis motiv Eubaomwy miciova,
a13 Oia rã rode, “ Erpuayyaiós! ves, drhp Midos,
yuraina Baxido raraBaldv dmô rod immou ud-
xovras vdp d%) ob yuvalnes cv Edeas domrep ai
*Amalóves: Beacágeros d) mijv Bexido eumpemi)
nai cópalav pebijner dmocwlecda. erã dé Tobro
omovôdy yevonévoy, êpaobeis tis yuvaicos dm-
eriyyaver EdédO TO ev air dmoxaprepelv ypáger
2 Siópov Homerus: Glbpw P.
2 Erpuayyaios Pinckh: orpudyhos P.

* Hom. dl. xxiii, 879:

ciel yãp Oldpov empnconévoroi dixrar,
mvorg & Ebuihoo perápoeor elpér º dum
Gépuer'* ém aúriá Yãp reçaxis Karadévre merécõn,
» Cf. 828.
* Ctesias, the historian of Persia and contemporary of
430
 ON STYLE, 1. 210-213

Another example is the horse-race in honour of

Patroclus, as described by Homer :
For ever they seemcd as though they would mount the
charint-foor
Of Eumelus, and hot on his back did the breath of their
nostrils pour,
And his shoulders broad, for their heads overhung him as
onyard they few.
The entire description is vivid owing to the fact that
no detail which usually occurs and then ocemred is
omitted,
From this it follows that repetition often gives the
effect of vividness more than a single statement;
as “You axe the man who, when he was alive,
spoke to his discredit, and now that he is dead write
to his discredit.” * The repeated use of the words
“to his discredit” adds to the vividness of the
invective.
The charge of garrulity often brought against
Ctesias * on the ground of his repetitions can perhaps
in many passages be established, but in many
instances it is his cxities who fail to appreciate the
writer's vividness. The same word is repeated
because this often makes a greater impression.
Here is an example: “ Stryangaeus, a Median
man, having unhorsed a Sacian woman (for the
women of the Sacae join in batile like Amazons),
was struck with the youth and beauty of the Sacian
and allowed her to escape. Afterwards, when peace
was declared, he became enamoured of her and
failed in his suit. He resolved to starve himself to
Xenophon, was by profession a doctor of medicine, Like
Hippocrates himself, he had, as & writer, been little influenced
by the rhetoric of the schools. But, as $ 216 shows, he knew
the heart'g still rhetorie,
481
 DEMPTRIUS

dé mpórepor êmoroMp TH yuvami peubógevos

roidvde: “Eya uêv cê éomoa, nai cd uév O eué
eocibns: eva dé did é dawAdunr.”
em “Evraiia emminjoee dy tows TIS Bpayv-
Aóyos oióuevos elvai, Ort Blig Erélm mpôs oudér Tó
“éomea” nai “BS êuê dodbnc” rabrôv yãp
onuaive. dupórepa. daN
EM 3 E4
ei dágédos Pdrepor,
3 >» 3 3 Ey /

. Ourapopúcers «ai vm) évápyeav Kai vô éx vis

evapyelas máfos. mai TO embepónevor dé, TO
“ dmwAdunr” dyri rod “ dmóAAvuar,” êvapyé-
oTepor abri TÃj cuvredeia Cori: vô yap Om yeyovôs
derrórepor rod uéMhovros 7) yiropuévov ÉrL.
215 Koi ôdws dé O momris odros (mom ydp
aúrêv rohoim tis eixórius) evapyeias ônurovpyós
dor» é Tfj vpebi ovumdon.
26 Olov xai év rois rowiode: dei TA yevógeva! odx
edbds Adyemm, Ori eyévero, GAS rara jurpóv,
apeuvólvra Tor drpoarijy Kal dvayrálovra aum
oywrôr. obra à Krnolas év rj) dyyedia TH mepi
Kúpou rebrediros sort. ev vãp O dyyedos
oúx eúbdo Aéyer óri dmébaver Kúpos mopá miy
Iopvodrw tobro ydp | Aeyoném do Buu-
Odd» pois dorim MA mpódtor pév dyyetdev, Ort
Mov vicã, 1 dé 00 «ai dyowviager gera | dE TOdrTO
1 yerôueva edd.: ywógeva P,

5 Ctesias, Fragnum. 20, 21 (Ciesias Persica, ed. d, Gilmore).

* In modern times the words olrws uúdos cowbm ral obx
âmihero at the end of Plato's Republic (621 £) have been
rendeved “in this way the myth was preserved,” rather
than “was preserved and did not perish Dr, Postgate
(Translation and Translations, p. 24) rightlg holds that
the Kalicized words should in some form be retained; he
482
 ON STYLE, tv. 2123-216

death. But first he wrote a letter upbraiding the

woman thus: “LI saved you, ay, you were saved
through me; and now 1 have perished throngh
ou, Pa
, Here a critico who prided himself on his brevity
anight say that there is a useless repetition in “IT
saved you “ and “ you were saved through me,” the
two statements conveying the same idea? Butifyou
take away one of the two, you will also take away
the vividness and the emotional effect of vividness.
Furthermore, the expression which follows (“ I have
perished ” in place of “ I perish ") is more vivid just
because the past tense is used. There is something
more striking in the suggestion that all is over, than
in the intimation that it is about to happen or is
still happening.
Altogether this poet (for a poet Ctesias may well
be called) is an artist in vividness throughout his
writings.
An example may be added here. When a mis-
fortune has happened, we should not state the fact
at once, but unfold it gradually, thus keeping the
reader in suspense and forcing him to share our
distress. This is what Ctesias does when the tidings
come of Cyrus'sº death. The messenger, out of
consideration for Parysatis,? does not immediately
on his arrival announce that Cyrus is dead, for sueh
a proceeding would be (to nse the common expres-
sion) a brutal one, First ofall he reports the victory
of Cyrus. Parysatis is all joy and excitement. Then
suggests “ras saved from perishing.” Vividness must not
be sacrificed to brevity, important as that is. '
* Cyrus the Tounger, who fellat tic battle of Cunaxa in
401 2.6. as described by Xenophon in tlie inabasis, à. 8).
4 The Persian Queen-mother.
458
 DEMETRIUS

êpurã, Baaeds de ms mpirrer; O dé mépevyé

3 El 1 1 Fal Lg ly A Ly E)

mor noi 7 ómodaBodca Trocaçpéorms vãp abra

roúrmwv altos: Kai máMv êmavepwra RKôpos de
mod vôv; O dé dyyedos dueiBerar Evla xpi TOdS
dyadods drôpas adMiteoba. cará qucpôr «ai
rorô Bpoxd polir uólis, Tô O Acyópgeror,
dméppnéer abró, pdÃa qlucds Kai evapys Tóv TE
dyyedov Eupiras dxovolws dyyeloivra Tjv oup-
gopdv, Koi tjv uurépo eis dywviar êuBaloy mai
rôv diodorra,
.
em Piero dé Kai dx rob tá waperógeva rois
EA 1 + 2 ss y 4 a

mpáyuao. Aéyemy evápyeia, olov «os Emi Tod dypoi-

xov BaBilovros Eby vis, Ore “ mpdcwber frovoro
adro Tódv modbv O erúos mpomórros,” as oddé
Pabitovras, MA” oiór ye Aaxritovros THv gi.
2 3 * EA + A End

ais “Omep dé 6 IAdrav dmoiv émi rod Ermoxpá-

tous, “ Envbpidoas [%ôn Tjj vurri], jon ydp dar
1 dy rj vuxri seclusit Schneider.

a Artaxerxes Mnemon, king of Persia and elder brother

of Cyrus. Xenophon tells us that, in the battle, Cyrus
rushed upon the king, crying “1 see the man,” and struck
him on the breast, wouúnding hiro tbrovgh his corselet, “as
Ctesias the physician says, who claims to have healed, the
sound himself,”
- » Cf Ring David'e renented inquivy “ Is the young man
Absalom safe?" in lhe Second Book of Samuel, xviil, 29,
82, when Ahimaaz and Cushi break the news of Absalorm's
death. In the same passage there is a heantiful example of
what Demetrius would call Shoyio: “ And the king was
much moved, asd went up to the chamber over the gate,
and wept: and as he went, thus he said, O my son Absalom,
my son, my son Absalom! Would God I had died for thee,
Absalom, my son, my son!”
* Lit, “ where brave (good) men should bivouae.” In
434
 ON STYLE, rv. 2106-218

she asks, “And the king--how faves he?” e The

reply is, “ He is fed.” She rejoins: “ Yes, this be
owes to Tissaphernes.” And she asks further, “ But
Cyrus--where is he now?”? The messenger
rejoins, “In the bivouac of the brave.”e Thus
warily does Ctesias advance little by little, step by
step, ul at last he “ breaks the news,” as the phrase
goes, and indicates, very naturally and vividly, the
messenger's reluctance to announce the calamity,
while he himself causes the reader to join in the
mothers grief.?
Vividness may also be produced by mentioning
the accompanying cireumstances of any action, K
was, for instance, once said of a countryman's walk
that “ the noise of his feet had been heard from afar
as he approached,”* the suggestion being that he
was not walking at all, but stamping the ground, so
to say
Plato also has an example when he is describing
the youth Hippocrates: “ Fe was blushing, for the
America and Europe we cannot but recall, after a world-
wide war, the concluding line in Theodore O'Hara's «yell-
known quatrain :
“ On Fame's eternal camping-gronnd
Their silent tents are spread,
And Glory guards with solemn round
The bivouac of the dead.”
“ Ctesias, Vragm. 36 (ed. Gilmore),
* Ser, Inc.
* A still more vivid description of noise (made not by
two feet, but by many hungry mouths) is to be found in
Temnyson's desopten of the meal taken by the lusty
spearmen of Farl Doorm: “ And none spake
word, but all suit « , once, | And ate with tumult in the
naked hall, 4 Feeding like horses when you hear them feed ”
(Geraint and inid),
485
 DEMETRIUS

Edqrév, rt ipépas, dore " saragavij abro» vevécdar, *

ómu gév evapyéoraróv dori, mavri ôjhov* à >
evdpyeia yépover éx tijs bpovridos ris ireph Tor
Aóyov Kat rod dmopmpovedoa, ôre vUkTimp após
adrov elojAdeu ó Inmonpdrys.
S19 Kaxodwvia Bê molAdeis, ws 70 “xdrr, ém 5
exrépados,” wa “amoAã 5” dvavra, ráravra"+
gequiptapras vãp Tf nascogavig, rir dvupgoltar
mãca de ipnots evapyés Tu | Xe
220 Kai rã memompéve de dvógara eripyerar motet
dà Tô Karã piunoiw efevnvéxior, bonep TO “ Ade
wrovres el dé “mivovres” elmev, obr” Emneiro
mivorTas Tods Kúvas, gire evápyera dv tes éxivero.
Kal 76 pAdoonor "* dé TO Adarrovres mpookei-
guevor Em evapyéorepov srouei, rôv Adyov. Kai srepi
Evapyeias uev “is é rómm eimeiy rocadra,
22 To mubavôv Se é» Buoiy, Ev ve TO cospei nai
curíber tó yãp dcapés eau dcórmbes dribavor
Agi te odv od rir aeprrriy odde Úmépoyrov Biw-
? gore Plat.: eis vó P (sed Gore vecte 8 225).

“ Plat. Protag. 812 a. Three things are here made clear

in a single short sentence: (1) he was blushing: (2) day
was dawning: (23) he was detected.
à Tom. Odyss, ix. 280:
cdr 68 dvw néphas bs ve cubkaxas mori yaiy
Kómr! de 5º eyrágpaios xandôs pec, dele dê yalar.
“ Hom. Il. xxii 116:
moNhã dº drorra Kárarra imápavra ve dóxpuid rº PADon,
id Asi in “ Proputty, proputiy. proputty—-canter an canter
awaãy ” Tennyson) ; “IT galloped, Direk galloped, we
galloped all three ” (Browning).
486
 ON STYLE, Iv. 218-221

first glimmer of dawn now came to betray him."

The extreme vividness of this description is clear to
everybody. It is the result of the care shown in
the story, and of keeping in mind that it was night
when Hippocrates visited Socrates.
Cacophony (harshness of sound) is often vivid, as
in the lines :
And together laid hold on twain, and dashed them against
the ground
Like whelps: down gushed the brain, and bespattered the
rock-Aoor round.”
Or,
And upward and downward and thwartward and slantward
they tramped evermore.º
Homer intends the cacophony to suggest the broken
ground, all imitation having an element of vividness.!
Onomatopoeic words produce a vivid effect, be-
cause their formation is imitative. The participle
“Tapping ” is an instance in point.” If Homer had
said “ drinking,” he would not have imitated the
sound of dogs drinking, nor would there have been
any vividness, The word “tongues” (yAdewyr)
added to the word “lapping ” makes the narrative
still more vivid. —But on the subject of vividness this
outline sketch must suflice.
The power of convincing depends on two things,
lueidity and naturalmess. In other words, what is
not lucid nor natural is not convincing Accordingly
exuberant and inflated language must not be sought
* Hom. Jl xvi. 161;
Adporres yAdoenow dpefoi péxar Údtups
Cr 8 9d,
PQ 437
 DEMETRIUS

nréov év Th mbavórgri, nat doadros olveow

BeBmoicar wai under Exovcar pubuosidés.
222 "Ev toúrors TE obv TO milavóv, Kai dv & Qeó-
gpacrós dmow, êri od mdvra ér' dxpiBeios det
naxpyyopeiv, dAM" Eva Karadireir Koi TD depoarij
ouviévas, nai Aoyibeobar EÉ aúrod: cuveis yãp TO
éMerplêv úrô cod obx dxpoaris jóvor, GAG. Kai
3 4 4 A Ee] > E) ! t > A o

pdprus Gov yiveras, Kai ua elperéorepos. ou-

verós vap éaur Boxei Bia ce róv dpopuijy mape-
cxnróra avr rod ouviévar, TÔ dé márra «ds dvoirm
Aéyeur Karayiydorovri Eorxev TOU drpoarod.
223 "Emei Ô€ nai O emortolixôs xyaparrip Beiras
loyvórnros, Kai epi aúrod Aéfopev. “Apréumy
mev oôv O rãs "Aprotorédous draypáiias emiorolds
mom, Om Sei é TO abr rpómp Sidhoydv re
vpúger mai émorolás: eira yáp tir EmaroMjp
oiov TÔ Erepor pépos Tod Stalóyov.
o2a Hai Adyer uér TU iows, OU pijy mar dei vão
1 4 Z EA k 4 e E A

imornrecrevdodar mws uãMÃov vob Siadóyov Tip

emorokjr O uér vdp meira: ubrooyeduilovra,
q dé ypáperas Kai por mépumeros Tpómor rivá.
25 Tis yodv obrws dv Sulexbeim? mpoós pior,
à Fort. Srfninv oboar: sed cf. $ 58 mapéxree, — Rader-
macher conferi Ilippocr. Epidem. 1 2, p. 181, 16 Kúhlew,,
émei xob rois evdoragriis Exavor moNhaicw cRefalwre róre,
2 Bakexdeiy Schneider: dkexdr P.
a Cf Axist. Ahet. ill. 2 O del Aarldreiw muoivras, nal
H% Bonciv Aévyeir memAmemérios GAMA megpurórs” vobro Yap
miburim, êxeivo dê rodvarteór, “a writer must disguise his
art and give the impression of speaking naturally and not
artificially. Naturalness is persuasive, artificiality is the
contrary ; for our heareirs are prejudiced and think we have
some design against them, as if we were mixing' their wines
for them ” (ir, Roberts),
488
 ON STYLE, rv. 221-225

after in a style meant to carry conviction.? The

composition, likewise, in such a style, must be steady-
going and void of formal rhythm.
These, then, are the main essentials of persuasive-
ness; to which may be added that indicated by
Theophrastus when he says that not all possible
points should be punctiiously and tediously elabor-
ated, but some should be left to the comprehension
and inference of the hearer,” who when he perceives
what you have left unsaid becomes not only your
heaver but your witness, and a very friendly witness
too. Tor he thinks himself intelligent because you
have afforded him the means of showing his intelli-
gence, It seems like a slur on your hearer to tell
him everything as though he were a simpleton.,
We will next treat of the epistolary style, since it
too should be plain. Artemon, the editor of Aris-
totle's Letters, says that a letter ought to be written
in the same manner as a dislogue,? a letter being
regarded by him as one of the two sides of a dislogue.
There is perhaps some truth in what he says, but
not the whole truth. The letter should be a title
more studied than the dialogue, since the latter
reproduces an extemporary utterance, while the
former is commifted to writing and is (im a way) sent
as a gift. .
Who (one may ask) would, in conversation with a
friend, so express himself as does Aristotle yrhen

“ Theophrastus, Ilepl News, ed. Mayer, pp. 169, 170,

º Date uncertain: possibly as late as 190 po. Or even
later. For his identification see Panly-Wissowa, Beal-Pnc.
d. class, AB ii. p. LddT.
3 So Goethe (in Wakrheit und Dichtung) describes letters
as “ ideelle Dinloge.”
439
 DEMETRIUS
«
Domep 6.o 'Aprorrorédys, mpôsVOA! Catoú
"Avrimarpor úmêp
duyddos ypagpwv To8 yépovrós bycw “ei dé após
es r. dmácas olxera | vãs Guys ovóros, dere qui)
4 A
Karáyei, ôgÃov cdse Toloye?
A sos
eis “Aidov rareldeiva
Bovionévors obúdeis plóros"” O yãp obras Bia-
4 A 1 + 3, 8 Ny 4

Aeyógevos EmiBeucrupuévep Eoucer pSAÃor, o) AaÃodpr.

