INSTA PT 2024 Exclusive Science and Technology

INSTA PT 2024
EXCLUSIVE
SCIENCE &
TECHNOLOGY
MAY 2023 – JANUARY 2024
INSTA PT 2024 EXCLUSIVE (SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY)
NOTES
Table of Contents
Space Technology ......................................................................................................... 5
(Indian Space Programmes)............................................................................................................ 5
1. SQUARE KILOMETRE ARRAY (SKA) PROJECT ............................................................................ 5
2. ISRO AND CHANDRAYAAN-3 MISSION ..................................................................................... 5
3. LASER COMMUNICATION WITH CHANDRAYAAN-3 LANDER .................................................... 8
4. LUPEX MISSION ...................................................................................................................... 9
5. ASPEX: ISRO'S ADITYA L1 SPACECRAFT .................................................................................... 9
6. SEMI-CRYOGENIC ENGINE .................................................................................................... 11
7. ISRO’S OWN NEXT-GEN LAUNCH VEHICLE (NGLV) ................................................................. 11
(NASA Missions)............................................................................................................................ 12
1. NASA’S LUNAR GATEWAY STATION ....................................................................................... 12
2. HYDROGEN CYANIDE ............................................................................................................ 12
3. TEMPO SATELLITE ................................................................................................................ 12
4. INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION (ISS) .................................................................................. 13
5. ATMOSPHERIC WAVES EXPERIMENT..................................................................................... 13
6. NASA'S PSYCHE SPACECRAFT ................................................................................................ 14
7. CALIPSO MISSION ................................................................................................................. 14
8. NASA’S OSIRIS-REX ............................................................................................................... 15
9. STEREO (SOLAR TERRESTRIAL RELATIONS OBSERVATORY) MISSION ...................................... 16
10. NASA'S PARKER SOLAR PROBE .......................................................................................... 16
(Other Missions) ........................................................................................................................... 16
1. DIRECT-TO-CELL ................................................................................................................... 16
2. EINSTEIN PROBE (EP) ............................................................................................................ 17
3. PROBA-3 MISSION ................................................................................................................ 17
4. SLIM SPACECRAFT ................................................................................................................ 18
(Space related Concepts) .............................................................................................................. 18
1. PLASMA WAVES IN THE MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE .................................................................. 18
2. USE OF INSAT SATELLITES TO ANALYSE FOG .......................................................................... 19
3. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) .................................................................................... 19
4. AGE OF MOON ..................................................................................................................... 20
5. SUBSURFACE WATER ICE MAPPING (SWIM) PROJECT ........................................................... 20
6. ASTEROID DINKINESH ........................................................................................................... 21
7. CONCEPT OF WHITE HOLE AND BIG BOUNCE ........................................................................ 21
8. POLARIZED EMISSIONS FROM AN EXTRAGALACTIC BLACK HOLE............................................ 22
9. SATURN'S RINGS................................................................................................................... 22
10. COSEISMIC IONOSPHERIC PERTURBATIONS (CIP) .............................................................. 23
11. GHOST PARTICLE .............................................................................................................. 24
12. BUBBLE OF GALAXIES........................................................................................................ 24
13. GEOSPATIAL INTELLIGENCE .............................................................................................. 24
14. PLANET MERCURY ............................................................................................................ 26
15. GALACTIC TIDES................................................................................................................ 26
16. RED GIANT STAR BETELGEUSE .......................................................................................... 26
17. X-CLASS SOLAR FLARE ....................................................................................................... 27
Defence Technology ................................................................................................... 28

1. DRDO ANTI-DRONE TECH - DRONE, DETECT, DETER AND DESTROY (D4 SYSTEM) ................... 28
2. DRISHTI 10 STARLINER .......................................................................................................... 28
3. NEW GENERATION AKASH MISSILE ....................................................................................... 28
4. ASW SHALLOW WATER CRAFT (CSL) PROJECT ....................................................................... 28
5. INS IMPHAL .......................................................................................................................... 29
6. LIGHT COMBAT HELICOPTER PRACHAND .............................................................................. 30
www.insightsonindia.com 1 InsightsIAS
NOTES
7. PROJECT KUSHA ................................................................................................................... 30
8. MIG-21 FIGHTER JETS ........................................................................................................... 31
9. IGLA-S .................................................................................................................................. 31
10. ASTRA MISSILES ................................................................................................................ 32
11. 'PRALAY' BALLISTIC MISSILES ............................................................................................. 32
12. DHANUSH GUNS............................................................................................................... 32
13. VARUNASTRA ................................................................................................................... 32
Technologies / New Discoveries .................................................................................. 34

