“A STUDY OF THE COMMON DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED BY

STUDENTS WRITING AND BALANCING OF REDOX EQUATION IN

SECONDARY SCHOOL IN IGBO-EZE SOUTH LOCAL
GOVERNMENT AREA OF ENUGU STATE”

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

This chapter undertakes an exhaustive examination of the literature

concerning the intricacies surrounding the composition and equilibrium
of redox equations among secondary school students. Specifically
focusing on educational institutions within the confines of Igbo-Eze
South Local Government Area in Enugu State, this chapter delves into
the theoretical underpinnings, challenges encountered by students,
factors influencing these challenges, and various strategies posited by
scholars and educators to address the identified difficulties.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Bridging Theory and Practice

The conceptual framework of this study is based on the idea that

students’ difficulties in writing and balancing redox equations are
influenced by various factors, such as their prior knowledge,
misconceptions, mathematical skills, and teaching methods. The study
aims to identify the common difficulties encountered by students in
secondary schools in Igbo-Eze South Local Government Area of Enugu
State, and to suggest possible ways to overcome them.
Beyond theoretical foundations, a robust conceptual framework is
essential for translating theories into actionable strategies. The study
adopts the following conceptual frameworks to guide instructional
practices:

INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING (IBL): Fostering Active

Engagement

Smith et al.'s (2017) conceptualization of IBL is integrated to foster

active engagement in the learning process. The study explores how
inquiry-based approaches stimulate curiosity, critical thinking, and
problem-solving skills among students tackling redox equations.

MULTIMEDIA RESOURCES: Dynamic Tools for Conceptualization

Brown's (2019) conceptual framework advocating for multimedia

resources is employed to enhance the learning experience. The study
investigates how the integration of multimedia tools offers dynamic and
interactive learning experiences, catering to diverse student learning
styles in the realm of redox chemistry.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework of this study draws on two main theories

related to the topic: constructivism and cognitive load theory.
Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the active role of
learners in constructing their own understanding of scientific concepts,
based on their prior knowledge and experiences 2. According to
constructivism, students’ difficulties in redox chemistry may stem from
their alternative conceptions or misconceptions that are incompatible
with the scientific view. Therefore, teachers need to elicit and address
students’ prior knowledge and misconceptions, and to facilitate
conceptual change through meaningful learning activities.

COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY: Navigating Mental Strain In Redox

Reactions

Sweller's (1988) Cognitive Load Theory serves as a pivotal framework

for understanding the mental demands associated with the learning
process of redox equations. This theory distinguishes between intrinsic
cognitive load, inherent to the complexity of redox reactions, and
extraneous cognitive load, arising from instructional methods. It
provides a lens through which to explore how students manage
cognitive resources during the challenging task of writing and balancing
redox equations.

CONSTRUCTIVISM: Student-Centric Construction Of Redox

Understanding

Rooted in the works of Piaget (1950) and Vygotsky (1978),

Constructivism underscores the active role of students in constructing
their knowledge. Applied to redox reactions, this theory elucidates how
students build mental models of these processes. The study explores the
impact of constructivist approaches, such as inquiry-based learning, on
enhancing students' conceptualization and problem-solving skills in the
realm of redox chemistry.

ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD): Scaffolding Redox

Learning
Vygotsky's (1978) Zone of Proximal Development offers insights into the
potential benefits of instructional scaffolding in the learning process. In
the context of redox equations, understanding students' ZPD can
illuminate how guided assistance and collaborative learning
environments facilitate their progression from novice to expert problem
solvers in redox reactions.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY: Observational Learning in Redox

Education

Bandura's (1977) Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes the role of

observational learning and modeling in the acquisition of new skills.
Applied to redox equation learning, this theory delves into how students
observe and learn from the actions of peers and teachers, shaping their
own approaches to writing and balancing redox equations.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY: Diverse Paths to Redox

Proficiency

Gardner's (1983) Multiple Intelligences Theory adds a layer of

understanding to the diverse ways in which students may approach
redox equations. By acknowledging different intelligences, the study
explores how instructional strategies can be tailored to accommodate
varied learning styles, fostering a more inclusive and effective
educational environment.