226 Kai Aúoes auyvail' ómola + ** od mpérovow
Exiorodais: doudes vãp év vpabi À Avois, Kai TÓ
E KA o

tuuntindv ob ypadis obrws oixelov, ds dyódros,

olov os é TO Edbvômua Cris dy, À Eixpares,
& yes dv Avreiw Siedéyou; 7) modds Úuas” SyÃos
meéprerorjrer”” «ab jutKpôv mpocddv Empéper,
4
GAS por Éévos Tg falverar elvar, É Buekéyou
> L Ed EM EN Lj

ris du; q vãp torwbrm mãos éEpumveia nal ql-

z 1+ e A Cod

unos Vroxpirf mpéro: Gov, od ypabopéves

êmorodais.
227 Nacioror de éxéro vÔ linôv À êmorod,
Domep nai O drddoyos: oxedor yãp eixóva Exgoros
ris éavrod fuyis ypáger rjv êmoroMjr. «ai dor
pév xai 6 dAÃov Adyov mavrôs" ideiw Tô mlos Tod
' + TAM Aó AM iê A, Ao m

ypdgorros, éÉ oudevos dé oúTws, bs êmioToNis.

228 Tô d uéyedos ouvreordddo vis êmorodis,
1 vãs Valckenaer: vês P,
2 rotoye Ps fort, rois ye rorobrors.
3 guyrai Victorius: loypal P,
4 jacunam statuit Goeller: fort. suppl. «i ro dakóyov vel
al pnropinal,
E duês P, 5 márrus P,

a Aristot. Pragm. 615 (ed. Berol, v. pp. 1581, 1582). The

sense is obscure, and the form semi-metrical, "Aidov ...
óBóros being an iambic trimeter. Does the letier-writer
440
 ON STYLE, rv. 2295-298

writing to Antipater on the subject of the aged

exile? “ If he is doomed to wander to the utter-
most parts of the earth, an exile hopeless of recall,
it is elear that we cannot blame men (like him) who
wish to return home-—to Hades.” « A man who
conversed in that fashion would seem not to be talking
but to be making an oratorical display.
Frequent breaks in a sentence such as ... are
not appropriate in letters. Such breaks cause
obsenrity in writing, and the gift of imitating con-
versation is less appropriate to writing than to a
speech in debate. Consider the opening of the
Euthydemus : “ Who was it, Socrates, with whom you
were conversing yesterday in the Lyceum ? Quite
a large crowd was surrounding your pariy."? And
a little farther on Plato adds:; “ Nay, he seems to
me to be some stranger, the man with whom you
were conversing. Who was he, pray? Ҽ Al such
imitative style better suits an actor ; it does not suit
written letters.
The letter, like the dialogue, should abound in
glimpses of character, It may be said that every-
body reveals his own soul in his letters.* In every
other form of composition it is possible to discern the
writer's character, but in none so clearly as im the
epistolary.
The length of a letter, no less than its style, must

(Aristotle or another) mean that for an exile, aged and hope-

less, death is the only home to long for?
* Plat, Huthyd. 2 a.
e Plat, Huthyd. 271 a (with some slight verbal dis-
erepancies in the Greek), .
& Of. Buffon's famous saying about style in general:
* (les choses sunt hors de Vhommes le séyie est Phomme
miênos
441
 DEMETRIUS
É 1. f e 1» , N
dorep ral | Acéis. ai dé dyav papal, mai
mpocéri xará rijv épumvelosr dyrmdéorTepas, od ud
rmv dAjleror êmaroÃaL yévowro dv, da ovy-
ypáuuaTa, TO xaipeir êxorra mpocyeypanpévor;
Z
rabdaep vobA IAúrevos
4
tora? 2 Kai + 1e Oovuvaidou.
4

229 Rai 717) cuvrdões uévror Aedicdo pao ye-

Aoiov yáp meprodevdeir, comep ovx extorodijy, AA
diem vpápovra «al oude yeXotou móror, dAX
4 : ae y
oude qulLcov (7ó vip O) rarã rir mapouiar “rã
oúxa coxa” Aeyópevov) émorodais radra éme-
qudever.
oo Eidévor dé xp, Ort ox epuveia póvor, dAMA
Kai mpdygará tiva êmorolixá dorm. "Apioro-
tédns yodv às uálioTa emirereuyévar doxei roi
[adrod!] emoroAcod, “ rodro dé ob ypádw oob,"
noir “ ob váp ju êmoroAnór,”
2 Ei ydp TIS év EmoroAf copiouara ypápo: ral
a EA E a Em , 4 1

qfuorodoyias, ypdgper uév, od uy êmorokiy ypd-

per. rhodpórmois ydp res Boúferar elvar 7 éiru-
oToMM) aúvrogos, Kai repi dirÃoS mpiyparos êrbecis
xii ép Svógaci dmhois.
252 Kdhos uévror abrijs ai te dhixal drÃodpo-
vúcEs Kai muxval apoia. évolcar Kai roiro
vão uóvor êvéorw abri copór, dióri Omporexóv
ré éoriy À) apoia nai rowór, é dé yropoÃoydo
* Port. mpoyeypannévor,
2 ro) MAdramos mokhai Pinckh: vá Ikáruvos moiká P.
3 às Bpengel: Os P.
4 Secludendum, ut videtur, ebrof,
a Of. Abbott and Seeley, English Lessone for English
People, p. 124 n. 1: “ Burke's Aafcetions on the Revolution
in France, though written in * a letter intended to have been
sent to a gentleman in Paris, have nothing but the * dear
44%
 ON STYLE, rv. 2282-932

be kept within due bounds. Those that are too

long, and further are rather stilted in expression,
ave not in sober truth letters but treatises with the
heading “ My dear So-and-So.” à This is true of
many of Plato's, and of that of Thucydides.»
There should be a certain degree of freedom in
the structure of a letter. It is absurd to build up
periods, as if you were writing not a letter but a
speech for the law courts. And such laboured letter-
writing is not merely absurd ; it does not even obey
the laws of friendship, which demand that we should
“ call a spade a spade,” as the proverb has it.
We must also remember that there are epistolary
topics, as well as an epistolary style. Aristotle, who
is thought to have been exceptionally successful in
attaining the epistolary manner, says: “I have not
written to you on this subject, since it was not fitted
for a letter,” é
J£ anybody should write of logical subtleties or
questions of natural history in a letter, he writes
indeed, but not a letter, A letter is designed to he
the heart's good wishes in brief; it is the exposition
of a simple subject in simple terms.
Ornament, however, it may have in the shape of
friendly bits of Kindly advice, mixed With a good
few proverbs. This last is the only philosophy
admissíble in it-—-the proverb being the wisdom of
a people, the wisdom of the world. But the man
who utters sententious maxims and exhortations
sir at the beginning in common with the style of a letter,”
“Phe vyhole history of the “ epistle,” as a Hterary genre, is
full of interest and invites investigation.
* Possibly ihe leiter of Nicias in Thucyd. vii, 11-15, nol-
vithstacding bhe absence of yaipem.
« Aristol. Fragm, 620 (cd. Berol,).
448
 DEMETRIUS

nal mporpemóueros od O émiaroAms Eri dador

3 , 3 ss Aa x me

Comer, GAMA unyariss

233 "Aprororédns uévior Kai dmodeifeoi mou xpijras
» EA Z Y 3 L + a

EmioToAucis, olov diddéo. Bovlóperos, óri duolws

xpm) edepyereir TAS peyddas sróÃeis Kai rês pecpás,
moiv, “ob ydp BDeoi é» dugorépars ioor, dor
érei ai xáprres feai, loar dmorelcovrai co. map”
duorépms. nal yap 70 dmodenainevor air
êmicToAixor Kai 1 úsródeiéis abri.
em “Emei dé nai móleoiy more Kai Bacikcioi ypá-
5 Y t y 4 Ff N Ea) 2

pouev, Eorwoav rosaira [ai”] êmorohal puspóv

cEmpuévar mos. oroxacréor yap ab Tod ampo-
ccmnov À ypáagera: cénpuévmm uévror [ral] odx
core ovyypaugo eloa dvr” Esvarodiis, Domep ai
prororédous impôs
“A
"AAéfarôpov, ral impôs Tods
EM À “AM 2 8 v 1 A

Atwvos oixelovs q HAdrwvos.

235 Kalóhov dé ueixõo À) emoroA) rarã rip
Eq 1 IA £ 4 s A 4

êpunvelos ex ôvolv yaparripomw toúror, Tod Te

xapievros Kai Tod loyvod. «ab ieph êmaToMis pêv
env rocadro, Kai duo epi tod | xapaxtipos rod
ioyvod.
236 Ilopdrecras de rol TÃO ioxvrd dimuapranévos
xapartip, O Enpôs radoduevos. yivera dé Kal
obros é» rproiv év Biavoia puév, Domep Tis émi
Eéptov êbm, ôrs
o 4 é
“xaréBaver O Hépéns perá
” 4 et 2] e a ! 4

1 daN dd uaxards Cobet (Rubnkenium secutus).

? ai secl. Spengel, & roi del, Goeller.

s Or, “from the pulpit” In the Greek the reference

is to the god who spoke words of warning or rebuke from
the lofty stage-machine, on which a solemn Aóyos mporpemzusôs
was fell to be more appropriate than a homely óuAlm A
Add
 ON STYLE. rr. 232-236

seems to be no longer talking familiarly in a letter

but to be speaking ex enthedra.*
Aristotle, however, sometimes uses actual proofs,
but in the way appropriate to a letter. For instance,
Wishing to show that large towns and small have an
equal claim to be well treated, he says : “ The gods
axe as great in one as in the other; and since the
Graces ? ave gods, they will be held as great a trea-
sure by you in one as in the other.” * The point
he wishes to prove is fitted for a letter, and so is the
proof itself?
Since oeccasionally we write to States or royal
personages, such letters must be composed in a
slightly heightened tone. It is right to have regard
to the person to whom the letter is addressed. The
heightening should not, however, be carried so far
that we have a treatise in place of a letter, as is the
case with those of Aristotle to Alexander and with
that of Plato to Dion's friends.
In general it may be remarked that, ffom the
point of view of expression, the letter should be a
compound of these two styles, the graceful and the
plain. —So much with regard to letter-witing and
the plain style,
Side by side with the plain style is found a defect-
ive counterpart, the so-called “arid ” style. This,
again, has three sources, the first of which is the
thought, as when someone says of Xerxes that “ he
letter must not be a sermon, except in the Horatian sense of
“a talk.” Nor must it be a lecture,
* Playing on two senses of xdpires, “ Graces” and
*“ favours”
º Aristot, Fragm. 809 (ed, Berold.
à The prooí here is not too formal, but has a light and
witty touch, suitable to a leiter, ,
445
 DEMETRIUS

mdvrwr tó cavrod.” judia yáp eunixpuver Tô

mpôyua, àvri rod “ uerá mis “Agtas dardons ”
eisreiy perã mdvrov vor eavros * dicas.
287 Hepi de riy Adéu yiveras rô Enpóv, órarv mpãy-
ua, uéya ouuspois óvéuacry dmayyédo, À olor «os
ô Padapeds* émi vis é» Loop voupoxias dnobr
teu rob Dandpidos ToÔ rupávvou edm ris, “ dera
váp O | Dádapis ijvcixder rois “Arpayavrivors.”
vaugagior vãp rocadrmv ral rupáveey dpórmra
obxl qd “dera” Svógami ode TO e uciyder P
expijo Aépeum, dAR! év peyádos Kai mpérovor TO
úmoxenévo mpbypari
ess “Er de gupbécer
o piveras rô, Empóv, iroL ôrav
uva A Tê KÓpaTA, Somep é», roês “Adopuauois
éxer “a Bios Bpaxós, 7 dé Té papá, O dé
Kompôs ôbis, à O meipa opoepd"” à óror é»
ueyódo mpdypari dmorexoppévos 7) vô KDAov real
8) Elerdem, domep ris “Aproeidou raryyopóv,
óri odx déixero eis vir dv Badauivi vaupaxtar,
nos,” Edm, êdm, Côm n) pêv uér Amar
“dd adróxigros;” Amp.
dABe» Kal ouveravudyei, *Apuorrelêns de od,”
yãp dmoxom) Kai dimpemis Kai dcupos. vols jév
roraúrous dmoxomais & érépois xpnoréor.
239 Hold pévror Tô pêv Otavómiia adro fuypór
1 vô» add, edd, 3 Padapeis edd.: Vednpeds P.

2 Scr, Inc.
» If the reading in the Greek text is right, the reference
will probably be to Theodorus of Gadara, who belongs te
the time of Augusian Rome. Cf Roberis'a larger edition
of the De plocubiona, Pp» 54, 251. Other conjeciures are ;
Vasepeós (“man of Cadiz »y and Palmpeis (i.e. Demetrius
of Phalerum).
446
 ON STYLE, 1v, 2386-239

was coming down to the coast with all his following.” «

He has quite belitiled the event by saying “with
all his following ” im place of “ with the whole of
Asia,”
In diction axidity is found when a writer narrates
a great event in terms as trivial as those applied
by the Gadarene? to the batile of Salamis, And
someone said of the despot Phalaris that “ Phalaris
was in a way a nuisance to the people of Acragas” +
So momentous a sea-fight and so cruel a despot ought
not to have been described by such words as “in
a way” and “ nuisance,” but in impressive terms
appropriate to the subject.
Aridity may also be due to composition. This is
so when the detached clauses are many, as in the
Aphorisms: “ Life is short, art long, opportumity
ficeting, experience deceptive.”: It is so, again,
when, in dealing with an important matter, the
member is broken and not completed, Someone,
for example, when aceusing Aristeides for not being
present at the battle of Salamis, said, “ Why,
Demeter came unbidden and fought on our side;
but Aristeides, no.” é Here the abrmpt ending is
inappropriate and il-timed. Abrupt endings of this
kind should bc reserved tor other cecasions.
Often the thought is in itself frigid, and what we
* Hinpocr. Aphor,; qf.84 supra. Possibly. “experiment
(18) dangerous”
Ser. ne. That Aristeides took part in the actual figiht-
ing al Salaunis is slated by Tlerodotus vii. 95 and Plutareh,
riste. 9; and also by Nepos (dl e. 2), whose words
“prius quam poema »raretur ! can he corrected by
"Abyralwp IoMreia, e. 22. A late paradoxer seems, in defi-
anee of facts aud good prose, to have said.“ In the sea-Aght
at Salamis the Greeks had great alhes; among them was
Demeter. And Aristeides? No, not he.”
bd]
 DEMETRIUS

rÉ éort, mal ws vor dvoudlomer raxôbnÃav, 9

cúrdeois 8” dmroxexonuérm «Koi KAérrovoa Tod
Biavonaros T7v dderav, damep émi rod verpã ri
pura uuxbévros Ebn ris, Ori “od uiyvuras ad
Ti dvbporn"* vô pev vãp Sravónia Kai TupÃO
ôjÃdv qaoi, 7 odvôcois dé cvoradeica Aémrrer pév
mtws Tv dderav Tod mpáyuaros, motel dé Tijy vôv
droga Exovoar Enporaroindiar auyretuévmv ex
dvoiv atdiy, ex jêv tis KaxolmAias dd TO
npâyua, éx dé TOU Énpod Sa tijv cúvbecw,