1. RADIOCARBON DATING ........................................................................................................ 34
2. DIRECT-TO-MOBILE (D2M) TECHNOLOGY SERVICES .............................................................. 34
3. ELECTRIC BATTERY ............................................................................................................... 35
4. SOLID-STATE BATTERY .......................................................................................................... 36
5. ROOM TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTIVITY ........................................................................ 37
6. AMATERASU......................................................................................................................... 37
7. END-TO-END ENCRYPTION ................................................................................................... 38
8. DYNAMIC WIRELESS CHARGING TECHNOLOGY ..................................................................... 38
9. E INK DISPLAYS ..................................................................................................................... 39
10. GEMINI............................................................................................................................. 39
11. IBM’S CONDOR ................................................................................................................. 39
12. MAJORANA ZERO MODES ................................................................................................. 41
13. AI SUPERCOMPUTER ‘AIRAWAT’ ....................................................................................... 42
14. FRACTALS ......................................................................................................................... 42
15. 'AMRIT' TECHNOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 42
16. WEB 3.0 ........................................................................................................................... 43
17. KRUTRIM .......................................................................................................................... 43
18. MULTIMODAL ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE .......................................................................... 44
19. TOUCHSCREENS ............................................................................................................... 45
20. FORMALDEHYDE .............................................................................................................. 45
21. KAVACH............................................................................................................................ 45
22. FIBRE OPTIC CABLES ......................................................................................................... 46
23. 5G NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE ....................................................................................... 46
24. 6G TECHNOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 48
25. JIOSPACEFIBER ................................................................................................................. 49
26. SIM CARDS ....................................................................................................................... 49
27. NANOPHOTONIC ELECTRON ACCELERATOR (NEA) ............................................................ 50
28. LIGO-INDIA ....................................................................................................................... 50
29. BS 6 STAGE II 'ELECTRIFIED FLEX FUEL VEHICLE' ................................................................ 52
30. ADVANCED DRIVER ASSISTANCE SYSTEMS (ADAS) ............................................................. 53
31. HIGGS BOSON DECAY ....................................................................................................... 54
32. FOUCAULT PENDULUM .................................................................................................... 55
Nuclear Technology .................................................................................................... 56

1. ANEEL (ADVANCED NUCLEAR ENERGY FOR ENRICHED LIFE) .................................................. 56
2. NUCLEAR BATTERY ............................................................................................................... 56
3. JT-60SA (NUCLEAR FUSION REACTOR) .................................................................................. 56
4. NUCLEAR FUSION ................................................................................................................. 56
5. FOURTH-GENERATION NUCLEAR PLANT ............................................................................... 58
6. KAKRAPAR-4 NUCLEAR REACTOR .......................................................................................... 58
7. NUCLEAR MEDICINE ............................................................................................................. 59
Government Initiatives /Departments ........................................................................ 60