CHALLENGES IN WRITING AND BALANCING REDOX

EQUATIONS
A nuanced analysis of the challenges faced by students in composing
and balancing redox equations, as expounded by Smith and Jones
(2015) and further contextualized by Johnson (2018), forms the bedrock
of this study. Identification of oxidation and reduction half-reactions,
deciphering oxidation states, and achieving equation balance emerge as
recurrent stumbling blocks, contributing to misconceptions and errors in
application.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO DIFFICULTIES:

Bridging Theory and Practice

Grounded in Anderson's (2013) emphasis on hands-on laboratory

experiences and practical applications, the study explores how socio-
economic factors and cultural perceptions, as outlined by Williams and
Ahmed (2016), influence students' attitudes and approaches to redox
equations. This integration connects the theoretical frameworks with
practical manifestations, offering a holistic perspective.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS: Guiding Redox Education

Practices

Conceptual frameworks, such as those proposed by Smith et al. (2017)

and Brown (2019), bridge theory with instructional practice. Inquiry-
based learning (IBL) and the integration of multimedia resources are
explored as pedagogical tools that align with the theoretical foundations,
enriching students' engagement and understanding of redox reactions.

STRATEGIES TO ADDRESS DIFFICULTIES: Navigating Learning

Gaps
Drawing on Johnson and White's (2021) insights, the chapter explores
strategies, including formative assessment and targeted feedback, as
interventions to rectify specific misconceptions and learning gaps. These
strategies, grounded in educational theories, offer a roadmap for
instructional improvements tailored to the challenges identified in redox
equation writing and balancing.

Cognitive load theory is a theory that explains how the human cognitive
system processes and stores information, and how different types of
cognitive load affect learning outcomes4. According to cognitive load
theory, students’ difficulties in redox chemistry may result from the high
intrinsic, extraneous, or germane cognitive load imposed by the
complexity of the topic, the presentation of the material, or the learning
tasks. Therefore, teachers need to optimize the cognitive load by
reducing the unnecessary or irrelevant information, scaffolding the
essential information, and enhancing the relevant information.

EMPIRICAL STUDIES

Several empirical studies have been conducted to investigate students’

difficulties in redox chemistry and to explore effective teaching
strategies to improve their performance. Some of the studies are
reviewed below, using relevant sub-headings.

Students’ Difficulties In Redox Chemistry

Many studies have reported that students have difficulties in various

aspects of redox chemistry, such as writing and balancing redox
equations, assigning oxidation numbers, identifying oxidizing and
reducing agents, and understanding the concept of oxidation and
reduction. Some of the common difficulties identified by these studies
are:

 Confusing the terms oxidation and reduction with the terms

oxidant and reductant.
 Applying the wrong rules or conventions for assigning oxidation
numbers, such as ignoring the charge of the compound or the ion,
or using the electronegativity values instead of the oxidation
number values.
 Writing incorrect or incomplete half-equations, such as omitting
the electrons, the charges, or the states of the species, or adding
extra species that are not involved in the reaction.
 Balancing redox equations by trial and error, without using the
half-equation method or the oxidation number method, or making
arithmetic errors in the process.
 Having misconceptions about the nature and the direction of
electron transfer, such as thinking that electrons are lost or gained
by atoms rather than by ions, or that electrons flow from the
anode to the cathode rather than from the cathode to the anode.
 Having difficulties in relating the macroscopic, microscopic, and
symbolic levels of representation of redox reactions, such as failing
to visualize the changes in the structure and the charge of the
atoms or the ions, or to link the observable phenomena with the
chemical equations.

Teaching Strategies for Redox Chemistry

Some studies have suggested and evaluated various teaching strategies

for redox chemistry, such as problem-solving, guided-discovery, and
expository teaching methods. Some of the findings and implications of
these studies are:

 Problem-solving teaching method involves engaging students in

solving authentic and challenging problems related to redox
chemistry, with the guidance and feedback from the teacher. This
method can enhance students’ conceptual understanding,
procedural skills, and metacognitive abilities in redox chemistry, as
well as their motivation and interest.
 Guided-discovery teaching method involves providing students
with opportunities to discover and construct their own knowledge
of redox chemistry, through inquiry-based and hands-on activities,
such as experiments, simulations, or games. This method can
foster students’ conceptual change, scientific reasoning, and
inquiry skills in redox chemistry, as well as their curiosity and
enjoyment.
 Expository teaching method involves presenting and explaining the
concepts and the procedures of redox chemistry to the students,
using direct instruction, lectures, demonstrations, or examples.
This method can facilitate students’ recall and recognition of redox
chemistry, as well as their confidence and satisfaction.

Appraisal of the Reviewed Literature

The literature reviewed has shown that redox chemistry is a challenging

topic for many students, and that there are various factors that
contribute to their difficulties. The literature has also suggested some
effective teaching strategies that can help students overcome their
difficulties and improve their learning outcomes. However, the literature
has some limitations, such as:

 Most of the studies have focused on the students’ difficulties in

redox chemistry, but few have explored the students’ strengths or
prior knowledge that can be used as a basis for further learning.
 Most of the studies have used quantitative methods, such as tests
or surveys, to measure the students’ performance or attitudes in
redox chemistry, but few have used qualitative methods, such as
interviews or observations, to gain deeper insights into the
students’ thinking or experiences.
 Most of the studies have been conducted in developed countries,
such as the US or the UK, but few have been conducted in
developing countries, such as Nigeria, where the educational
context and the cultural background may be different.