Ho Kai rã epi rig dewórgros dé dida dv ein

Aotirôv éle Tp mpoepnuéveav, órt Kai adm) yévorr
dv é Tpuoiy, év olomep oi mpê aúris xaparripes
xai vão mpáyuará tiva dé davridy eort decvá, more
Tous Adyorras aúrã dewods doreiv, Kdv um) devós
Adyewoi, rabámep à Qeómoumos rãs év vd Ile
parei aúmrpias rei Tê mopveia Kal ros avÃody-
Tas Kai qdovras Kat dpyovuérove, vara mávra
dead ovógara ôvra! rairos dodevóis eisray dede
doxet.
241 Kará Bé vir odvbeciy é xapaxrmp obros vivo
dv mpóror per ci Kópgaro ExoL avri rolar Tó
vãp uíjxos ExAder Tijv opodpórnra, Tê dé Ev dAiym
A E 3 4 4 4 ] vs 24

mod) eupuvdpevor Bervórepor: mapddemyra tô

1 aê rj dobpdrry coníeio: avri» P (Sort. ab vais drBpimors);
cf. $ 3092.
2 dvópara (dvra supra versum add.) P: óréuara delendum
esse censuit Tyrrell,
448
 ON STYLE, 1v. 230--y, 241

now term “affected,” while the composition is

abruptº and tries to disguise the licence of the
thought. Someone says of a man who embraced his
wife when dead : “ he does not embrace the crcature
again”? The meaniug even a blind man can see,
as the saying goes; but the words are so huddled
together as to hide to some extent the licence of
the thing, and to produce what is now called by the
name of “ tasteless avidity," being made up of two
vices, bad taste in the thought and aridity in the
way the words are put together.

v
We now come to the quality of force. Ti is
clear, from what has already been said, that force
also, like the styles previously described, may have
three sources. Some things ave forcible in them-
selves, so that those who speak about them seem to
be forcible, even if they are not foreible speakers.
Theopompus, for instance, in a certain passage
speaks about the flute-girls in the Peiraeus, the
stews, and the sailors who pipe and sing and dance ;
and through. using all these vigorous words he seems
to be forcible, although he has spoken feebly.”
In respect of composition this type of style requires,
first of all, phrases in place of members.é Length
paralyses intensity, while much meaning conveyed
in a brief form is the more foreible. An example is
a i.4. the word-arrangement is jerky and jaunty: as in
ob uiypureu ab (not obxém ulyryrai), where the thought itself
is a miserable '* Asiatic ” conceit.
* Ser. Inc.
e For Theopompus see 8 75 (with note).
“ Of. notes on 88 1, 9,
440
 DEMETRIUS

Aaredamorior pós Dilummov, “ Atovúcios é»

opivêa
Eopivêw"" el de diérerav adro, , “ Asovócre ér-
meg» ríis, dpxis arexeves é Ropivõ Stacey
ypdunara,” Sujyuua oxedor dv dv pior dyrl
dordoptas.
22 Kdv tots dAÃos dé qúce eBpayuldyour ob
Adrwves: dewórepor yãp Tó Bpaxó nal êm-
TarTUco», TO parprpopeiv De vO iceredeiy mpémes
Kal aireiv.
248
ada r,
Átó «ai tó oúufBodo êxer dewórmras, | óri
6 êum
dep) tais Bpayuhoyics: Kal yáp éx rod Bpaxéws
pobévros úmovojoar rá miciora dei, xabámep éx
ródv cup BóAmr obreos mai Tô “ xanóber oi Térruyes
ôpuly doovrar " Beivórepor dAAnyopiads pndév, 7)
cisrep dmAóds eppnln, “rã dévôpa ipéio êx-
romijoerar”
244 Tas ve uy mepióBous copiyyda judo. de? rará!
tô tédos! 1 vap mepraywy dewóv, 7 de Adois
imkovarepor eo xenaronôeias onpiciov, xabármep
à Gpxaia rãoa cpumveiar dmoixoi yãp oé dpyaior
24 “ore é dervórgyri deúyey dei TO dpyatosiões
Kal Tod ijlous rol 100 pubuoo, Kai narapebyerm
pdliora émi Tijv vir raréxovoar dewórgta. ré
oóv scdAwv ai rotadra amobéceis, “ cduoldynca
robrois, ws dy olós te «O, auvepeir,)” Exovra
pdlora od elonna pubuod.
246 Ilowt dé tiva nal 1 Pia Kará vir cúvlcou
demórgra: dewor yáp molhaxod Kai Tô Suaployyor,
1 varã Victorius: sai P.
ol doxatm Spengcl: dpxator Ps fort. dexatos

1 Cf. EB supre.
450
 ON STYLE, v. 241246

the message of the Lacedaemonians to Philip:

“ Dionysius at Corinth,” Ifthey had expanded the
thought at full length, saying “ Dionysius has been
deposed from his sovereignty and is now a beggarly
schoeclmaster at Corinth,” the result would have
been a hit of navrative rather than a taunt.*
The Lacedaemonians had a natural turn for brevity
of speech under all cireumstances. Brevity is, indeed,
more foreible and peremptory,) while prolixity is
suited for begging and praying.
For this reason symbolic expressions are forcible,
as resembling brief utterances. We are left to infer
the chief of the meaning from a short statement, as
though it were a sort of riddle. Thus the saying
“ your cicalas shall chivp from the ground ” is more
forcible in this figurative form than if the sentence
had simply run “ your trees shall be hewed down,” «
In this style the periods should be brought to a
definite point at the end. The periodic form is
forcible, while looseness of structure is more naive
and betokens an innocent nature. This is true of”
all old-fashioned style, the ancients being distin-
guished by naiveté.
It follows that, in the foreible style, we mmnst avoid
old-fashioned traits both of characier and of riythm,
and regard the forcible style at present im vogue as
our special goal, Now, for the members, cadences
of the following kind, “ I have agreed to advocate
my clients” case to the best of my ability,” “ keep
elosest to the rhythm I have mentioned.
But violence, too, may in composition produce
force. Yes, in many passages words hard to pro-
* Of. brevitos imperatoria, Tac. Hist, 1. 18.
* Of. 88 99, 100 supra. d Of 8510, 20, suga,
451
 DEMETRIUS

domep ai dvcijcÃo: ddot. mapdderyua TO Ango-

cdendr Tó “ úuas vó doivar Úulv éfeirar.”
247 Tá dé dpridera Kai mapónora év Tuis mepiódors
deviréov: ôyxor vãp modo, od derrórura, moh-
Aaxod dé Kal fuxpórgra avi derwóruros, olov «gs
ô Beórounos rarã Tr» éraipwv rr Dilimmou
Aéycwr Exucev Ti duribéce. riu dewvórura, “ dvBpa-
góvo. dé rijy quow ôdvres,” Aéywv, “ drôpomópro
Tôv Tpómor joav”” Tt yap meprocorexria, uaMov
de Kanxorexvia, mpocéxwr à drpoaris ééw yiveraL
Bvpol mavrós.
248 I[loMã pévror dm” cúrdv róv mpayuárer domep
dvayracônoducda ouvôcivor orpoyyúhws Kai Ber
vos, ofov Tô Amuocfemrdv Tó rotobrav, “ darep
yãp ei TIS Ecetvarm él, ou TAS” odx dy Eypahas:
oirus dy có voy dÃOs, dAos od ypder” aúrô
vãp Tô mpêyua xai 7) TáÉis abrod ovpmeporviar
caps coxev ri» cóvbeow, xai ovdê Praoduevos &y
ris Podlws érépuws ouvébmrer adrô. év váp mohhois
updypao ovpribenev, momep oi vás raraBdoeis
Tpéxovres, dm” abrid» EXrópero: Tó mpoyudror.
219 Ilomrexdv Sé Sewórnrós dor; nai Tô êmi réle
tubévas Tô Serórarov: meprhauBavógevov vap ér
gécp dubAvveras, raddmep Tó "Aptiobérovs, “ axe-
* virdd Demosth.: co & P.
2 quureducitar Victorius: crumrequsuia P,
a “Pyrrell (Hermaihona, vol. xii) suggests “ Harshness
often is strikina, like wild, broken scenery.” But, in the
staccato example from Demosthenes, the point seems to lie
in the physical jerks caused by a succession of long sylables
(three of them in disyllabic words) broken by a single short
syllable Go: cf 842. Or the jolting may, in other pass-
ages, be due to a string of short esltublos 1 04.8 48
452
 ON STYLE, v. 2460-249

nounee are forcible, júst as uneven roads are foreible.*

Demosthenes' words are a case in point: “(he has
deprived) you of the bestowal--you of the pre-
rogative,”?
We should avoid antitheses and exact symmetry
of words in the period, since in place of force they
render the style laboured and often frigid. Theo-
pompus, for example, when inveighing against the
intimates of Philip, enfeebled his invective by the
following antithesis: “ men-slayers in nature, they
were men-harlots in life.” c The hearer, having his
attention fixed on this over-done, or rather ili-done,
art completely forgets to be angry,
We shall often find ourselves constrained by the
very nature of the subject matter to construet
sentences which are rounded, indeed, but forcible
too, as in the following passage of Demosthenes :
“ TF any of the former parties had been convicted,
you would not have made this proposal; so if you
are convicted now, no other wii make the proposal
in future.” & “This particular arrangement obviously
grew naturally out of the subject and the order of
words evoked by it. Not even by violent perversion
could a writer easily have framed the sentence other-
wise. There are many topies in handling which we
are swept along by the subject itself, just as though
we were running down a slope.
It also conduces to force to place the most striking
expression at the end. If this be surrounded and
enveloped, its point is bhmted. Let the following
sentence of Antisthenes serve as an example:
* Demosth. Lept. 5 2.
* Theopomp. Fragm. 249 ; cf. 8 27 supra.
* Demosth. dristogr. 994 cf 881 supra.
453
 DEMETRIUS
89
ov yãp douvijoe. dvôpwos Ex Ppupdvor draorás
) do) 2 A 8 3 4 a £ »

>
cé yãp peraouvbeim tis odrws adro, “ oyedov
yãpns er dpvyármr
, , o dvbpwmos ódumnjoes,
draorãs EE
raito: Tabróv eimiv ob raúrór éri voguobjoeras
t

Adyeiy,
250 “H %é dvrideows, iv êmi rob Qeomóumov Eb,
ode év rois Amuoobernois Wpuover, évda qmoiy,
35é 3 ” Cl La ” A

3 Hr 3 A q a Eq EANES a 4 1
erédeis, eye dé eredodunv edidaones, ey dé
epoirov: erprraywrioteis, ey de enebunp CE-
z E) H + 3 A + 3 EA ,

emiumres, Eyd Ôé eodprrrov” raroreypoduri ydp

cotxev ôtá qijy dvramódoow, pãMov dé mailovri,
MA A x , EA e 1 F

odx dyavarrodvri.
zm Ioére dé Ti) dewórmre "roi Tó mepródwv 9)
mukvóTas, Katro, é» Tois Aormois xaparripom odx
émttdeio odoa cuvexós vãp Tibenêm pérpm
cixaobjoera: Aeyonévp epetiis, ral rodro dep
uérpp, Dorep oi ywiaupo.
22 “Aua uévror murval êorwoar ral cúvrojos,
Ay dE Glxwhol Tuves, mei TOL molimmio! ye
obcar KúAÃos pOMov mapégovowm, od desvórnra.
1 ddurijos dedi: ddurjeee P.
3 aurexôs edd,: ourexs P. 3 ye Goellera re P,

º Antisth, Fragm. 67 Múllach, F.PA.G, ii. p. 286. Some

hunted human victim seems to be meant.
* 88 DM, 247,
* Demosth. De cor. 265. Milton knew the De elorutione
(af. the Classical Review, xv. pp. 458, 454). Butits warnings
here did not keep him ftom imitating, in his Spologa for
Braeciymnuua, the bad taste (in sulstance as well as style! of
the criticized passage from Demostiwnes, in which Demo-
sthenes contrasts his own early life with that of Aeschives :
454
 ON STYLE, v. 249252
“ for almost a shock of pain will be caused by a
man starting up out of brushwood.” « If a writer
wert to change the order thus, “ for a man starting
up out of brushwood ill almost canse a shock of
pain,” he will be saying the same thing but will no
longer be believed to be saying the same,
Excessive antithesis, already condemned in the
case of Theopompus, is out of place also in that
well-known passage in which Demosthenes says!
“You were initiating, I was initiated; you taught,
I attended classes; you took minor parts in the
theatre, I was a spectator; you were driven off the
boards, I hissed.Ӽ The elaborate parallelism of
clauses produces the impression of false artífice; of
trifling, rather than of honest indignation.
An uninterrupted series of periods, although in-
appropriate in other styles, is favowrable to force.
Its crowded succession will convey the impression of
line recited after line—foreible lines like tle chol-
iambic.?
These massed periods should, however, be short
(of two members, say), since periods formed of many
members will bring with them ornament rather than
force.
“There, while they acted and overacted, amoug othêr
young scholars, | was & spectator + they thonght them-
selves gallant men, and 1 thought them fools; they made
sport, and 1 laughed ; they mispronounced, and 1 misliked ;
and to make up the atticism, they were out, and 1 hissed,"
For antithesis in general qf. Roberts's edition of De elocu-
tione, pp. 266, 267. Even Burke's celebrated eulogy on
Howard suffers from a superabundanes of contrasted clauses.
& The invention of the choliambie, viz, the “ halting ”
iambie line (with a spondee substituted for an iambus in
the last foot), was attributed to Hipponax : «/ 85 132, 801,
and the synonymous term seazom,
455
 DEMETRIUS

ess Ovro 8 q ovvronia Tr xaparrtipr xpúowor, |

mv. dure Kai drocurica: moMaxoU dewórepor, Kab-
drep ó Anuoobévas: “ dA eye pé, od Boblopa
Sé duoyepês oúder eimeiv, obros dé êx meprovoias
rarnyoper.” oxedov O! crumjoas errada dewó-
Tepos savtos Toô eimóvros dp.
254 Kai vi) rods Beods oyedor [à] Kai À dodpeia
moMaxos dewórns êorit Bemwórepor yãp Tô dro-
voodgevov, TO O” efamAmbev rarobpoveiras.
255 “Eor; 9º ômy Kaxopwvia Jewórgra motel, mal
pádiora, édv vô bmoxeiuevor mpâyua dera adrijs?
cbeamep 7ô Ounpecóv, TO
Tpões 8 eppiyncar, ômws idor aidhov eb
iv peév vãp Kai edpuvorépus
s À A N 2 2
eimóvra odom
2 Eq A
Tô A

pérpoy,
Tpódes 8º eppiyncar, ómws dp aidhov eldov '
dA cbr dy d Aéywr dewos olrws ddoger, olre
é! ôdis adrós.
Ra T 4 cl . f Earl o) ” 1 A
256 oUTW oUv CmoNevOL TO) Tapaderyuar: cab TG
»
éMa mpoceroxasóueda: TA Óuora, olov avril uér
rod “advra dr êvpaper” “ Eypaer dv,* dyri
86 robô “ od mapeyévero ” “ wapeyévero odyi.”
16 Weil: às P, 3 dy secl. edd.
3 Séyra cbrgs Radermacher: déy romórys P.
+ é ante dpi add, Finckh.
E gposoroxactueda Goeller: mpostoxacôneta P,
8 mávra dv Eypoper Eypouper dv edd.: wávro» Eypuper dr P,

2 Demosth, De cor. 8 áhX' êxol pêr-—od fodhoua. dvoxepés

eimeiv oúdév doxômevos TO) Aéyou, vdros O! éx weprovolus gov
saryyopsi. Cf $ 108.
“> Of, the greater example in Longinus, De subl. e. ix,
e 456
 ON STYLE, v. 253-256

Conciseness is so favourable to this style that a

sudgen lapse into silence is often yet more fovcible,
as when Demosthenes says: “ [ could on my part
cera « but I do not desire to say anything ofensive ;
only, my opponent accuses at a great advantage.” a
The orator's reserve is here more effective than any
possible retort could have been? .
And (strange though it may seem) even obseurity
often produces force, since what is distantly hinted
is more forcible, while what is plainly stated is held
cheap.º
Oceasionally cacophony produces vigour, especially
if the subject requires harshness of sound, as in
Homer's line :
Then shuddered the Trojans, beholding the writhing serpent.!

It would have been possible to construct the line

more euphoniously, without violating the metre,?
thus:
Then shuddered the Trojans, the writhing serpent heholding.
But there would then have scemed to be nothing
terrific whether in the speaker or in the serpent itself,
On this model we may venture other similar
experiments, such as the order vávra Eypafer dy
for rávra dv Eypuper, or wapeyévero ouxé for ob trap-
EYEVETO.