1. MARINE ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEMS SECTIONAL COMMITTEE (MECSSC) ........................ 60
NOTES
2. MOVING OFF INFORMATION SYSTEMS (MOIS) ...................................................................... 60
3. AGNI – ‘AYURVEDA GYAN NAIPUNYA INITIATIVE’ .................................................................. 60
4. BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM ..................................................................................... 61
5. NATIONAL CONSORTIUM...................................................................................................... 62
6. SAGAR SAMPARK.................................................................................................................. 62
Biotechnology ............................................................................................................ 64
1. NEWBORN GENOME-SEQUENCING ...................................................................................... 64
2. POPULATION-LEVEL GENOME SEQUENCING ......................................................................... 64
3. GENOME SEQUENCING OF JAMUN ....................................................................................... 64
4. ANTHROBOTS ....................................................................................................................... 65
5. CRISPR TECHNOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 65
6. CASGEVY .............................................................................................................................. 66
7. CAR-T CELL THERAPY ............................................................................................................ 67
8. GENE DRIVE TECHNOLOGY ................................................................................................... 68
9. STEM CELLS .......................................................................................................................... 68
10. METAGENOME SEQUENCING ........................................................................................... 70
11. SOMATIC GENETIC VARIANTS ........................................................................................... 70
12. Y CHROMOSOME.............................................................................................................. 71
13. MITOCHONDRIAL DONATION TREATMENT (MDT) ............................................................. 71
Health ........................................................................................................................ 72
1. ZOSURABALPIN .................................................................................................................... 72
2. BIO-IMAGING BANK.............................................................................................................. 72
3. INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES (ICD) - 11 ...................................................... 72
4. HYDROXYCHLOROQUINE ...................................................................................................... 72
5. CAMEROON (AFRICA) LAUNCHED MOSQUIRIX ...................................................................... 73
6. OPERATION AMRITH (AMRITH - ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE INTERVENTION FOR TOTAL
HEALTH) ...................................................................................................................................... 73
7. FIXED-DOSE COMBINATION .................................................................................................. 74
8. PANDEMIC TREATY AND DISEASE X ....................................................................................... 74
9. HAVISURE............................................................................................................................. 74
10. CLINICAL TRIALS ............................................................................................................... 75
11. DRESS SYNDROME ............................................................................................................ 76
12. AKTOCYTE ........................................................................................................................ 76
13. E-CIGARETTES................................................................................................................... 76
14. NOMA .............................................................................................................................. 77
15. LATHYRISM....................................................................................................................... 77
16. HUNTINGTON’S DISEASE................................................................................................... 78
17. TUBERCULOSIS (TB) .......................................................................................................... 78
18. GENERIC DRUGS FOR RARE DISEASE CURE ........................................................................ 79
19. PNEUMONIA .................................................................................................................... 80
20. HEMOCHROMATOSIS ....................................................................................................... 80
21. LYMPHATIC FILARIASIS...................................................................................................... 80
22. NIEMANN-PICK DISEASE ................................................................................................... 80
23. HAEMOGLOBIN ................................................................................................................ 81
24. DEMENTIA........................................................................................................................ 81
25. RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS (RSV) INFECTION ............................................................. 81
26. NIPAH VIRUS .................................................................................................................... 82
27. GUILLAIN-BARRE SYNDROME ............................................................................................ 82
28. CRIMEAN-CONGO HAEMORRHAGIC FEVER (CCHF) VIRUS.................................................. 82
29. PHAGE THERAPY ............................................................................................................... 83
30. SUPER-ENGINEERED VACCINES CREATED TO HELP END POLIO .......................................... 83
NOTES
31. LEPTOSPIROSIS ................................................................................................................. 84
32. ONE-SHOT CHIKUNGUNYA VACCINE ................................................................................. 84
Miscellaneous............................................................................................................. 85
1. CHAMELEON TROJAN ........................................................................................................... 85
2. LITHIUM EXPLORATION ........................................................................................................ 85
3. CENTRE FOR FOURTH INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (C4IR)......................................................... 85
4. EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSE .................................................................................................... 86
5. EXECUTION USING NITROGEN GAS ....................................................................................... 86
6. BARRACUDA ......................................................................................................................... 87
7. DARK FIBER .......................................................................................................................... 87
8. ZERO TRUST AUTHENTICATION (ZTA).................................................................................... 87
9. AMMONIA............................................................................................................................ 87
10. 'REFERENCE' FUEL ............................................................................................................ 88
11. SEMICONDUCTOR ............................................................................................................ 88
12. WHITE HYDROGEN ........................................................................................................... 89
13. CARBON NANOFLORETS ................................................................................................... 89
14. DEEPFAKES ....................................................................................................................... 89
15. UNUSUAL NITROGEN-9 ISOTOPE ...................................................................................... 91
16. FOUR FUNDAMENTAL FORCES OF THE UNIVERSE ............................................................. 91
17. THALLIUM POISONING ..................................................................................................... 92
18. DARK PATTERN ................................................................................................................. 92
19. CRITICAL RAW MATERIALS ACT ......................................................................................... 92
20. SPAMOUFLAGE AND SMISHING SCAM .............................................................................. 93
21. GRAVITY HOLE .................................................................................................................. 93
22. GALLIUM AND GERMANIUM............................................................................................. 93
NOTES
Space Technology
(Indian Space Programmes)
1. Square Kilometre Array (SKA) project

Union Cabinet has approved the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) project, the world's largest radio
telescope, involving international collaboration, including India's participation with a financial
commitment.
Major aspects of the Project:

Nature of Development of the world's largest radio telescope. Giant Metre wave Radio
Project Telescope (GMRT) is playing a role in SKAO
Participating Australia, Canada, China, India, Italy, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden, the
Countries Netherlands, UK (hosting headquarters)
India's Role India joined SKAO in 2012 as an Associate Member and has actively
participated in the pre-construction phase of the SKA telescopes
Project Study galaxies in the universe, map visible galaxies with unprecedented
Objective detail, provide data on the evolution of our galaxy, and search for signs of
extra-terrestrial life, Detect Gravitational Waves
Observatory Square Kilometre Array Observatory (SKAO) - an intergovernmental
Structure organization headquartered in the UK. SKAO will consist of one global
observatory, operating two telescopes, across three sites. Two SKA
telescopes will be at radio-quiet sites in South Africa and Australia. They will
operate as one large unit.
Construction Two phases - SKA1 construction started in December 2022, with operations
Phases expected to begin by 2029
Key Activities Rapid scanning of the skies, detailed mapping of visible galaxies, collection
of survey data for insights into the early evolution of our galaxy, and the
search for extraterrestrial life
2. ISRO and Chandrayaan-3 mission