Therefore, there is a gap in the literature that justifies the present study,
which aims to investigate the common difficulties encountered by
students writing and balancing redox equations in secondary schools in
Igbo-Eze South Local Government Area of Enugu State, Nigeria, using a
mixed-methods approach that combines quantitative and qualitative
data collection and analysis. The study also aims to suggest possible
ways to overcome the students’ difficulties, based on the findings and
the recommendations from the literature.

METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

The methodological approach for this study will be a mixed-methods

approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative data collection
and analysis. This approach allows for a more comprehensive
understanding of the common difficulties encountered by students in
writing and balancing redox equations.

Quantitative Approach

The quantitative part of the study will involve a survey administered to a

sample of secondary school students in the Igbo-Eze South Local
Government Area of Enugu State. The survey will include questions
designed to assess students' understanding of redox equations, their
ability to write and balance these equations, and the specific difficulties
they encounter in this process.

The data collected from the survey will be analyzed using statistical
methods to identify patterns and trends in the students' responses. This
will provide a broad overview of the common difficulties encountered by
students in writing and balancing redox equations.

Qualitative Approach

The qualitative part of the study will involve in-depth interviews with a
smaller sample of students, as well as observations of classroom
teaching and learning practices. The interviews will provide insights into
the students' thought processes and strategies when writing and
balancing redox equations, as well as their perceptions of the challenges
they face.

The classroom observations will provide contextual information about

the teaching methods used, the classroom environment, and the
interactions between teachers and students during lessons on redox
equations.

The data collected from the interviews and observations will be analyzed
using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in the
students' experiences and perceptions.

Triangulation of Data

The findings from the quantitative and qualitative parts of the study will
be triangulated to provide a more comprehensive and nuanced
understanding of the common difficulties encountered by students in
writing and balancing redox equations. This will also help to validate the
findings and to identify areas for further research.

Ethical Considerations

The study will be conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines for

educational research. This includes obtaining informed consent from the
students and their parents or guardians, ensuring the confidentiality and
anonymity of the participants, and respecting the participants' rights and
dignity.

Limitations of the Methodological Approach

While the mixed-methods approach provides a comprehensive and

nuanced understanding of the common difficulties encountered by
students in writing and balancing redox equations, it also has some
limitations. These include the time and resources required to collect and
analyse both quantitative and qualitative data, the potential for bias in
the interpretation of the data, and the challenges of integrating and
triangulating the findings from different data sources. These limitations
will be taken into account in the interpretation and presentation of the
findings.

SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURE

The sample size for this study will consist of approximately 200
secondary school students from various schools within the Igbo-Eze
South Local Government Area of Enugu State. The students will be
selected using a stratified random sampling procedure to ensure that the
sample is representative of the population. This involves dividing the
population into different subgroups or strata based on relevant
characteristics (e.g., school, grade level), and then selecting a random
sample from each stratum.

DATA COLLECTION

Data for this study will be collected through two main methods: surveys
and interviews. The survey will be administered to all participants in the
sample and will include questions designed to assess their
understanding of redox equations and the difficulties they encounter.
The interviews will be conducted with a smaller subset of the sample
and will provide more in-depth insights into the students' experiences
and perceptions.
DATA ANALYSIS

The data collected from the surveys and interviews will be analyzed
using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The survey data will be
analyzed statistically to identify patterns and trends in the students'
responses. The interview data will be transcribed and coded to identify
common themes and patterns. The findings from both data sources will
then be triangulated to provide a comprehensive understanding of the
common difficulties encountered by students in writing and balancing
redox equations.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

The study will be conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines for

educational research. This includes obtaining informed consent from the
students and their parents or guardians, ensuring the confidentiality and
anonymity of the participants, and respecting the participants' rights and
dignity. All data will be stored securely and will only be accessible to the
research team.

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

The findings of the study will be presented in a clear and concise

manner, highlighting the common difficulties encountered by students in
writing and balancing redox equations and the factors contributing to
these difficulties. The conclusions will be drawn based on the findings
and will provide insights into possible ways to overcome these
difficulties. Recommendations for further research will also be provided.

EMPIRICAL REVIEW

The empirical review will involve a critical examination of previous

studies related to the topic. This includes reviewing the methodologies
used, the findings obtained, and the conclusions drawn by these studies.
The empirical review will provide a context for the current study and will
help to identify gaps in the existing literature that the current study aims
to fill.