às %) vob Alavros dy Nexvlg cru) uéyo nal murros byghórepor

hóyau.
º For Burke's view of the relation between obscurity and
sublimity ef. Roberts's edition of the De subi, p. 32.
“ Lom. F xii. 208.
e Has the writer the digamma in mind when he calls
attention to the fact that the reconstructed line will still
“scan”?
457
 DEMETRIUS
est “AsoAyovres dé moTE Kai eis ouviéouous róv
“Be” dra “ Té no rairou mapuyyéMeras puyeiy
ay âmbito rip rotaúrp" dAÃa moMaxyod xp
crnos torwbrm &r yérorro, olov “odr edpijugoe
gév, dÉiov ôvra, Wrimage d€," q dis Tó “ Bixoivór
re Xicdhóv ve,” GN év uév rois "Oumpicois ué-
yelos éxoimoev | eis rods ouvôéguous Televrm.
e Momoec 3º dy gore tea dewórira, ei tes de
elmo, “ divérpeer” de úmo ris, dbpocúrs TE úrrô
rãs dvefeias re rã iepá ve vô dotd. re "» ôws yãp
% Aerórms Kai Tô ebjroor yiadupórgros ida, od
derórgrós dor, obror 8º oi xaparripes evavrid-
raro: doxodaur.
gs Kairo. éori moMaxod dx madiãs mapauepry-
névmms Sewórns ênpamvonévm ris, otor é» tais
rwppôtos, nab vãs à Rumos rpóros, os TÁ
Epdryros
mp tis pal! ori uécw évi oivom tóbps
200 Kai vô Atyévovs TO é» "Oduumig, Ore Tod
ómdirov dpauóvros emirpéyeor aúrôs exmpurrer
cavróv vicãv qã 'Oldumia advras dvbporrous
rodordyabia. «at vêp yelârar Tô elonuévor ua
roi Buvileros, nal péua Koi Umoddrver meus
Asyópuevov.
* à inserui, 2 doérneder Weil: &v, Eypaper P.
3 rom Victorh: s; ari PD.
D Victorius: yápDP. r ; mwóvrip P.

2 Ser, Inc.; c/. lom. Zl, à. 11, 22.

* Hom. E. ii. 497,
* Or “things samed and profane,” if the Attic use is
followed here. Scr. Ine.
à Asin Pope's lines, “ Where London's column, pointing
458
 ON STYLE, v. 257-260

In this style we shall, also, sometimes end with

the, conjunctions dé or ré, notwithstanding the in-
structions we have received to avoid terminations
of the kind. Such endings are often useful, as in
the words “ He did not applaud him, though he
deserved it; he insulted him, on the contrary
(irinace 86)"; or as in “ Schoenus too, Scolus
too.” In Homer elevation is the result of ending
thus with conjunctions,
Force of style will also mark a sentence of this
kind: “ He turned upside down, in his folly and his
impiety too, things sacred and things holy too.” *
In general, smoothness and a pleasant cadence are
charaeteristic of the elegant, not of the forcible style,
Indeed, these two styles seem to be direct opposites.
In many passages the air of vigour is due to à
dash of fun This is so in comedies; and all the
Cynie manner is of this character. Crates' words are
an instance : .
There Leth a dim land under a lurid smoke-pall smothered.
So with a saying of Diogenes at Olympia, when
(at the conclusion of the race between the men in
armour) he xan up and proceeded to proclaim him-
self victor at the Olympic games over all mankind
“as a perfect gentleman."? This exclamation ex-
cites mingled Irughter and applause, and there is à
tight touch of mordant writ about it too.
at the skies, | Like a tall bully, lifts the head, and Fes ”
(Epistle to Lord Bathwrst).
à Cratetis Fragm. 7 Bergkt; cf, 8 170 n. Crates is
parodying the Homeric lines quoted in $ 118.
* The Greek word is untranslatable and describes the
Greek ideal of a man who not only is but looks a gentleman.
Henee the absurdity of the claim made by the disreputalie-
looking Cynic.
459.
 DEMETRIUS

261 Kai vô (mpôs vôv «ohór pobev adrá mpoo-

maio vãp xa masi Atoyévms BrercurOn mes
7ô aidotor, Tod dé matõôs poBndévros Kai dmomBij-
carros, “ Bdpper, E) mablov- oUx eipui raúTm
êuotos, | yelotor yãp TO mpóxeror to Adyou,
dem) O" 1) nevbonévm Eudaors. «ai dAtos, ouredóvir
dpácar, mãv Tô eldos 700 Kuvicol Aóyov calvorrt
dua êotKé Te ai Sduevovre.
262 Xproovra õ" air eai ob piropés moTE, real
Expjcarto, Avoias quer mpôs róv epódvra rãs ypaós
Aéywv, dr “ds pãov UA pipa Tods SBóvras
7) tous Barrilovs"- Kai váp dewórara du nat
yeorórara erédmver rjv pad “Oumpos dé vô
“Odu éyd múparor Edojtau, tbs mpoyéypamras.
sos “Os 8º Ea seo é exquáreov piyrorro dewórms,
Acgojuev. éx puév obv ródv Ts diavolas cxnpdrev,
éx quév ris rapadeihems Svopalopévms oUrwms"
o "Oduvdou per ei rob MeBcôymy nal “Amro AAesviay
nal ôvo ra mpráxovra módeis Tás émi Opgrns ed” M
ess Ev Yãp Tobrous read ciparev | mávra, doa eBoúlero,
Koi mapadumeir adrd muy, ds Dewórepa elmeiy
Exmv évepa,
EA 4

oca Kal 7 mpospopévm 8 fmooubmnois 700 adrod

YBovs? Exouérm dewórepou monfoes vôv Adyov.
205 Hopolaufiávorro 8” dy exúua Svoias ,mpôs
dewórnra 7º mpocwmomoia radouuérm, olov “ d6-
3 «oi y mpospmadry Finckh: «al meia à elpquérm P.
2 dj6ovs Victorius: éCoys P. % ins, Hammer.

“ Lys. Fragma (cf. S 128 supra).

* Hom. Odyss. ix. 869: ef. $8 180, 152 supra,
* Demosth. Philipp, iii. 26. “ n 8108.
* For the metaphor behind cxjas in this rhetorical sense
460
 ON STYLE, v. 2061-965

So also with his words to the handsome youth,

when wrestling with whom Diogenes unawares
assumed an unscemly position. The lad was
frightened and started back. “ Never fear, my dear
boy,” he exclaimed, “ 1 am not your match in thai
way.” There is wit in the ready reply and point in
the hidden meaning. Anditmay be said in general
that every variety of Cynic speech reminds you of à
dog that is ready to bite even while he fawns.
Orators will always employ, as they always have
employed, this weapon of sarcasm. Witness Lysias
and his remark to an old woman's lover that “st was
easier to count her teeth than her fingers.” ? Hehas
represented the grandam in a most repulsive and
a most ridiculous light. -So, too, Homer with his
already quoted words, “ Noman will I eat last.” »
We shall next show how force cam be secured by
xhetorical figures. It can be secured by figures
conveying the speaker's thought. Take, for instance,
that which is called “ praetermission,” as in “I pass
over Olynthus, Methone, Apollonia, and two-and-
thirty towns in the direction of Thrace” e In these
words the orator has said everything he wished, while
professing to have passed everything over in his
desire to proceed to weighiier matters. :
The figure “ aposiopesis ” already º mentioned,
which partakes of the same characier, will also make
expression more forcible.
Another figure * of thought-—the so-called “ pros-
opopoeia “may be employed to produce energy
of style, as in the words: “ Imagine that your
ef. yuvmxds oxfna (“a woman's shape”) in this section
and the coupling of elêy and oxquara in 8 267. Cf. S67n
+ ** Personification,”
q 461
 DEMETRIUS

fare úuiv vols mpoyórvous dveidilem «ai Aéyem

róde TiVO. 7) rijy “EAAdda 7) TYv marpida, Aafodeav
18 AM 4 em 18 a , LAN A es

bh] mm + +.
VuraLOS CX. Ea

200 j “Qomep p éé TôTO Emiradiw

é Adr vo70 “ “O mail es,
v DAdrwr
órt uév dote marépur apo,” ”
sai ob ex3 Tod A
idiov mpoocmov eye," GAMA ex 700 Tó marépur E) al +

woAd váp êvepyéorepa «ai Bewórepa daivera ômô

a porre, paMov
ródv - dO dpduara dreyvôs
Devia
EA

27 Tá ué elôy vijs Biavoios ral oxíuara dau-

viera N EA 4 v EA

Bávoir” dv, às elpnrair nai yêp rogaira rá elpy- o) 7

péva sapadeiyparos êvera, Tà Dé TIS ÁéÉews cxi-

+ Em

Haro coikirepor êxhéyovra Egor, dervórepor is t

moteiv vôr Aóyor, é Te ris dvabinidoes, ds

Ba. de, OrBa, mólis doruyelresv, êk péons
<€ sf 8 t E) SA, EA t 3 Z

tisa “EMdSos drjpraoras ”- (Bihoygdêv ydposTó

ôvoua dewórnra sravei).
EA Ea

208 Kai éx rijs dvadopãs radovuérms, os 78 “ em

1 x Em >. m EA € Vote aos

cavrôv «adeis, êmi rods vójuous! xaleis, êm rip

En) Es Dal A

ônporpariay radeis” vd dé oxfua Tô elemuévor E 1 4 L

robro rprrhoOv nal yãp êmavapopá eariv, cist

” Ea 3 A

etpyrar, Sid TO Tip abrir AE êmavoépeoda éml E] t 1

tie abrir dpyjr, rol dobvõeror: dixa yáp cur- A

Becjuw» Adhexrar, rui Ouororédevror Bd Tv drró- A 3 EA

Anéim vol “rareis”* golAdres. Ee]

«ai Bemwórms ” L

+ Néye Hammer: Ayer Po

* émi rods vôuous xakeis ex Aesch, Otes. supplevit Victorius.
3 dorir, ds Vietorius: lows P.
* raxeis edd.: raxeicom P.

« Scr. Inc. » Plat. Menex. 246 D,

* des Our language, or our writing (the modern way of
putting it),
462
 ON STYLE, v. 265-268

ancestors, or Hellas, or your native land, assuming

a woman's form, should address such and such
reprôaches to you.” «
Plato uses the figure in his Funeral Oration:
“ Children, that you are sprung from noble sives,
ete.”? He does not speak in his own person, but
in that of their ancestors. The personification makes
the passage much more vehement and forcible, or
rather makes it quite dramatie.
The forms and figures of thought will, therefore,
be employed in the way described; the instances
cited may suífice to serve as a sample. As for the
figures of language, the more ingeniously they are
chosen, the more forcible can discourse * be made.
Take the figure “vedoubling,” as for example:
“'Thebes, Thebes, our neighbour-state, has been
torn from the heart of Greece,” à The repetition of
the proper name has a powerful effect.
The same thing is true of the figure “ anaphora,” *
as in the words: “against yourself you summon
him: against the laws you summon him ; against
the democracy you summon him.”* Here the figure
in question is threcfold. Itis, as has been already
said, an “ epanaphora,”º because of the repetition
of the same word at the commencement of each
clause; an “ asyndeton,” because of the absence of
conjunetions ; and a “ homoeoteleuton,” because of
the recurxing termination “ you summon him,” And
4 Aeschin, Otes, 138,
* “ Repetition”
* For this famous rplxuhor of Aeschines (Ctes. 202) see
Dionys. Halic. De comp. verd. e ix. (pp. 116, 117 of
Roberts's edition).
“ «“ Repetition”: émaraponá is apparentiy identical with
dragpopá three lines above,
408
 DEMETRIUS

HOpoorar êr vá prv, ei Sº clmor tes ourus,

“ém covrór xal rods vógovs nai viv ônpo-
mparriay nadeis,* âua role oxúuacw fais nai
rj” dewórgra.
269 Mdiora dé mávremr loréov rir” SidAvor dewvo-
tros êpydriy, olor “opederar did ris áyopãs
rãs yrábovs Gducbrv, TÃS dppôs emmpros, tou
Paiva Iudonhe"- ei vãp cuvapig raúra cur
décuos, mpgórepa Eorar.
emo AauBávor dv Kai 7 KAuaé ralovuéva, DoTep
Anpooféver rô “odx elmor per radra, od Eypaba
dé" ovo” êypuba uév, odk empécBevos dé: ovô
E LENta EA Ea 2 E) f E as

2 4
êmpéoBevoa juv,F ox4 émerca
% 4
dé Onfaious?” En
aye-
ôó» vãp êmavaBiaivorr. à Adyos Eorxev Emi peslóroy
peitovar ei dé ouTws elmor tus Tadra, “ elmo ya
nai ypéibas êmpéoBevod TE mai Execa OnBaious,
1 Z 3 4 r 1» ? *

Suiygua épei uóvor, demwóv de ovdév.

ei RabóÃov dé rijg Aééews TÃ oxúuara Kai únó-
Kproty Kal dydva mapéxer TO Aéyovri, páÃtoro TO
Siakeduuévou, voir” dort Sewórnta. «ai mepi gêv
O» oxnpárwr dpporépwv Tocadra.
2 gml cavrdy Victorius: exuvror P,
2 ãbmratovs P.

“ Disjunction, disconnected words or clauses, asyndeton.

» Cf. Demosth, Da falsa leg. 814,
* Demosth. De cor. 179, - The sentence is quoted as an
example of «Nua, or gradatio, by Quintilian (be 8. 54) in
the Latin form, * Non enim dixi quidem sed non seripsi,
nec seripsi quidem sed non obii legationem, nec obii quidem
sed non persuasi Thcbanis.” Cf Joeli 4: Pp. to Romans,
x. 14, 1d. In 4s You Like Zt y. ii, there is not only an
illustration, but a playful allusion to the steps oÊ the ladder
(uNiuak): “ Your brother and my sister no sooner met but
404
 ON STYLE, v. 2608-271

force is the cumulative result of the three figures.

Were we to write “ against yourself and the laws and
the femocracy you summon him,” the force would
vanish togelher with the figures.
It should be observed that, above all figures,
abruptness * causes force; as “he walks through
the market-place, puíling out his cheeks, raising his
eyebrows, keeping step with Pythocles,”? Tf the
words be tied together by conjunctions, they will
be tamer.
The figure called “ climax “ may also be employed.
It is exemplified in the following sentence of Demo-
sthenes: “ Tdid not speak thus, and then fail to
move a resolution ; 1 did not move a resolution, and
then fail to act as an envoy; 1 did not aci as an
envoy, and then fail to convince the Thebans.”
This sentence seems to climb ever higher and higher.
If it were rewritten thus, “ having expressed my
views and moved a resolution, E acted as an envoy
and convinced the Thebans,” it would be a mere
recital of events, with nothing forcible about it,
In a word, the figures of speech help the speaker
in delivery and in debate; lending especially the
effect of abrupiness “—in other words, of energy—
With regard to both kinds of figures what has been
said must suffice.

they looked, no sonner looked but they loved, no sooner

loved bul they sigheg, no sooner sighed but they asked one
another the reason, no sooner knew the reason but they
sought the remedy; and in these degrees have they made
a pair of stairs to marriage."
2 A hetter sense would be obtained by placing náMere
à BeakeNcatror before imórpuram, dee. “the figures of speech,
and especially asyndeton (cf. às mponéXexra: in the first
sentence of 8 801), help the speaker,” ete.
485
 DEMETRIUS

g13 Adéis Sé Aanfavécdo mãos, dom xai é TO

peyaÃomperei waporript, wAjv cdr exi Tô gdrô
rédos: Kai yàp perapéporra éort Beivã moteiv, cds
Tô “rg úbwm Opaovronévo Kai moMD péovri
na” Suor”
gia Kal elraoias! Adyovra, «às Tô Anpoolévavs,
“rodro Tô fibra róv vór êmóvra rf móde
nivBuvor mapeAdei» êmoingev, comep vépos.”
a74 Ai mapabodal dé rj Sewórgri ode êmirjderas
dià Tô píjxos, olov Tô “ cdomep Bé rúmv yevvalos,
dmerpos, dmpovoiras émi rámpor déperar”- rdA-
mv. Àos yãp | rat dmpiBeid tes ér Toro eupalvera,
% d€ dewórns odospóv t+ Bodhera, Kai olvronov,
Kai eyyúdev mhirrovorw êoteev.
216 Tíveras dé Kai é ouvbérov dvóparos dervórms,
beomep roi 7 cuvidea ouvribgcw des moAd,
Cardo xaparómpr” vai “rdr mapamkiya ”” xab
ei ti dAo Torodrov: Kai mapá Tois propor dé
moAÃd dv vis eúpor romira.
276 Iepãoda: dé Tà drduara mperóvios Aéyem
rois mpdyuacw, olov émi uév rod Bla Kai mov
oupyia Spácarros “ Seefirdcaro,” émi dé vob Big
ral davepis rol uerã dmovoias “ EEéroper,
ééctÃcu,” Emi dé OD dohiws nai Aabpaidws? “ érpú-
ancer” À “Biépuyer,* q) ei qu rorwiror mpéo-
— opor Trois mpdypacwy ôvona.
em Tó dê efaipeodal mws AaufBavrógevor od uéye-
dos moi uóvor, GAMd Kai demwórura, ds tó pers“od
* el elxágetas P.
à drefidearo edd.: depridaaro P,
8 Anôpuiws Victorius: Adêpa às P.
* Btpryer cdd.: Bitpuyer P.
466
 ON STYLE, v. 2172-277