The Chandrayaan-3 mission's successful soft landing on the Moon marks India's significant
achievement, becoming the fourth nation in history to reach the lunar surface.
Historical overview of ISRO's major programs – satellites, launch vehicles, and planetary
exploration.
Program Key Achievements
Satellite Programs
Aryabhata (1975) Marked India's entry into space era; conducted experiments in X-ray
astronomy, aeronomics, and solar physics.
Bhaskar-1 & Experimental remote-sensing satellites laying the groundwork for
Bhaskar-2 Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) Satellite system.
IRS-1A (1988) Launched Earth Observation spacecraft aiding land-based applications
like agriculture, forestry, etc.
INSAT Series Initiated communication revolution, providing nationwide connectivity,
broadcasting, meteorological info, etc.
IRNSS (NavIC) Started for terrestrial, aerial, marine navigation, location-based
(2013) services, etc.
Launch Vehicle Programs
1963 Nike Apache Initial rocket launch; 'sounding rocket' experiment.
SLV-3 (1980) India's first launch vehicle; entry into space-faring nations.
PSLV Reliable and versatile workhorse; enabled critical space missions.
NOTES
GSLV Addressed PSLV's limitations; introduced cryogenic engines.
GSLV Mk-III Heaviest launch vehicle; used for Chandrayaan-2 and Chandrayaan-3
missions.
Planetary Exploration
Chandrayaan-1 Detected water on the Moon; the fifth country to reach the lunar
(2008) surface.
Mangalyaan First interplanetary mission; reached Mars orbit, showcasing
(2013) interplanetary technology.
Chandrayaan-2 Aimed for lunar exploration but faced a setback with the lander's soft
(2019) landing.
Chandrayaan-3 Achieved a successful soft landing on the Moon, contributing to India's
(2023) lunar capabilities.
Challenges of landing on the Moon's South Pole:

Challenges are primarily due to the difficult terrain, extreme temperatures, and areas of
permanent shadow. Unlike previous spacecraft that landed near the lunar equator, the South
Pole presents greater difficulties with its rugged landscape, extreme cold, and regions that never
receive sunlight.
NOTES
However, despite these challenges, ISRO is interested in exploring the Moon's South Pole for
several important reasons:
• Water Resources: The South Pole region is believed to contain significant amounts of water
molecules, potentially trapped as ice in shadowed craters.
o Confirming the presence of water is crucial for planning future human missions and
utilizing lunar resources.
• Scientific Discoveries: The harsh environment and the existence of permanently shadowed
areas offer a unique window into the Moon's history and the early Solar System.
o Studying this region can provide valuable insights into the origins and evolution of
celestial bodies.
• Clues to Earth's History: The Moon is thought to have formed from the debris of a massive
impact between a Mars-sized object and early Earth.
o Exploring the lunar South Pole can shed light on the materials and conditions that
existed during this critical event.
• Global Collaborations: Successful collaborations between ISRO and NASA have previously
confirmed the presence of water on the Moon.
o Partnerships like the Indo-Japan LUPEX mission aim to explore the South Pole
further.
• Technological Advancements: Undertaking missions to the lunar South Pole allows ISRO to
develop and showcase innovative technologies. This includes advancements in soft landing
techniques, navigation systems, resource utilization, and long-duration operations that can
have broad applications in future space missions.
Instruments and Experiments on Chandrayaan 3:

Lander Experiments:
• Radio Anatomy of Moon Bound Hypersensitive Ionosphere and Atmosphere (RAMBHA):
This experiment studies the electrons and ions near the moon's surface, investigating their
behaviour and changes over time.
• Chandra's Surface Thermo Physical Experiment (ChaSTE): ChaSTE focuses on the thermal
properties of the lunar surface near the polar region, contributing to our understanding of
temperature variations.
• Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA): ILSA measures lunar quakes near the landing
site, analyzing the composition of the Moon's crust and mantle through seismic activity.
• LASER Retroreflector Array (LRA): This passive experiment, provided by NASA, acts as a target
for lasers, enabling precise measurements for future missions.
Rover Experiments:
• LASER-Induced Breakdown Spectroscope (LIBS): LIBS determines the chemical and mineral
composition of the lunar surface, offering insights into its geological makeup.
• Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS): APXS identifies elements like magnesium,
aluminium, silicon, and more in the lunar soil and rocks, contributing to our understanding of
lunar materials.
Study objectives of the mission:

Objective Details
Discovery The southern polar region of the Moon, characterized by deep craters in
of Water permanent darkness, is believed to contain water ice. Previously,
Chandrayaan-1 instruments discovered water and hydroxyl (OH) molecules in
the Moon's thin atmosphere and on the lunar surface.
Buried Lava Chandrayaan-1's terrain mapping camera and hyperspectral imager found
Tubes evidence of underground lava tubes. These structures offer a potentially safe
habitat for humans in the future, shielding against radiation, meteoric
impacts, extreme temperatures, and dust storms on the lunar surface.
NOTES
Magma The Moon's formation from an impact that led to surface melting, called the
Ocean magma ocean hypothesis, was studied by Chandrayaan-1's M3 payload. This
Thesis will be further studied by this mission.
Dynamic Contrary to the belief of lunar dormancy, Chandrayaan-1 revealed the
Moon Moon's dynamic nature interacting with the exosphere. Terrain mapping
camera identified volcanic vents, lava ponds, and channels as recent as 100
million years old, indicating recent volcanic activity.
Solar Flares Chandrayaan-2's Solar X-Ray Monitor observed solar microflares beyond the
active region, analyzing elemental abundance from the solar corona.
Mapping of CLASS X-ray Fluorescence experiment mapped approximately 95% of the
Minerals lunar surface using X-rays, a significant improvement compared to past
missions. The new mission will further explore abundant oxygen in mineral
oxides on the Moon, potentially exploitable as fuel for future space missions.
About Luna 25: Russia's Lunar Mission:

Luna 25 was a Russian lunar mission launched by Roscosmos on August 11, 2023. The mission
aimed to soft-land a lander near the moon's south pole to study moondust, moon soil, and the
atmosphere. However, the mission encountered a glitch and crashed on the moon's surface,
ending in failure.
About LVM3:
Launch Vehicle Mark 3 (LVM3) (previously known as GSLV-MK III) is a three-stage launch
vehicle consisting of two solid propellants S200 strap-ons on its sides and a core
stage comprising L110 liquid stage and C25 cryogenic stage. The vehicle is also dubbed as one of
the heaviest for its ability to carry satellites up to 8,000 kg.
Pragyan rover confirms sulphur:

India's Chandrayaan-3 mission's Pragyan rover has confirmed the existence of sulphur on the
moon's surface near the south pole.
• This discovery was enabled by the Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) instrument
onboard the rover, marking the first in-situ measurements of the lunar surface's elemental
composition in this region.
• The LIBS technique involves using intense laser pulses to analyse materials, creating hot and
localized plasma whose emitted light is then studied to determine the material's elemental
composition.
The analysis has also revealed the presence of elements like aluminium, calcium, iron,
chromium, titanium, manganese, silicon, and oxygen on the lunar surface.
3. Laser Communication with Chandrayaan-3 Lander

NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) has successfully pinged India's Chandrayaan-3
mission's Vikram lander on the Moon using a laser instrument.
The laser beam was transmitted and reflected between the LRO and a retroreflector on the
Vikram lander, located near the Moon's south pole. The Laser Retroreflector Array on
Chandrayaan-3's lander, developed in partnership between NASA and ISRO, has started serving
as a marker or reference point on the Moon.
Significance: This achievement opens up new possibilities for precisely locating targets on the
lunar surface. The technique holds potential for future lunar missions utilizing retroreflectors.
About Laser communication (also known as optical communication):
NOTES
• It is a method of transmitting information using laser beams. Instead of traditional radio
frequency signals, laser communication relies on light waves to carry data.
• It involves modulating the intensity of a laser beam to encode digital data, which is then
transmitted and received by specialized equipment.
• Laser communication offers advantages such as higher data transfer rates, greater bandwidth,
and potentially more secure communication channels
4. LUPEX Mission
Aspect Details
Mission LUPEX (Lunar Polar Exploration) is a collaborative mission between ISRO and
JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) scheduled for 2024-25.
Target Area Polar regions of the Moon, including permanently shaded regions
Objectives Explore lunar polar regions, investigate water abundance, study lunar surface
conditions, and potential for establishing long-term stations
Power Onboard battery for landing in permanently shaded areas
Source
Components Launch vehicle and rover (contributed by JAXA)
Lander (provided by ISRO)
Importance Aims to study regions of the Moon not well-illuminated by the Sun
Focuses on understanding water distribution and potential for future
exploration
Investigate conditions for potential lunar habitats
Contributes to India's lunar exploration capabilities
5. ASPEX: ISRO's Aditya L1 spacecraft

ISRO's Aditya L1 spacecraft, launched in September to explore the Sun, has activated its second
instrument, ASPEX (Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment).
What is ASPEX?
ASPEX, or the Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment, is a scientific instrument on ISRO's Aditya
L1 spacecraft designed to study solar wind particles. It comprises tools such as the 'Solar Wind
Ion Spectrometer' (SWIS) and the 'Suprathermal and Energetic Particle Spectrometer' (STEPS).
SWIS measures charged particles (ions) from the Sun, offering a broad view, while STEPS focuses
on studying high-energy particles emitted by the Sun. ASPEX plays a crucial role in understanding
space weather and its potential impact on communication systems and power grids on Earth.
NOTES
Lagrange points:
• The Lagrange points are points of equilibrium
for small-mass objects under the influence of
two massive orbiting bodies.
• At Lagrange points, the gravitational pull of two
large masses precisely equals the centripetal
force required for a small object to move with
them.
• These points in space can be used by spacecraft
to reduce fuel consumption needed to remain in
position.
Other Solar Missions by Different Countries:

United • Parker Solar Probe (August 2018): Touched the Sun's upper atmosphere,
States sampled particles and magnetic fields in December 2021
• Solar Orbiter (February 2020): Explores the Sun's changing space
environment
Japan • Hinotori (ASTRO-A, 1981): Studied solar flares using hard X-rays
• Yohkoh (SOLAR-A, 1991): Studied solar activity
• Hinode (SOLAR-B, 2006): Studied the Sun's impact on Earth.
NOTES
Europe • Ulysses (October 1990): Studied space environment above and below the
Sun's poles
• Proba-2 (October 2001): Part of solar exploratory missions.
• Upcoming: Proba-3 (2024), Smile (2025)
China Advanced Space-based Solar Observatory (ASO-S, October 2022): Launched to
observe the Sun.
6. Semi-cryogenic Engine
An intermediate configuration of a 2000 kN semi-cryogenic engine was recently tested at Semi-
cryogenic Integrated Engine & Stage Test facility at ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC) in
Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu by ISRO.
About semi-cryogenic engines:

• Semi-cryogenic engines are a type of rocket engine that use a combination of liquid and
gaseous propellants. They are called "semi-cryogenic" because they operate at temperatures
higher than cryogenic engines but still colder than traditional liquid rocket engines.
• A semi-cryogenic engine uses refined kerosene instead of liquid hydrogen. Liquid oxygen is
used as an oxidizer.
• The Semi Cryogenic Propulsion System Project envisages the design and development of a
2000 kN semi-cryogenic engine and 'SC120 stage' that will enable the development of a
heavy-lift capability for future Indian space transportation systems.
7. ISRO’s own Next-Gen launch vehicle (NGLV)

ISRO is developing a Next-Gen Launch Vehicle (NGLV) intended to replace PSLV.
FEATURES OF NGLV: -
● 3 Stage, reusable heavy lift vehicle.
● Use semi-cryogenic propulsion for booster stages.
● 10-tonne payload capability to Geostationary Transfer Orbit.
● Cost efficient
● Simple, robust design allowing bulk manufacturing.
POTENTIAL USES: - Launching communication satellites, Deep space missions, Future human
space flight and cargo missions, ISRO is intending to develop a business model for NGLV to launch
commercial as well as national missions.
ISRO’S LAUNCH VEHICLES: -

• Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV): first
rocket developed by ISRO for a small
satellite
• Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV):
1st launch was in 1994. It is the first
Indian launch vehicle to be equipped
with liquid stages.
• Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle (GSLV): The indigenously
developed Cryogenic Upper Stage
(CUS), forms the third stage of GSLV Mk II.
• Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV): SSLV is targeted at rising global demand for the launch
of small and micro-satellites. SSLV is meant to offer cost-effective launch services for satellites
up to 500 kg.
NOTES
• Reusable Rockets: ISRO has also developed a reusable rocket, called RLV-TD (Reusable Launch
Vehicle Technology Demonstrator) which had a successful test flight in 2016.
(NASA Missions)
1. Nasa’s Lunar Gateway Station

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has announced its participation in developing a module on
NASA's Lunar Gateway Station, joining the USA, Japan, Canada, and the European Union in the
project.
• The UAE's contribution includes developing the Crew and Science Airlock module,
serving as the entry and exit point for missions and astronauts travelling to the Moon's
surface from the Lunar Gateway Station.
• The UAE will also manage and operate the Airlock, and the first Emirati astronaut will be
sent into lunar orbit as part of the project.
• The lunar space station will function as a space laboratory, supporting various scientific
and technical experiments, with a minimum lifespan of 15 years.
What is NASA’s Gateway Lunar Orbit outpost?

• The Gateway is a small spaceship that will orbit the Moon, meant for astronaut missions to
the Moon and later, for expeditions to Mars.
• It will act as a temporary office and living quarters for astronauts, distanced at about
250,000 miles from Earth.
• The spaceship will have living quarters, laboratories for science and research and docking
ports for visiting spacecraft.
• Compared to the ISS, the Gateway is much smaller.
2. Hydrogen cyanide
Scientists using data from NASA's Cassini spacecraft have discovered hydrogen cyanide, a crucial
molecule for life formation, in the oceans of Saturn's icy moon Enceladus.
• The study suggests that Enceladus subsurface oceans may possess more chemical energy
than previously thought, potentially supporting the creation and persistence of complex
organic compounds.
• The research, based on Cassini's data collected between 2004 and 2017, identified hydrogen
cyanide, along with methanol, ethane, and oxygen, in the plumes of water vapor erupting
from Enceladus's surface.
These findings strengthen the case for the moon's habitability, indicating that it may contain
essential molecules for life and provide insights into the formation of complex biomolecules.
Cassini–Huygens, commonly called Cassini, was a space-research mission by NASA, the European
Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to send a space probe to study
the planet Saturn and its system, including its rings and natural satellites.
3. TEMPO satellite
NASA's TEMPO satellite, the Tropospheric Emissions: Monitoring of Pollution sensor, is a ground
breaking Earth-observation satellite in geostationary orbit designed to provide hourly
measurements of pollutants over North America.
• TEMPO covers a vast area from Canada's oil sands to the Yucatán Peninsula and spans across
the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, enhancing its ability to monitor air pollution
comprehensively.
NOTES
4. International Space Station (ISS)
Russian and U.S. space agencies, Roscosmos and NASA, have agreed to extend their
collaboration on delivering crews to the International Space Station (ISS) until at least 2025, as
announced by Roscosmos.
5. Atmospheric Waves Experiment