In the forcible style the same kinds of diction may

always be employed as in the elevated style, but not
with the same end in vicw. By the use of metaphor
force can be gained, as in the words : “ Python was
blustering and rushing upon you in full flood.” «
So, too, by the use of similes, as in Demosthenes'
expression: “ this decree caused the danger which
then threatened the city to pass by even as a
cloud," »
But detailed comparisons do not suit the forcible
style owing to their length; as “ ke as a gallant
hound, ignorant of danger, charges a bear reck-
lessly.” * There isan air of beauty and finish about
this sentence. But the aim of the forcible style is
to be sharp and short like the exchange of blows.
Compound words also lend vigaour, as is seen in
those which usage often forms so forcibly, as “ earth-
ward-hurled,” * “ slant-shelving,” e and the like.
Many similar examples may be found in the orators.
We should endeavour to use picturesque words.
For example, we may say of a man who has acted
violentiy and unserupulously, that “ he has elbowed
his way through”; of one who has used violence
openly and recklessiy, that “ he has hewed his way
through, he has swept aside obstacles ”; of one who
has had recourse to guile and evasion, that “ he has
wormed his way ” or “ slipped through,”--or vrhat-
ever expression is equally appropriate to the subject.
A discreet use of elaborate language produces not
only dignity but vigour of style. For instance; “ It
* Demosth. De cor. 136; cf, 8 BO supra,
* Demosth. De cor, 188.
* Kenoph. Cyrop. i. 4 21; cf 8 B9 supra.
4 4.6, & barlot, * d.e., à madman,
487
 DEMETRIUS

Aéyerr eiom Ria xeipa Exovra, Bei, Aloxtm, SA

mpeofevem eia np cipa, Exovra.”
oms Rai vó “ SAX" d8 rip E UBorar éreivos ogerepr-
lónevos” ob yap Úrép rod uéyar morjoa, Tôv
Adyor À émavdoraats, GAN úmép rod Gewóv. yi-
vera dé rotro êmáv perasu esapbévres! Karmyo-
popér twwos' momep ydp Aloxivou rarmyopia,* TO
de Dikimmou éoriy,
27) Aervôrv dê Kai Tô epuródvra Tods dxoúovras êxia
Adyeur, rot pm dmopavógevor, Cd O rijv Ed-
Borav éxeivos ogerepilógevos Kai raracieudiaor
emreixiona émi Ti, “Artur, morrepor taira
moLdv iôlrer, Kai, Edvev mp cipijrpr, 9 od;"
rabámep yãp is dmo play diyer vô» dxoúorra eé-
eXeyyonéve doróra Koi under daorpivacdar Exovri
ci de de peraBadosr Em ves, “ dixer nai êdve
my ciofrmr,” caps Siddorovr égórcei ral od
eXeyyorrTa.
aso “H dé raÃoupném émpovi) éori pér cppmvela.
Aee Toô mpáyparos, péyrora dé cupBdAor à»
eis dewórgra: rapódenypa de aúris vô Anpo-
obévovs, “ vócmpa váps o dvôpes “Abmvoior, dervoy
eurémrewne eis vv EMdda.” od dy olrws dy
desvór.
1 stupbévres Speugel: etapedévres P.
2 raryyapta EI. Stephanus: xaryyoptas
3 ode post «al ade, Vietorius. & uér mérruney P.

“ Demosth, De falsa leg. 265. As an elegant speaker,

Aeschines should hold out his hand; as an incorruptible
avibassador, he should keep it under his cloak.
º Demesth. De cor. Th. “Lhis is only the beginning of the
sentence. Demetrius quotes it more fully in the next
section.
408
 ON STYLE, v. 277-280

is not, Acschines, that you ought to speak without

holding out your palm, but that you ought to be an
ambBassador without holding out your palm.” é
And similarly: “Nay, he was appropriating-
Euboea ...... “b The object of the rise in tone
is not to make the style dignified, but to make it
foreible. This occurs when in mid-height of our
exaltation we are denouncing some opponent. So,
in these two passages, Aeschines and Philip are
respectively denounced.
in speaking it is sometimes forcible to address
questions to the audience without disclosing one's own
view. For instance: “ Nay, he was appropriating
Euboea and establishing a fortress to command
Attica; and in so doing was he wronging us and
violating the peace, or was he not?” The orator
forces his hearer into a sort of corner, so that he
seems to be brought to task and to have no answer.
If the positive statement “ he was wronging us and
violating the peace” were substituted, the effect
would be that of precise information rather than of
exoss-examination.
The figure called “ epimone,” º which is a mode of
expression going beyond the bare statement of fact,
will contribute very greatly to force of siyle. An
cxample of it may be quoted from Demosthenes ;
“ Men of Athens, a terible disease has fallen upon
Hellas.” * Thus abbreviated, the sentence would
not have been terrible.”
e Ondvwelling, lingering; the slaboratim of an idea,
“The figure of abode ” is Puli m's name for E.
3 Demosth. De julsu ley. 259. In Demosthenes the
sentence runs on: «al xaxerdr nal, arh, Lhe additions
form the epimone.
* ie, less forcible (Jewór),
q2 ' 459
 DEMETRIUS

281 Táxa dé nai O edbmuouos aaoúuevos peréxor

ris Sewórnros, mai 6 TA Svcpnna elpnua moçdr,
Kai sá doebúnara elveBúuara, olov Os é Tás
“Nixas TÃs xpucês xwvedew edevwr Kal rara-
xpicõa vols xpjuaciw eis Tóv mólepov oby obres
elmev mpoxeipws, àri “ xararópwner ràs Núcas eis
Tou módegov”- Svobnuor yáp dv olTms Kai Aotdo-
polvru doLxôs fjv Tás Beds, dAN” edpnuórepov, br
Epi 2 A 2. A [o 4 LAN? KA 1 e

“cuyxpnoóueda vais Níkas eis Tê módepor”:

ou yêp merarórrovt tás Nixas doer obrus
Pndév, AMA cuuudyous uerosroobpri.
282 Aervã dé nai rã Anudôea, rairo, idrov «ai
dromov rpómov éxem Soxoúyra, dor BE abrdy 1
dewórms Ex TE TO êubácemv yrrouém, mai cÉ
dAAmyopecod twos mapalaufavopévov, Kai rpirov
éé úmepBoxijs.
asa Oióv dom vó “ob rédumrer "Adélavôpos, &
dvôpes "Abmraio ley yêp dy À oixoupérm rod
EA > 8 A KA A E) t > Fá Fed

verpod.” Tô uev vãp “ler” duri rod “pobá-

vero” dAMmyopucoy Kai drepfioAndv dna, vô dé
mi” olnovpévmr alobdvecda: Eupavrecdr vis Duvá-
uews ris 'AdefdrBpov, Kai duo dé Ti dlemAnerucor
2ã4 mr Exer O Adyos Meporouévor êx Tv rprdv: | mãoa Bê
ExmAnêis Bewór, ererdm dobepóv. .
LA L - y 4

Toi dé avrod eidous Kai 10 “ dr rodro Tó fnj-

sm A ) Er] 4 1 LENTO Lo) 1 Eq
asa
dra ovx éyo Expo, AN O óleos vó * AXeÉ-
dvôpov dóparr vp,” ral vô “doce ydp 5

“ Demad, Fragmm., Baiter-Samppe, ii. p. 815. The orator

Demades was an Athenian Cobbett, always foreible and
sometimes coarse, À collection of sayings attributed to
470
 ON STYLE, v, 281-284

Some trace of vigour may perhaps be found even

in whatis called “ euphemism,” that kind of language
which makes inauspicious things appear auspicious
and impious acis appear pious. A speaker once
urged that the golden Statues of Victory should be
melted down, so that the procceds might be nsed
to prosecute the war. But he did not say outright,
“ Let us cut up the Victories for the war.” Such a
proposal would have seemed impious and like an
insult to the goddesses, He put it in the more
euphemistic form: “ We will seek the co-operation
of the Victories for the war.” | This expression seems
to suggest not the cutting up of the Victories, but
the conversion of them into allies.
The sayings of Demades, also, though thought to
have a peculiar, even eccentric turn, possess a certain
force, which they owe to innuendo, to the employ-
ment of an allegorical element, and (lastly) to hyper-
bole.
This is an example : “ Alexander is not dead, men
of Athens; or the whole world would have scented
the corpse,” à The use of “scented” in place of
“perceived” is allegurical and hyperbolical alike ;
and the idea of the whole world perceiving it suggests
the might of Alexander. Further, the words convey
a thrilling effect, which is the joint result of the three
causes. And every such sensation is foreible, since
it inspires fear. ,
Of the same Kind are the words: “ It was not I
that wrote this resolution, but the war wrote it with
Alexander's spear” *; and these: “ The might of

hira is probably drawn upon here, but the first extract seems
to be misinterpreted; lis natural sense is “would have
reeked of (Ufw, not drgpalvonm) We corpse"
ATA
 DEMETRIUS

Maredovuer) dúrouis, dmoAmenvia vôr "ARdê.

avôpov, TO KúrAÃcwsmt TerugAcpnéve
285 Kai iMaxod mov, “mów,) od riy émi mpo-
vóver mir vaúpuaxor, dAMA ypabv, cavôddia úro-
dedenérmy read ariadvyy popéscar"* Tô Hév yãp
ypaby dAnyopofiv dvri 799 dobevi) ie ésirÃov
7ôn, nai ipa epupatvov vp àSpavie aóris úrep-
Boducóds- Tô de mrTicdvir pobddoar, exei év Kpearos
páaus Tóre mai mavôascias didyovcar daroAúeu?
Tá orpariurirá xpúpara.
Hepi pév obv ris Anpadeiou Setvórmros ápice
rocuira, rairot Exovons Tt émiapoles Kai our
editor uáda Eveore dp Ti rob mouriedr TÊS
cidet, el ye mosrucor 1)7 Mmyopia read ômepBod
rob eugaots, motnrucou de jurcrór Kepueõias,
287 To de radoúpLevor coxquaronévor é Aóye oi
vôr friropes yeÃoiws motobow Kel jerá, eupácems
dyevvode dua Kai olov dvapumoruis, dAnbwor de
exiná dot Adyou gerã ôvoiy Toúromw Aeyóguevor,
empereias rob dopaleias.
ass Eúmpemeias név, olov cs Idrwr “Aplorirmor
Koi KXeóuBporor Aordopijeas Bekijoas, év Aiyim
ôpogayoivras dedegévou Rwrpárous “Abro éémi
m0Más iuépas, Kai pa dmheioavras” cos mó
éraipor Kai didoxado», mairos cbx óAous da
+ méd Lhaxdy: médioP,
2 drohhiey Victorius: asxondew P. 30P.
* deukócerras vô Erepor, qheu supra hu et a supra e(p)
seriptis, P. ws add, Victorius.

& See preceding note,

* Lit. “a figure (ailitude) assumed in speech”: the
ox Nóou ( “figure ol spuech") of 58 287, 289. Such
478
 ON STYLE, v. 2842-288

Macedon, after losing Alexander, resembles the

Cyelops with his blinded eye.” «
And elsewhere: “ A State, no longer the sea-
warrior of the days of our ancestors, but a lean and
slippered crone supping her paosset,” 4 Fere the
expression “ crone º is used figuratively for a weak
and declining State, whose impotence if indicates in
an exaggerated way. The words “supping her
posseb ” imply ironically that the city was at that
time oceupied with feasts and banquets and was
squandering the war-funds,
Enough has been said with xespect to the Dema-
dean vigour, which indeed has dangers of its own
and is not casily copied. There is in its nature some-
thing poetical, if allegory, hyperbole, and innuendo
arepoetical. Butitis poetry with a dash of burlesque
in it.
Next comes the so-called “ covert allusion.” é
This the orators of cur day employ to a ridiculous
extent, coupling it with low, and (so to say)suggestive,
innvendo. The true “ covert allusion ” depends on
two conditions, good taste and cireumspection.
Good taste is shown in the Phacdo, where Plato
desires to reproach Aristippus and Cleombrotus be-
cause they were feasting at Aegina when Socrates
was Iying for many days imprisoned at Athens, and
did not cross to visit their friend and master, although

“ indirection ” may be used, with due discretion (88 288,

289), in place of the frank straightforwarâness (E eúfeins
epotger, $ 292) which shuns ambiguous turns of language.
The writer, in some of these conclnding sections, reminds
us, without intending it, of Longinus é dd 8 4 dobhar dê
amiéra ylresda púropa, and 8 8 nókoxes cr e» peyiÃa-
pues. Both authors seem to have been w in days
when speech was muflled and casuistry the vogue.
48
 DEMETRIUS

éxovras!
/ 1 8
drauociovs oradious Tódv "Abnvódv.
, Fr ” a a
Tara e

mávra Sippijômv uér ode eimew Aovopia

/ Eq A KA E) f
váp. iv
A F

Adyos: edmpemids Ôé mws rTóvde Têr Tpóor,

epurnbeis yáp à Duidwv Tobs mapórras Bwkpirn,
3 1 a e H X F L

nai warulétas éxaorov, emaveparubeis, ei mai

“Apioremmos* Kai RKAecuBporos mapijcar, “od,”
ómoir,nt “é Aiyim
AM! vãoVo oa”
ado ávra vãpA vá
mpoepnuéva eupalveras vm" ta“é Aiyim
4 z 4 mp DA
Fjoau
s »+

Kai mohd Sewórepos O Adyos doxei roi mpdynares

abro êupatvovros vô Sewóv, odyi rob Aéyorros.
rods per our dupl Tóv "Apiorummov! Kai Aoido-
pico tows dxuvdévor ôvros év oxúnor: é Ilárer
eXodópncer.
ego oAhdais dé 7) mpôs rÚpavrov 7) Emos finidv
rua dixhsyógevo: ab óverdicor Opuidvres xoú-
Copev éÉ dvdyrns oxijuaros Adyov ds Anujrpros
- éç Dalnpeds*1.6 mpôsx Rparepór1 70»1 Maredóvo,
, 2.4
em
xpucis «Aivms rabelónevor peréupov, Kai êv mop-
bupê yAavide, ral imrepnpdvos diodexópevov Tás
mpeopeias vv Edguy, cxmuaricas elmev óveir-
Srorinhs, óri “ dmedetáuela more mpeoBedovras
iueis rodode” nai RKparepóv robrov”- é» vãp TD
3 dméxorra P. 2 dploriros P. EP.
4 Gptorenar P. & àóyou Finclkh: Shou P,
* om TÁ Tô heyópevoy mor Ch. e. moios) Anuirptos Kal ris O rude
igor Aa pi gur) in margine P.
róvõe

* Plat, Phasd, 59 q
4a
 ON STYLE, v. 2828-289

they were less than twenty-five miles from Athens.

He,has not said all this in express terms (for that
would have been an open reproach), but with Sitting
tact as follows. Phaedo is asked who were with
Socrates. Ie enumerates the men one by one.
Next he is asked whether Aristippus too and Cleom-
brotus were present. “No,” he answers; “they
were in Aegina.” Everything that precedes owes
its point to the words “ they were in Aegina.”>
The passage seems far more effective because its
effect is produced by the fact itself and not by an
explicit statement. So, althongh he might no
doubt have openly reproached Aristippus and his
companions without incurring any risk, Plato has
done so indirectly.
But in addressing a despot, or any other ungovern-
able person,º we may often be driven to use veiled
language if we wish to censure him. Demetrius of
Phalerum dealt in this way with the Macedonian
Craterus who was seated aloft on a golden couch,
wearing a purple mantle and receiving the Greek
embassies with haughty pride. Making use of à
covert phrase, he said tauntingly: “ We ourselves
once welcomed these men as ambassadors together
with yon Craterus." ? By the use of the demon
» In the Greek, the emphasis (cf. supaireras, Eungpaivopros)
falis on the words which begin the clause, viz. “ in Acgina ” 4
Aristippus and Cleombrotus were so near to Athens all the
time. E was just a “crossing” (sf. Aristoph. tFasps 122,
deémgucer els Alvor), witis a two-obal fare (Plal. Gore. 511 Dj
o These words will cover the “oitimn ardor prava
inhentium," as shown towards Socrates, cf S 294 A
demoerney, as well as the “ instans tyrannus,” can be over-
bearing (3e.t0s) and criminal,
& Demetr, Phaler. Fragmm 7, C Miúler, Orut. dit. ii,
pe dTy.
475
 DEMETRIUS

derricã vô “rodror"" eubalvera 7 Umepnpavia

rot Kparepod mãos dverdionérm é» oxjuare.
290 Tod wúroi eidovs dori mai 70 IlAdrwros impds
Atoviciov ipevcdpevor Kal dpunoduevor, ri “ êyci
cor IlAdrwr oúdév dpxolóyncoa, od pérrOL, 7) TOUS
Ed LENDA € Eq 1 EA A A

Beoós.” nai yãp Exjheyira êbevonévos, mai Exeu

1 E

71 O Adyos oxfiua peyodeior áua mai dopadés.

x 4 o E a 15 Eq

291
más v.
HoMaxy7 uévror «ai | êmauporepilovom ais
corcévor eb TIS EBédo. Kai Wfóyous eixatofóyous
> 4 ” 20, EM amet + + 4 a

eivoa [06Ãou 715º], mapddemyua TO 700 Aloyivou émi

ro? TwAavyods: mãca ydp oxedov 7 mepi vov
Tylavyi ôujygors dmopiav mapéxos, elre Ouvpa-
o > + 3

ouds elre xAeuacuós éort. TO dé Totobror eldos

dudiBoÃoy, rairos eiprvela obk dv, Exer TVA Guaus
> f L 3 f E) Eq EA y e

nai eipuvelas Eupaot.

/
208 Aúverro 5º >»dy mis cai 124 ,
érépuws oxquariterm, =”
otov
oirews: emetdm Andés drodovorw oi Buvdorar mai
Surdorides Tà córóv! duaprigara, mapavodpres
aúrois um) duaprávery ox éE cúbeias Epolpev, GAA
tiros érépous ifébonev tuvas rá óuora wemomóras,
olov mpôs Atovócior Tóv PÚpavvov Karã Dalápidos
rob rupávrou époduer xab vis Daldpidos dio-
,
vopias: ) êmawecóncdd ruas Atovvoiwy rá evarria
? vó robror P.
2 eixaropóvous Victorius: el ral à bóvyous P.
3 Adão res seclusiz fort, eldérer
* ais Spengel: abrgr [º,

& vôros secms here to connote “the great,” irontealiy

«fi end of 5 292 (ral obros, “real mui thongh he is” 4
aT6
 ON STYLE, v. 289-gog

strative yon all the pride of Craterns is indicated and

rebuked covertly.*
“Under the same heading comes the reply of Plato
to Dionysius who had broken a promise and then
denied having ever made it: “1, Plato, have made
you nopromise ; but as to y0u—well, heaven knows!” »
Dionysius is thus convicted of falsehood, while the
form of the words is at once dignified and circumspect.
Words are often used with an eguivocal meaning.
H anyone wishes to practise this art and to deal in
censures which seem unintentional hits, he has an
example ready to his hand in the passage of Aes.
chines * about Telauges. Almost the entire account
of Telauges will leave one puzzled as to whether it
is meant as admiration or as mockery. This ambigu-
ous way of speaking, although not irony, yet has a
suggestion of irony.
Figures may be employed in yet another way, as
tor instance in this case:—Since great lords and
ladies dislike to hear their own faults mentioned,
we shall therefore, when counselling them. to refrain
from faults, not speak in direct terms; we shall,
rather, blame some other persons who have acted
in the same manncr. For example, in address
ing the tyrant Dionysius, we shall inveigh against
the tyxant Phalaris and the eruelty of Phalaxis. Or
we shall praise individuals who have acted in the
not literally=vral airós) and Plat. Phaed. 6Dc ol vês
rexerãs ijuiv olvo: xaregrjcarres (also Gorg. 490 D, Al 4 +
cortempluous use in Xen, dnab. 1. e. 6,88 6,9). After
Alexender's death Craterus, together with Antipater, was
able to dictate terms to the deftated Alhenians,
? Cf, Plat, Epist. ?, p. 340 p.
* Aeschines Socraticus: as in 55 205, 207, and possibly
(with a pun) im 8 170, Aeschines the Orator is quoted in
$8 267, 208,
477
 DEMETRIUS
, ES SE
memomróras, oiov Pélwrva 7a es g
lépeva, ôri marpd-,
cm ecxecar ris Zuxedias ral ddacidÃos: ga
vão vovbereiras droúwr áua Kai ob Aotopeiras
Kai Endorurei To Védevi erawouéves Kai éxraivou
dpéyerar «Kai obros.
283 FoAã Bé roradra mapã trois tupávvois, oior
Didimmros pév dia vó Erepóplaluos elvar ipyilero,
ei vis Ovopdoerer em adroo Róxhwma 7 oplaAuor
dAws" “Epueias 5" O rob "Arapréws ápéas, raiar
ráÃa mpãos, cos Adyerar, obx dv iréoxero padicos
Tivôs paxaiproy dvondlovros 7) Toudr 7%) Elton
ôã vô edvolyos eiva tabra O cipmra Eupijrar
Bovhéuevos udlioTa TO dlos Tô Suvaorevrixov,
às udhrora wpitov Adyov dopadods, és madeiras
Coxnparianévos.
294 Kairo, moAAdris mal oi dfjuoi oi peydÃo: ai
ioyupol Séovras ToLobTOU eldous Tv Adywr, domrep
oi róparvoi, rabámep ó "Abmrvalwr Síuos, &pywy
ris. EMados nai rólaxas rpépwr KAdwvas mai
Ricopéivras. vô per obv Kokaxede aioypóv, TO
dé êmminãv émopadés, dprror dé TO gerado,
rodr” dort TÔ coxynuarianévor.
295 Kai more adróv Tróv duaprdvovra emaéconev,
ot éh” ois fuaprev, GAA é” ois ody udprqker,
olo» rov Opyilónevor, ôri xDes émpveiro npãos
daveis émi trois 700 deipos duaprinaciw, Kal dr
Eniwrôs tois mokiras cúveoriw: môéws ydp 5)
éxaoros juuetrar duvrôr Kai ovvitos Bovheros
a Cf Suetonius, Calig. « 50 (Caligula's dislike of the
word eapra), and the Spanish proverb which deprecates the
mention of a “rope” in the house of a man «ho has been
hanged (Nombrar la soga en casa del ahoreada).
478
 ON STYLE, v. 2992-295

opposite way to Dionysius,saying of Gelo or Hiero(for

example) that they were like fathers and educators
of Sicily. The hearer is admonished without feeling
himself censured; he emulates Gelo, the subject
of these praises, and covets praise for himself.
One has often to exercise such caution in dealing
with our sovereign lords. Because he had only one
eye, Philip would grow angry if anyone named the
Cyelops in his presence or used the.word “ eye ” ai
all, Hermeias, the ruler of Atarneus, though for
the most part of a gentle nature as it is said, became
restive (because he was a eunuch) when hearing
anybody speak of a “ surgeon's knife,” of “ amputa-
tion,” or of “ excision,“s | have mentioned these
facts out of a desire to bring into clear relief the
true character of great potentates, and to show that
it specially calls for that wary form of language
which bears the name of “ covert allusion.”
& must be observed, however, that great and
powerful democracies no less than despots often
require these ceremonious forms of language. An
instance in point is the Athenian republie, which in
the hour of its ascendaney over Greece harboured
such flatterers as Cleon and Cleophon. Flattery no
doubt is shameful, while adverse criticism is danger-
ous, Itis best to pursue the middle course, that of
the covert hint. .
At times we shall compliment the very man who
has failings not on his failings but on his proved
avoidance of them. We shall remind an irascible
person that yesterday he was praised for the in-
dulgence he showed to So-and-So's errors, and thai
he is a patteym to the citizens among whom he moves.
Every man 'gladly takes himself as a model and is
479.
 DEMETRIUS

emcivp emouvor, poor & éra duali êmawor

motijcar.
296 Kogoov de domep Tóv abrov smpór ô qué tus
núva êmhacev, O dé Bodv, é dé immor, oro ral
mpôyua vadróv O uév TIS dmopamójevos eai
Karmyopidy now, du oit dvôpromo à prjpara ue
dmoleimovos Tois matr, emorquny dé ob QUPaTo-

Acimovory, mi xpnconemu rois dmodeupleion"”-

roiro dé Tó eldos ro0 Adyou "Aprorimmerov Aé-
pera Erepos dé raúróv dmoberucós mpooigerar,
ár rabdiarep Eevodidvros rá moAÃd, | otoy óru “dei yãp
Ra
pr

ou xpjuara Hóvov dimodumeiy vais eaurár maugiv,

GAAA sai mori rWv xpncopéviv adrois.
27 Tó dé idiws «ahoúpevor eidos Berparicór,
ô udktora dorcobaw EnAódoas Aloxivns ra Adro,
perapubnicere ààv* rodro TO mpêyua Tô mpocipn-
uévor eis epsrnou, dé mos, otov “ é mai, nóga
cor xpípara dmédimev O mario; %) mod tera
- «ai odx edapibugras voMd, O Erpares. dpa
odv xai êmorju» dmelumév co TI)” xonconérr
aúrois;” dua yáp tea gis dmopiar EBahev vou
moída, Acinbóreos, Koi iépuncer óri dvemoriuoy
Cort, mai madcicada mpoerpéibaro” radra adrra
Mucãs, cal EueÃOS, Kai ouyi dm TÔ Aeyâueror
ratiro àmo Riçubor,
298 Eumuéonoar 8” oi rowiror Adyor róre décupe-
Dévres 1O mpédrov, jiAhov dE ecémAnta» viô Te
EuTueD! ral TO erapyel Kai TO peró peyado
1 gr oi edd.: dri de P.
2 rois drokeplciow Victoriuss rois curaronepleiom P.
* uerapuônices du Sebneider : perapubpijaetar b.
muntiey Gales rugrno P.
480
 ON STYLE, v. 2905-298

eagex to add praise to praise, or rather to win one

uniform record of praise.
in fine, it is with language as with a lump of wax,
out of which one man will mould a dog, another an
ox, another a horse. One will deal with his subject
in the way of exposition and asseveration, saying (for
example) that “men leave property to their children,
but they do not therewith leuve the Inoywledge
which will rightly use the legacy ” €: a way of putting
it which is called “ Aristippean.” Another will (as
Xenophon conmonly does) express the same thought
in the way of precept, as “men ought to leave not
only money to their children, but also the knowledge
which will use the money rightly.”
What is specifically called the “ Socratie ” manner
——pne which seems to have excited the emulation of
Acschines and Plato in no common degree—svould
recast the foregoing proposition in an interxogative
form, somewhat as follows. “My dear lad, how
much property has your father left you? Ts it
considerable and not easily assessed? Tt is com-
siderable, Socrates. Well now, has he also left you
the knowledge which will use it rightly P” Im this
way Socrates insensibly drives the lad into a corner ;
he reminds. him that he is ignorant; he urges him
to get instruetion. And all this natmally and in
perfect taste, and with an entire absencs of what
is proverbially known as “ Gothie bluntness.” à
Such dialogues met with great success in the days
of their first invention, ox rather they took society
by storm through their verisimilitude, their vividness,
a Ser. Inc. The words may be quoted from Aristippus
of Cyrene himself.
* Of, 8 216 radro vãp À) Nyonéva dd Bxvbô» pois core.
481
 DEMETRIUS

dpogúvns vovbericid.
4 om
arepi prêy 5) mAdoparos Aó-
bh) A A u ,

you 977) Syntuaroudr Gpreíres radra.

ago “EH dé Acórms ú repl rijv cúvdec, oia Ké-

xeneros púliora oi da “Iooxpirous, jukagd pero
qm cúyrpovom ri duvnévTur ypauudriov, ou
tida êxirndeia êori dev dove moda vãp [rá]
er vis cuuminéews dr adris yévorro derwórepe,
oiov “vob vão Dwxixod ovorávros molégov, od
dr eué, oU ydp Eure Emodurevógumy mm róre"
ei d€ ueraBanciy Tas ea ouvágias o elmo “ rod
modégou váp od du êus od Duwrucod suorádvros"
od vãp emokmrevóunv Exupé mw vóre,"” odr
óAiyov drécupijos vis dewórmros, Excel moMayoõ
Kai Tô Yxddes tis ovyrpodoems lows ora
desvórepor.
so Koi vàp TO dpóvriorou aúró sob Tô Gomep
abroduês dewórira, mapaomjge Tud, udAicra émdy
Spyilopévous êupaivwper abrods? à WSuenpévous.
7 O mept mp Aeórira Kai Gppoviay Ppovris our
Spyilouévou, da mailovrós cor; Kai Emidenevu-
pévov pão.
sm Roi domep vô Soledupévor oxiua Sewórira
moi, ds mpolédextar, ourw motos 7 diakedu-
pévm ódws cúvôeors. ntteiov dé ral Tó “Tre
voicTOs. Aoidopijcas vãp Bovlónevos Tods éxBpods
éOpaucer Tô pérpor, mai emoincer ywid» duri
? rà secl. Spengel,
? ru róre edd, e, codd, Demosth, : múrare P,
3 aúrods P,

“ Demosth. De cor. 18.

* Se. in such a way as to remove the various instances ot
asa
 ON STYLE, v. 2908-801

their nobly didactic character —With egard to

moulded speech and the employment of 6 pures, this
treatment must suflice.
Smootlmess of composition (such as is emploved
particularly by the followers of Isocrates, amo assi
the concurrence of vowels) is not altogether suited
to forcible language. In many cases greater force
will result from an actual cleshing, as “ when the
Phocian war broke out originally, owing not to me
as 1 was not then engaged in public life,” a Tf you :
were to change the words and fit them together thus?:
“when through no fault of mine the conflict began
in the Phocian War, since É was not then en aged
in public life,” you would rob them of a good SE
of their force, since in many passages the ver Am
of clashing vowels may be held to make a, sentence
more foreible,
The fact is that words which are actually unpre-
meditated, and are as it were a spontancons growth
will give an impression of vigour, especially when
we are manifesting our anger or our sense of in-
justice. Whercas anxious attention to niceties of
smoothness and harmony does not betoken anger so
much as elegant trifling and a desire to exhibit one's
powers,
Tt has already * been said that the “Gome” of
abruptness has a foreible effect. The same may
now be said of abrupt composition on a larger senle
Hipponax é is a case in point. In his dese to assail
his enemies, he shattered his verse, and caused it to
hiatus; menégou, ou--êné, ob—lywye éroNTevómua ; imitated
in the English version,
s Cf. 85 260, Tl.
“ Cf. 55 198, 251.
488
 DEMETRIUS
302.04 1» 4! . 4
eúbcos," nai dpvQuov, rouréors Seuóryri irpémov
Ê
Kai Aoidopig: Tô yàp êEppuluor Kal edjroor Éy-
rwpios dv mpéro, uiMov 7 bóyots, tocabra
Kal mEpl ouyrpodsems.
302 Iapdrecmas dé tis cab TD dev vaparripi, «ds
TÔ cixós, Simuaprmuévos Kai aúrós, nadeirar dé
dxapis. yiverar dê êy Trois mpáyuacm, êmdv TIS
aloxpã ie ddvpora draçadov Aéym, xabimep 6
> A 1 / a / 1 E L €

+is Tiudvêpas” raryvopdr ds mexopveuculas rip

- dexavida moi Tous dBohods nai mi | fiador mal
modhjv AX 4
tiva Tomórnr / 8
Bvopmuiar
j z
raripacer
L
Tod a

dixaornptou.
s03 “H oúvbeois dê qaiveror dyapts, ddv Sieoma-
opém êudepis À, nabéimep é elmcbv, “ovrmol &
éxor TO Kai Tó, nreipar.” wai érãv vá ria
pndepiar Em upôs dAnÃa oúvdeoim, CAM” Suora
dieppnyuéros. Koi ai mepiodos dé ai cuvexeis cab
papal ral dmomvipovcas Tods Aéyovras od uóvor
Karaxopés, GAMA Kai dreprrés.
304
To
Lg Séde dropacia*
é 1a molÂdris
, p
xapievra ,
mpdyuara
dura drepréorepa daiveras, mulámep é KAcir-
EA > E) F 4 £ o Z

apyos imepi tis revlpndóros Adywr, Lidov uelicon

corcóros: “ raravéperas uév,” doi, “ri! dpewár,
1 ebltos Victorius: códéus P.
8 rafúwes Or div tis cévôpas Ps: fort. xabdmep d vis
detidrov Teuimônas tol, &
3 rj 8 drouguia Viclorius: 4 dé dvopacia P,

484
 ON STYLE, v. 301-304
Jimp instead of walking ereet. By destroying the
rhythm, he made the measure suitable for energetie
intective, since correct and melodious rhythm would
be fitter for eulogy than for satire.—Thus much with
regard to the collision of vowels.
Side by side with the forcible style there is found,
as might be expected, à corresponding faulty style,
called “ the unpleasant.” e Tt oceurs in the subject
matter when a speaker mentions publicly things
which are disgusting and defile the lips. The man,
for instance, who aceused Timandra of having lived
a wanton life, bespattered the comt with a deserip-
tion of her slop-basin, her pennies, her mat, and
many similar tokens of her ilfame,
Composition has an unpleasant sound, if it seems
disjointed, as (for example) “this and that being
thus, death.” ? So, too, when the members are in
no way linked to one another, but resemble frag-
mentary pieces, And long, continuous periods which
run the speaker out of breath º cause not only satiety
but actual aversion.
Often objects which are themselves pleasant
enough lose their attractiveness owing to the words
applied to them. Cleitarchus, for instance, when
deseribing the wasp, an insect like a bee, says: “It
lays waste the hill-couniry, and dashes into the
S fg, “repulsivo” here. Force may be pleasants it
may also be coarse,
* Ser. Ino,
* The author, in bringing his essay to a close, repeats an
expression which he had used when opening it (8 1): he
protests against those lengthy sentences to which Greek
prose was prone. His last sentence of all (rapdgemrar .. a
dupárepa) is short and quiet. Here, and elsewhere, he shnnsg
the bombast which is apt to beset not only rhetorical
historians like Cleitarchus bul writers on Style,
485
 DEMETRIUS
eloirtaras dê eis TAS roidas pôs” domep mepl
Boôs aypiou q rod "Epuuartiov rámpov Aéyqr,
GA)” odxi mepi uehicons Tevós, ore Kai dxapw
róv Adyov dua roi puxpóv yeréclu. apare
dé mes dAMjÃors radra dupórepa.
1 Amumrplov mepl dpuqvetas subseriptio in P.