NASA's Atmospheric Waves Experiment (AWE) is a ground-breaking mission designed to study
the interactions between terrestrial and space weather.
• It aims to investigate one of the key drivers of space weather – Earth's weather.
• The study is crucial due to the increasing reliance on satellite-based services for navigation
and communication, making forecasts and data on space weather vital.
About Atmospheric Waves Experiment:

• The AWE mission will focus on studying Atmospheric Gravity Waves (AGW), a type of vertical
wave generated by extreme weather events or sudden disturbances causing a vertical
displacement of stable air.
• These waves, including AGWs, play a role in space weather, affecting the overall weather,
climate, and space conditions.
• It will measure airglow at the mesopause (85 to 87 km above Earth), capturing faint airglow
in the infrared bandwidth.
NOTES
• The mission will use an Advanced Mesospheric Temperature Mapper (ATMT) to scan the
mesopause, mapping the brightness of light at specific wavelengths
About Space Weather:

Space weather refers to the environmental conditions around Earth and other planets
influenced by the Sun's activities, such as solar flares and emissions, as well as the prevailing
matter in space.
Severe space weather events can impact critical Earth installations like satellite-based
communication, radio communication, navigation systems, and power grids
6. NASA's Psyche spacecraft

NASA's Psyche spacecraft, en route to a metal-rich asteroid, is pioneering Deep Space Optical
Communications (DSOC) using near-infrared laser signals for high-bandwidth communication.
What is Deep Space Optical Communication (DSOC) and how it is different from traditional
radio wave communication?
Deep Space Optical Communication (DSOC) is a pioneering technology used in space
communication that utilizes near-infrared laser signals instead of traditional radio waves. Unlike
radio waves, DSOC enables higher bandwidths, allowing for data rates at least 10 times higher
than current radio systems.
Working?
DSOC encodes data in photons at near-infrared wavelengths (rather than radio waves) to
communicate between a probe in deep space and Earth. Using light instead of radio allows
the spacecraft to communicate more data in a given amount of time.
DSOC achieves precise pointing through the use of near-infrared lasers, isolation from spacecraft
vibrations, and adaptive systems to compensate for changing positions, making it a revolutionary
approach for deep space missions.
Significance: This DSOC advancement is crucial for communicating with spacecraft over long
distances (like human exploration of Mars), offering benefits such as higher resolution images,
increased data transfer rates, and the potential for streaming video.
7. CALIPSO mission
NASA has announced the conclusion of its CALIPSO (Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder
Satellite Observation) mission, which analysed climate, weather, and air quality for 17 years.
• CALIPSO, launched jointly by NASA and France’s CNES, used LIDAR (Light Detection and
Ranging) technology to record over 10 billion measurements and generate thousands of
scientific reports.
• The mission involved two satellites, CALIPSO and CloudSat, which were launched in 2003 and
orbited the Earth in a Sun-synchronous orbit.
• They measured cloud altitudes and various atmospheric particles' properties, such as dust,
sea salt, ash, and soot. These observations contributed to sophisticated models to
understand complex atmospheric processes, including cloud formation, atmospheric
convection, precipitation, and particle transport.
One notable application of CALIPSO's data was during the 2020 Australian wildfires when it
observed smoke plumes rising as high as 15 to 20 kilometres above the Earth's surface, reaching
the stratosphere.
NOTES
8. NASA’s OSIRIS-Rex
NASA's OSIRIS-REx mission successfully collected a sample from asteroid Bennu and is now on an
extended mission to study Apophis. The mission was significant for understanding the early solar
system, potential asteroid impacts, and the Yarkovsky effect on asteroids.
What is the Yarkovsky effect?

The Yarkovsky effect is a phenomenon
in space where the way an asteroid
absorbs and re-emits solar radiation can
alter its trajectory over time. This effect
can lead to small but significant
changes in an asteroid's path,
potentially influencing its orbit and
posing collision risks with Earth.
Usage: Scientists study the Yarkovsky

effect to better understand and predict
the movements of asteroids in our solar
system.
NOTES
9. STEREO (Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory) mission
The STEREO (Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory) mission launched twin spacecraft, STEREO-
A and STEREO-B, in 2006, to study the Sun.
• This mission achieved several milestones, including capturing the Sun as a complete sphere
for the first time by reaching a 180-degree separation in their orbits.
• STEREO-A's recent approach to Earth offers a unique opportunity for scientific observations.
By combining its views with other spacecraft, including the Solar and Heliospheric
Observatory (SOHO) and Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), STEREO-A will provide 3D
views of the Sun.
• This stereoscopic vision allows scientists to gain depth perception and explore features like
active regions and coronal loops in unprecedented detail.
• STEREO-A's passage through Earth's vicinity also allows for an in-depth study of solar
eruptions, known as coronal mass ejections (CMEs), which can impact Earth's technology.
10. NASA's Parker Solar Probe