8 Clitarch. Frago Cleilarchus (o. S00 p.c.) was one of

486
 ON STYLE, v. 304

hollow oaks.” « This might have served for a descrip-

tion of some wild ox, or cf the Erymanthian boar,
rather than of a species of bee. The result is that
the passage is both unpleasant and frisid? And in
a way these two defects lie close together,
the historians of Alexanderthe Great. His bombastie style
is condemned in the treatise on the Sublime, e, iii.
d d.e., the characteristico defect of the xopexrip qeyados
mperis is near akin to the characteristic defect of the
xupunrip Seis; cf 8 T+.

487
 INDEX TO" ARISTOTLE'S
PORTICS
The numerals refer to the pages.

Abas, 41 nota Cleon, 79

avhilles, 59, 97 Clenphon, 11, 85
Aegens, 1 Clytaemnestra, 51
Acgisthus, 49 Cour de Lion, 62 nº.ta
Aepytus, 53 note Cormedy, 19, 21
Aesehylus, 19, 71, 89, 118 noto Orates, 21
Agamemnon, 107 Greon, 53
Agathon, 87, 59, 71 Jresphontes, 53
Ajax, 89 Cretans, Fra
Alcibiades, 85 Cyelops, 11
Aleinous, 6) Cuolops, The, 19 nuLe
Alemagon, 47, 51 Cypria, The, 98
Alemagon, The, 58 Cyprians, The, 81
Amphiarãos, 65 OCypriotea, &1
Amtheus, The, 37
Amtigone, The, 58 Danaus, dI
Apollo, 104 note Demes, 13
Areius, 113 note Dicarogenes, 61
Ares, 81, 88
Argos, 80
Ariphrades, 89
Aristophanes, 18, 36 nota, 84 note
Astydamas, 58
Atlenians, 18
s, The Ipltimo ta, 57
rd af Arms, 88 Elestra, The, 99
Empedocles, 9, 107
Battle 07 Frogs and Mice, 11 note Enipeus, 59 note
Bepging, The, 98 Epichares, 87
ox end Qox, 83 note Kpichermus, 13, 21
Bripliyle, 5L
Calippides, 119, 11 Eucleides, 87
Careiuus, 59, 65 repare, Gm
Centuur, The, 8
Cephalleniana, 11
Chaeremon, 9, 07
Chinnides, 13 dyul Labiia, LL BLU
Choiphoros, The, 61 Eurypyius, Lhe, 98
 INDEX TO ARISTOTLE'S POETICS
Gangmade, 109 Neoptolemus, The, 98
ficlo, 91 note Nicochares, 11
tlaucon, 109 Niobe, 71
Greni Bear, The, 100 nota Nomic poetry, 9
Haemon, 58 Odyssous, 38, 55, 59, 81, 100 note,
Hector, 97, 108 nt
Fogemêm, u Odysseus disguised ts q Messenger,
The, 08
Octyusmus, The IFoundedl, 58
Ocyssey, The, 17, 38, 48, 67, D3, 95,
99, 116
Oedipus, 41, 47, 49, A note, 58, 08
Oedipus, The, 41, 57, 68, 115
Eippias of Thasos, 107 Orestes, 43, 47, 49; EM 6%, 68, 67,
Tomer, 9, 11, 13, is, 1, 83,59, 78, 90 vote
86 note, 98 97,90, 101, 105 note Orestes, The, 55, UL
Hypermuestr 4, 41 note
Parnassus, 88
Tambie metxe, 15, 17 Panson, 9
leadius, 111 Peloponnesians, 13
Tearius, 111 Pelnps, 69 note
Hiad, The, 17, 88,67, 1, 79, 98, 05, Peleus, Th8, 69
YU note, 115 Penelope, 98 note, 11) note
Trad, The Little, 98 Philoctetes, The, 89, 93
Liyrians, Philomela, 61 note
fon, of Plato, 109 note Philoxenus, 11
Iplvigencio im Aulls, Lhe, 57 Phinsidae, The, 68
Iphigeneia in Tauris, The, 42 note, Phoreíes, The, 69
43, 49 mote, 53, 61, 68, 66 Phormis, “a
Ithnca, 100 note Plthian FPomen, The, 60
Ixion, 69 Pindarus, 113
Plato, ô note, 7 note
Jocasta, 4 note Poltyooniad, “The, u
KEouts, 88 note Poiygnotus, 9, 27
Polyidos, 68, 6r
Leius, 52 noto, 57 note, 99 Polyphemus, 11 note
Laconian Women, The, WS Poly phontos, 62 note
Lynçsus, The, &1, UM Poseidon, 59 note, 07
Lyricol Ballads, 65 note FProene, 61 note
Prometheus, The, 89
Magnes, 13 Protagoras, 73
Mergites, The, 15, WW Pylades, 42 note
Meden, The, 49 noto, 81, 06 note 57,
130 nota Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 65 note
Megariuns, 18 Boro, The, of Aristotle, 72 note,
Melenippe, 49 note, 6 2 no
Molesger, 47
Mencluus, 8 note, 85, LL Suck of Troy, The, 98
Morope, 63 Suiling of the Plest, Tha, 93
Mitys, 89 Selamis, 61 note, dl
Mnasithous, 116 Satyr Play, 18 note, 19
Mynuiscus, 113 Sega, The, 69, 413
Mysia, 99 Sraman, Mx, Owen, 87 noto
Mysioana, The, 90 Shakespeare, 113 note
490
 INDEX TO ARISTOTLE'S POBTICS
Sielly, 21, A Thyestes, 47
Sinon, The, 98 Thyestes, The, BO
Sisyphus, 71 Timothens, It, 55 note
Sogratic dislognes, 7 Topirs, The, of Aristpile, 78 note
Sopuocies, 13, 19, 51 note, 58, 57 Tracker, The, 19 note
à9 noto, 61, 68, 71, 99 note, 103 Trojan Women, The, 93
No Troy, 91
Sosistratus, 115 Troy, The Sack of, 98
Soplron, 7 Tydeus, The, 63
spurta, 111 Tiro, The, 59
Spartol, 59 noto Two Gentlemen af Verona, The, 61
Sthenolna, 85 nota
Syracuse, 7 note
Washing, The, 09
Touria, The Iphigensia tn, 4º note, Wordsworth, 04 note
43, 49 note, 53, 61, 68, q
Tegea, 99 Xenstehus, 7
Telegonus, 58 Menophanes, 103
Velemachus, 111
Telgpiua, 47, 99 note
Tevets, 61 Foung Lochinvar, 100 note
Tenver, 8) nota
Theocritus, 9 note ts BZaus, 105
hendectes, 68, Zeuxis, 27, 1
Thessid, B8 toilus, 101 note

491
 INDEX TO “LONGINUS”
The numeral refer to the pages

Achilles, 158, 177 Colossus, The, 229

Aeschines, 181 note, 185 Constitution af spertu, 195
Aeschylus, 128 note, 175 Coro, De, 101, 181, 199, 285
Agathoctes, 185 Cyclopa, 158
Ajax, 14b, 149, 161, 108 Cyropuedeio, 201
Alexander, 183, 145, 218 Cyrus, 201
Altenncder, The, 176 nute
Alundas, 145 Danube, the, 297
Ammonius, Ido
Amphicrates, 131,
O
135
Deliacos, The, 222 note
Delphi, 186 note
dmacreon, 2 Lug Demis, The, 182 note
Demosthanes, 124 note, 19, 181,
pulionius, 19 214
Apollonins, 168, 165, 189, 177, 181, 105, 104
Arotus, 158, 201
Arehiloahus, 161, 167, 221
208, 211, 981,
Dion, 135 dia
288, . 207, , 285 '
y
ST
Artmnspeios 168e noto Dinnysins, the Phoencas, 108
Dionyuius of Syracuse, 188
deristareins,
“Aristoas, 157 Dionysus, 175
atira,
ont Tha, 187a Pires, 280
dat ke, 208
aphames, 788 Epypt, 243
Aaialolle, MO mero, 213 intel, 235 note
aSrtemisran, Tai Blephantine, SUL
Atlicuogenes, 293 Erastosthenes, 219
Athens, 281 Erigone, 219
Etna, 227
à, VA, 176 noto Eupols, 181, 188
4, 22] Euripides, 178, 27h, 280
E] Eurylochus, 189

Gorgias, 129
MB, 213, PIT
Ilsentaeus, 208
. 179, 188 Hector, 208
note, 155 34 7
, 128 ies, 185
euos, LL s, 135. 203, 230
 NDEX TO « LONGINU g”
Heurmocrates, 133 Phryne, 298
Herodotus, 137, 157 note, 107, 189, Pirynichus, 109
193, 201, 207, 211, 831, bas, bus Pindar, 221
Hesiod, 145, 169 Plata, 181, 188
Flomer, ltã, 147, 140, 151, 159, 169, Plato, 135, tas note, 205, 167, 16%,
189, io, 227, 249 109, 207, S1a, 227, 225, E
Hypereidos, 179, Sel, 208 Pinturch, LY8 noto
Polyeleitus, 220
fil, The, 149, 151, 159, 155 Polyzena, The, 177
Ton of Chios, ga Pope, 126 note
Tpligeneic ir Tanris, The, 72 note Poseidon, 149
Isauus, 191 noLe Postumius Terentianus, 123
Isoerates, 183, 19], Sul Prttagoras, 124 ugte
Pythes, en
Jocasta, 197
Quintiltan, 147 note
Laws, Phe, 207
Ento, 228 Republie, The, 145
Lyenr uus, 175 Rhino, The, 227
Lyulas, 217, 291, 225
dainiius 187 nata, 205 note
Marathon, 181, 188, 185 Entamis, 181
Matris, 181
Megillus, 135 Bappho, 158, 157
Sever, eguinst Thebes, Tha, 175
Meidtas, 19]
Aenexenus, The, 199, 207 Shigldof Herueles, The, 145
MeroB, 20] Sicily, 231
Afiletas, The Cuptuira o 199 Simonides, 177
Moses, quoted, 1 Bacrates, 135
Sophocles, no do ua
Newman, 144 note Sparta, 185,2:
Nile, The, 227 fesichorus, E
Syracusans, 281
Odysseus, 155, 205
Giliyssey, Tie, 151, 153, 158, 208 Terontianus, 122, 125, 138, 185, 208,
Getiruis, ts Vi, Si

Ms maves, LET
Orestes, Dhe, VTk, NOT

Panegyris of Isoeratos, the, 231

arménio, 145
Pulraclna, 1js
Peneley:
P. io nuty
Xenophor, 195, 141, 189, 201, 218, 247
nt, 175 Xerxes, 120
p, EL, ter, eli, 218, 235 note
Plitipbios, “he, "187 Zeus, 186, 151, 1h5
Philisfua, 280 Eoilas, 153

498
 INDEX TO DEMETRIUS
1. INDEX OF NAMES AND MATTERS
The mumeruls vejer to sentions of the Da olocutiouo iiself not to any
part of the Introduçtion,

Acting, remarks ou, 58, 1938-195 Antiphon, see Index II,

Aenchines (tia Orator), 267, 208. Antisthenes, 249
Cy. Index IL antithesis, 24, 27, 171, 179, eto,s
Aeschimos Socraticus, 205, 201, autithesis and antithetic periods
297. Cf Index IL impai force, Bar, 250; example
aifectation (naxognaia), the dis Dê Re etbncio,
torted variety of the elegant a character
style, strives after effect in the
Uhonght itself, 187, 280; in the aposlopesis, the figura of ''sudden
tt ibe use peticênco, " 108, 268, 264. Of 149,
Arehedemus, improves of the Aris.
word in its Gu totelian definition of the period,
Aleuens, sãs Loba 84
Atodanas, 12, 110 Arohilochns, 6, Cf, Index II.
Alexander, n architect (“master - builder"), 97
friven as an example of a word
5 Dema happily compounded)
denn xelerences LO him, 283, 284 arid style, the defectivo comiter.
allegory, its impressivaness, 29, part of Lhe plain style, 2841-248
100, MB: Hs liability to abuse, Avisteides, 238 (examples of tha
102; ita allusivenesa, 151 Kind hare given were probably
Amazons, À suceincs description oÉ traditional in the sohools of
a alogping Amazon, 198 styles cf tha refórences to the
mbignitr, must Go avoided in the 5 u
plate abyio, 1
Anaerenir, bh: ley lino » the
nobappr themes, irouy 1 Plato
word in in tuo Pingo 1eproaches hem
for their absençe Trom the sido
ents,” chara ot tliair imprisoned master
séria, 1, 67,175, Socratos, 288 (“for they were in
Auroou, À nama whose nleasing -degpina”)
sound is dus to tha dombls con- aristophanes, 150, 159, lol. cf
sorant, trt Tudex 11,
494
 INDEX TO DEMETRIUS
Arjatotlo: to She reforençes given Cleitarchus, an example of bormabiast
under Avistolle's name im Index quoted from him, 304
KH. may be added 41, 116, 2847 Clematis : “ Ryyutian clematis ”
te actual quotations from Iítel. used as à sobriquet for P da
Hi. in the De elvc. giva but à and lanky person, nas 50
faint idea of the inflnence of the Cteobnlina, see Index Ii.
former upon the latter Cleombrotis, seg Aristippus
art, analogies draw from various Cieon, reterred Lo us & ootorigus
arts, 13, Tá, Athoniar vos
Axtemon, 1a Cleophon, *
Lottery, ho rp ta Ciron, 24
letter to min dera elimas
223 comed!
asyudeton, its use and abuso, char
192-194, Bee aiso 60, 268, 214, ate. the trimátos by tis New Comodo
Attic, the Atbiz dialeet,
gency and other qualiti composition + the word civôems
tha “ Atbie” writers (a (rhich corresponda to ““cemmposi-
tion syhich is perhaps 2 mark of tion ” in its stricter sense) Gtenrs
late dato), 175 very ieuuentis, in the treatise;
48,9, 1, 30, 81, 88, 40, 43, 45,
Bombast, its dangers Illustrated, 48, 49, 58, ég, Pá, 3, 137, 121, "rg,
181 4 280, 188, 188, 204, 22, 237, 289,
hd breaking tha news,” an exampls a4l, 246, Es, “epa, au, aos
of Gtesias* delicacy of feeling, 210
drenthings, rough and smooth,
brevity (conciseness), à great aid to
vigour and impressivoness of
stilo, 7, 108, 137, 258
Es Vim, its nso enú abnse,
6, Etvereis “ua uguie; “ua8
Balias, ; "à character in à mimo of Grates, 170, 259
Bophron, 153 Ctesias, aig 216
euppitg- FElnsa, a ridáling deserip-
Cacophony, may minister to vivid- tion of, 102
ness ant! ee of styia, 210, 946 Cyclops, the gxim pleasantry of his
1 puoxpected guest-gift, 180, 152,
52

148,
chaliambios : polambio tines axe
forçcihle, 252
Chrysippus, apprrentiy followed in
Br
elealn: proverbial and figurativo
expression concerning tho etenla.
ê
 INDEX TO DEMETRIUS
references to Demosthones occur from the incident of the goldon
iu tha later sections, those which Vistoros, 281. Cf Quinti. ix,
deal with Sevórgs; for reforences , 82,
to the passages quoted seo Index. euphony, practica of Isveratessda-
L seribad and a middie course
dinlogue: resemblance and differ- advised, 68; common parlance,
ence betweon a dialogue and a 69: postical forns, 70: priests
letter, 223, 224 in Egypt, 71; Attic writers, 176
Dicaearchus, 182 Buripidos, the opportunitias he
Diagenes, 260, 261 e aifords to the actor who tales
Dionysius the Youngar, 8, 9, 99, the part of Ion in his play of
100, J02, 290; tha proverb that name, 195
“ Dlonysius at Corinth º clearly expletivas, ths employment of
refers to tlis younger Dionysins, explativs particlos, 55.58
aud sa probably does the threat
adiressed to the Locrinns ; in 202 Fubles, sometimas torm an attract
also he may ba meant xather iva sloment in writing, 157, 158
than his father figures, must not bu used in oxcesa,
diphthongs: the concurrsnce of 07; peerliar figures should be
diphthongs produces elevation, avoided in the plain style, 208;
"3, but should be avoided in figures will contnbute to forge,
the plain style, 207 2083-271, 280, 281
dithyrambic compounds, to be forcihle style, 240-304
avoided, 91, 118. Cf 143 frigidity 0Ê style, how caused, Mid-
Dorie dislect, its broad sounds, 177
double compounds, to be avoided,
as Gelo, described as a father and
educator of Sicily, 292
“genitiva absolnte,” used for the
Egypt: the prlests in Egypt employ sake of variaty, 65
the seven vowels in their hymns Gorgias, his periods and antithesea,
18, 15, 29
graces (or orpaments)of atyla: com.
a ho o figures,
1 of style,
490
e distinction be- grand siyle: ses references sa,
entbymene tnel Lie Elevated
N griplus, i.e. incohsrent language,
epanalep: 196 [5
epanaphora, 01, 268
Epicharmus, 24, Cf Index IL. Hecataous, example of detached
o , defined, and elfeot on elauses from, 12. Cf Z
e described, “SU Heracleitus, chief resson of his
iphone detino obsgurity, 198
er. TOu-11L Herodotus, 12, 17, 87, 112, 181, ate,
Of. Index IX.
“heroic,” as a metrical term, 5, 42
a vevelation of charuelers the Hesiod, possibly referred to in
longth, simictnro, topics of & 125
lestur, 22 bexamater: the hexameter, as the
apivhets, th use and abuso, 85, longost of Greek | poablcal
mensures, fs aulted to herois
enphemism, defined, and ilustrated themos, é 5

496
 INDEX TO DEMETRIUS
Hliatus, 68, 70, 78, 78, 74, 174, 290, Testa contrary to expectation, Log
301 (mj mapê Tyr mpocboniar xáprs)
Hiero, mentioned, together with,
Gio, in 2029 Lagedasmoninns, their love of
Hippocratos, quoted to show the E re Pista dO ud
Lé rawbacks ol a jerky style, 4, ve- t Leco ea “5,
4 38 tem, 2d
Etipponax: how and why Hipponax laticiave, supposed allusion to, 108
inventei the choliamlic metre, laufando praecipero, this maxim
sot. Cf ist a
history ind postrg, 215
Homer, quoted throughout the
ireatiso, and more frequently
than any other writer, Cf. Index Caso
3 Lysias, the exemplar of the plain
nomteoteleuta, their character and style, 190; his wib and sarcasm,
their dangers, 26-28 128, 269, Cf Index IT.
humour: soma o? tha exmuples in
128 ff, and 170, may perhaps bo Maxime, their nature and use, q,
classified under fis head
hypallage, 00: dviumaros “member. CM tra A
Dol bo emplored, in Aristotle + q
chaTa SPT ema origin and use, 1-7T
Menander, his “IPoman of Mes.
sente," 258; whyLe was popular
erith Phantom, or 76
tambus: the iamble measure re-
sembles uxdinary conversation,
and many people talk iambics
without knowing il, 43
imagery: postical imagery to be
avoided in prose, 89, 90; in the Natas '
foreible sb styl mecialiy, Tt Pilote tee

Tect à
bh +

irony, im
tne Phi, 8
isocolos:
term

Naivetê, characteristic of old»

Tashioned style, 244
natural expression, its efiuctiva-
27, 98, 219, 30
the pointer icias on the
toner ví nr hi chotm, oi

497
 INDEX TO DEMETRIUS
Niraus: Homer, by employing postry, rarely written in mensures
Ngures, exalta trois, 61, 62 SE greater length than six fest,
4; poetic dietion in prose muss
Obsenrity : paradoxical, du true, e used with disexetion, “118,
Lhat obseurity Somotimos contri-
dates to força, 2 Polycrates, a rhetorician mentioned
ononintoposio vVorda, dofined, 94; in 120
add to vividness, 220 praetermission, a figura which
niskes a show of passing over
Pavon : Lho two Jeinds of preou and e Deints which are really stated,
their usa in elevatod disconrso,
38-41 Proxinhanes, on the uso of par.
paraHolism of vlauses, 28, 250 ticles, 5
perody, an instance, 150; also 259 proverho, 252, ate, Ch larger
(ef 9 edition, pp. imo-262
particlas, their use and abuse, 55-
58; a happy negligenca in their Fecantntion, asa rhotorícal figura,
use, 58
passion, should be characterized by redundaney, ilustrated in 58
sim ieity and naturninoss, 28 repetition, words repeated for
terna definition and description, affect, é, 62, QN-gl4, 2873 or
0 És nembor and lengih of for clearness, “196, 197
Mombbra io a period, 10-18; reticonce, seo under Aposiopesis
simple and composite periods, 1, rhythm ; points of rhythm are
18; thenarrativo, conversational, taised in 5, 6, 42, 48, 117, 188,
aud rhetorical period, 19-91; anti 184, 201, and pirssin,
8, 22-94: excessivo rídále : tamguige may become a
riddie, 1
risky A e word revivradns is
used of darí ing experimenta in
the uso of language, as in 80. Cf
also 19, 27, ote,

asties OF pre vi , Saprho, ah Indox IX, and 182, 146,

psrsonification, exumples in 205,
285
flo chavacteristiva of his
14 aus WEI
áius vo us
mess, 216, agr
“shake,” às « rausical tarm, Tá
simnilo, ospanded motaphur, 80, 39
Socrates! the Socratic Dislogues,
their mothod aud their success,
it 2084 Socrates! imprisonntent,
it sie
id e, Sil Sa; hoclas a dombastie line abtri
pu ne ixo alo causô idity, uted to Sophocles, 1
Sopliron, see referentes in index
giins style, 109-239 a togather with sections 128,
lato : references to Plato will be
found in the sections ent ted otuos : the character of tha
in Iedex Mo, and also in sa, an Wieagres, 189
151, 228, 254, 207 eiects produced by the
498
 INDEX TO DEMETRIUS
use Of harsli or swoot sounds, 48, the rmggedness of Thnepdidor
49, 60, 70, 105, 219, 255 in 48 and elsewhere
Stesichorus, a proverbial expres= tragedy: a “sportiva bragedy"
sim aseribed by aAristotle to almost a contradiction in terme,
Stesichorus, 20, £93 159
atylc: ses ths references under types of stylo: see vnder Style;
Elevated, Elegant, Foxeible, in one and the same writer the
Plin, Arid, Epistolary, cte., elevated, elegant, and foreible
as well as tha Introtnetion styles may exist sido by side,
pussim ; among the many anticia tub the elovated and tie plain
pations of what are sometimes types are mutuslly excinsive, 27
supposed to be modern viçws of Srania, various references to, 237,
stylo may bo mentioned: (a) ago.
distinction of sbyls shown fre-
cording to Throphrastns) as Usage, as the sovereign arbiter,
much in wltat is omitted as in 86, 91
“what is said, 2883 (b) “Le stylo
est l'homime même”: this espe- Vanlted roof: the members of a
einlly true of the opistolary style,
period mypared fo, the stones
f
ei u nos
syllables : impressivo effect of long ve
syllables at the begimming and
tha end of 2 member, 89 : “ta
Bylogism : the enthymemo distin-
eu 4 from the syllogism, 92 corrasponding to the measures of
verse, À
ay boueel E ses under vividness: this quality deserihed
Adegory and illustrates in connexion with
aymmetry, its use and abuse, 25, the plain style of which it is am
eynaloepha, the fusion of vowels,
asentiot el à, Rap
70
Taste: want of taste, how shown,
y
Telotuges, titlo of a dialogue of
Arsolrines Sacraticus, 204, Cf
170

uu ví the pass
Te to vis idmess,
foras of Grim

H Theopnis df
the expression “ atrmpless lyre”
fora bow, 85, CA Index II. yo (5) ciiy, 2165
Theophrastus, nes the references kinde of? words distinguished
given tn Index IL by musicians, 176; picturósque
Theopanpus, 6/ Index TE, and ses words, 276
also 75, MO, 250
Thneydides, nes Index TI. mophon, ses theroferenoes inIndex
40, àP, 181, 228; siross I Jl,, and aizo 97, BO, 155, 187, “26

499
 IF. INDEX OF AUTHORS AND PASSAGES
QUOTED IN THE DE ELOCUTIONE
The Ihick numerals refer to the sections im which the quaiutions are found

Arsohinos (the Orator), Ctes. 198, Neenacns, Frog, 382, 2, 12

287; 202, 268 Horodotus, i Init, “7 443 1. 268,
Aesthines Suuraticus, Frag., 205
Alcaeus, Frag, 89, 1 5 KHesiod, Op. et D, 40, 122
Aleidamas, Prag., 116 Hinpocrates, Aphorésm i. 1, &, 288
Anscreon, Prg. 62, 5 Homer, Jiad ii, 407, 64, 57; ii
Antiphon, Frag. 50, 53 e71, 61; iv. 190, Sly iv, “ass, 12;
Antisthenes, Freg. 67, 249 vi. 168, 200; ix. 502, 7$ dx. 596,
Avchedemus, Frag., Ei ias x, 480, E xii. 118, 1;
Arehilochus, Frog, 89, 5: 94, 5 ey 82; xiii
tontos, ch, Shy jeto th,
), 152: na 180
ER
. dês di 11. 6 5| xt,
209 : x81. sê8, 83; “edil 133,
gi ixo EA go, tra 9, lit. 16, aja: “gxili. 154, 57;
288; 615, 225; 618, 97, es 168 xiil, 870, 240. Ouyssegy ili. Bis
s18, 29, sé; és, 230 150; 7. 208, 57; vi. 105, 125;
190, Ee in. 289, 2; ix. “3,
Cleiterchns, Prog, 804
Cleobulina, Krag. 1, 102
Útrates, Frag. 7, 259
Ctasins, Fragg. 20, 21, 2183 86, 216 518, 183; xx). 226, 57

Deomades, Fragy., 283, 284, 285 Isnorates, inc. Hei. 17, Za, Ponegyr,
Domebriis Phalerens, rag. 7, 289 1,25; 08, 22
Demosthenos, Aristodr, 99, SR 2éB.
De Cor. 8, 259; 18, 285; NI, 279; Lyrie, Fragg. Adesp. lah 143; 128,
186, 80, 272; 179, 2703 188, 278; 91, 262; Borgkp. 749, | 15%
265, 250. De Fls Leg. aoT, 277: Lystas, De murte Eratosih. 9, 190;
424, 280 9 Frago. 6, 128; 275, 108, 262
, 26: o Menander, Frog. 280, 194
Dicsearchus, Frog. 33, 182
Plato, Bithyd. D7LA, 226. Menex.
Epicharmus, Prag. 147, 2: 20 pv, 2068. Phaed. 69 o, 288
Eúupides, Tom al, Toês Meleag. Phgedr, 2467, 56. Politicus
260 c,
drag,58 5 Proiag, 818 A, 238. Rep. FR

500
 INDEX TO DEMETRIUS
intt., 21, 205 ; fit. 309 D, 185; di. 48; ii. 109, 45, 202, 208; ir 18,
4 4, 8, 51, 183, 184. Npist, 7, 65; iv. 64,118 vi. 1, 78º
280
Henophon, Anab. à linit,, 3, 19:
Buppho, Fragg. 97, 148; 99, 146; 1 2, 21, 108;1,2, 27,139;1,5,2,
Má, 141: 109, 140; 128, 98; 1. 8,10, 104: 1. 8, 18, 94; À
162; 12 3, 127, 162 8, 20, 108; di, 1, 81, 187; dv 4,
Sophoclss, Pripial, frag., 1d 9,8, 12): v. 2, 14, 98; vi 1, 18,
Sopliron, Fragy. 24, 151; 32, 147; 181; vii 8, 15 0, 155. Cyrop, à
84, 1274 nê, 151; 68, 156; 108, 4,91, 89, 274; xi, 2, 15, 184
127; 110, 156
Sotades, Frag., 189

Theognis, Frag., 85 Scriptores Incerti, 17, 18, 26, 42, 63,

Theophrastus, Fragy. (mr. AdEews), TO. 89, 91, 115, 116, 117, 121, 128,
41, HA, 193, 222 138, 144, 145, 149, 151, 158, 16L,
Thsopompus, Frag. 240, 27, 247 171, 172, 187, 188, 198, 207, 214,
Timcydides, | 1 inib,, 44; 1.6, 25; D17, 288, 237, 288, 259, 267, 258,
à 24, 72, 100; ij. 48, 83; 5 49, 265, 282, 286, 302, 803

ADDITIONAL NOTE ON DEMETRIUS, $ 172

Contributed by D'Arey W, Thompson,

KAnpuwrig Aiyumrria. The silusion is obscure and the identification

of the plant nncertain. Clematis qem of Pliny (N.B, xxiv, 141), the
tInuaris of Dioscorides (iv. 7), |S à Jo ing T wink], PV, herôncem,
Tor which, however, Black Bryany is t rn tha great illusivated
Vienna Cudex; amother Clematis (Plin, xxiv. 84, Diose. iv, 180) ig our
common Travellers Joy, the d9payévm Of Theophrastus. Not one of
these threo suggests a tall and swarthy map, We are no better off if
xa translate (with BR. D, Hicks, Diog, Laer, vii, 1. 9), “Egyptian vino
braneh "3 Forta D-gin with, the phrase '* Beyptiar Clematis " is manifestiy
teghnical; secondly, there wero many sorts ot vina in Egypt, not ong in
particular ; and justin so far as wo Encw, Lob ons of them was more tham
commonly dark or tail,

Prênied in Great Britain by R. & R, CraRx, Liirao, Edindarçã

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Senaso: Groanaray, Horace L, Jones. 8 Vols. (Vols. 1
and VHI 3rd Imp., Vols. 11, V and Vi Qad Imp)
Texorunastos: CHanactTERS. J. M. Edmonds; HrroDEs,
ete. A, D. Knox. (2nd Imp.)
Tuxorgrastus: Exquiar into Pranrs. Sir Arthur Hort,
2 Vols (Quad Imp.)
Tuucrpibes, CP. Smith. 4 Vols. (3d Imp.)
Tayrmroporus. Cf, OprIAN.
Xuxormon: Crnoparpra. Walter Míller. 2 Vols (Vol. E
2nd Imp. Vol. TI 8rd Imp.)
XexorHon: HELLENICA, ÁNABASIS, ÁpoLOGY, AND Synpo-.
sum. C, L. Brownson and O. d. Todd. 3 Vols. (Vols. l
and EE 87d Imp., Vol, IT dth Limp.)
Xxsomrox: Mamonanicia AND Orconomicus. E. C. Mar-
chant. (2nd Imp.) o o.
Xenorgon: Scnirra Misgra. E. CG. Marchant. (Ind Imp.)

(For Polumes in Preparation aco nexé page.)

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SGREEK AUTHORS

Anistorie: De Mumsno, ete. JD, Purley and E, S. Forster.

Anisrorze: Hisrony or Animais. A. L. Peck.
Prorrsus. A. H. Armstrong. 4

LATIN AUTHORS

Sr, Aveusring: Crry or Gop,

[Cicero:] Av Hesensrom, HM Caplan.
Crceno: Pro Sestro, In Varenium, Pro Cagrro, De Pro-
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Gardner,
Pragpaus anD orHER Faguizsrs DB, E, Perry,

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