NASA's Parker Solar Probe has discovered that "coronal holes" in the sun's atmosphere are the
source of the fast solar wind, released during the rapid realignment of magnetic fields.
Findings:
• The probe revealed that coronal holes — darker, cooler regions that open in the sun's outer
atmosphere — are shaped like "showerheads" made up of mostly evenly spaced funnels of
material.
• Magnetic reconnection within funnel structures in coronal holes is responsible for generating
the fast solar wind.
Significance of finding: By tracking the solar wind back to its origin, scientists can now better
predict solar storms that can impact Earth's communication and power infrastructure.
What is a Solar storm:

A solar storm refers to a disturbance on the Sun that releases a large amount of energy in the
form of solar flares, coronal mass ejections (CMEs), or high-speed solar winds. These events can
cause disruptions in Earth's magnetosphere, leading to geomagnetic storms that impact
communication systems, power grids, and satellite operations.
About Parker Solar Probe

The Parker Solar Probe is a NASA spacecraft launched in 2018 to study the Sun up close. Its
trajectory travel through the Sun's atmosphere, closer to its surface than any previous spacecraft.
The mission aims to unlock the mysteries of the Sun's atmosphere, understand the solar storm,
and investigate the processes that accelerate energetic particles.
(Other Missions)
1. Direct-to-cell
SpaceX successfully launched the first set of Starlink satellites equipped with direct-to-cell
capabilities.
About Direct to cell:

• Direct-to-cell refers to a technology that enables communication signals, such as text
messages, voice, and data, to be transmitted directly from space-based satellites to mobile
devices (cell phones) without the need for traditional ground-based infrastructure.
NOTES
• In the context of SpaceX's Starlink project, direct-to-cell capabilities allow the delivery of
wireless services, including network access and communication services, to mobile users in
specific geographical areas using satellite connectivity.
• This technology is particularly useful in remote or underserved regions where establishing
traditional terrestrial networks may be challenging or economically unfeasible.
2. Einstein Probe (EP)

China has launched a new astronomical satellite named Einstein Probe (EP) with a lotus-shaped
design to observe transient and violent celestial phenomena in the universe.
The Einstein Probe (EP) satellite features wide-field X-ray telescopes (WXT) and follow-up X-ray
telescopes (FXT). Its objectives include capturing initial light from supernova explosions,
detecting X-ray signals linked to gravitational wave events, and discovering dormant black holes
and celestial objects. The satellite's X-ray detection tech, inspired by, showcases innovative
lobster-eye telescopes
The mission involves international collaboration with The European Space Agency and the Max
Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany.
3. Proba-3 Mission
NOTES
4. SLIM Spacecraft
Japan's X-ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM) is focused on studying X-ray emissions
from celestial objects to better understand the universe's structure and evolution. It will observe
phenomena like black holes, neutron stars, and galaxy clusters.
(Space related Concepts)
1. Plasma waves in the Martian Atmosphere

Scientists, including researchers from the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism (IIG), have detected
high-frequency plasma waves in the Martian Upper Atmosphere using data from the Mars
Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Mission (MAVEN) spacecraft.
What are Plasma Waves?

Plasma waves are short-time scale fluctuations in the electric and magnetic fields observed in
plasmas, which are ionized gases consisting of positively charged ions and free electrons.
How does it help understand planetary phenomena?

In the context of planetary atmospheres, such as Mars, understanding the presence and
characteristics of plasma waves helps scientists gain insights into the interactions between the
solar wind and the planet's atmosphere, especially in the absence of an intrinsic magnetic field.
Unlike Earth, Mars lacks an intrinsic magnetic field, causing direct interaction between high-
speed solar wind from the Sun and the Martian atmosphere.
About MAVEN orbiter:

NASA's Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) spacecraft (launched in 2013 by
NASA), is dedicated to studying Mars' upper atmosphere, ionosphere, and interactions with the
NOTES
sun and solar wind. The mission aims to uncover the history of Mars' atmosphere, climate, liquid
water, and planetary habitability by examining the role of volatiles loss to space over time.
2. Use of INSAT Satellites to analyse Fog

How Indian National Satellite (INSAT) System Help in Weather Analysis?
Key Aspects Description
Advanced Imaging INSAT satellites like 3D and 3DR use RGB imagers for solar reflectance
and brightness temperature analysis.
Strategic Orbits Geostationary orbits of satellites like INSAT 3D and 3DR ensure
continuous monitoring over India for real-time analysis.
Day and Night Equipped with 'day microphysics' and 'night microphysics,' these
Monitoring satellites track weather changes around the clock.
Snow and Cloud The satellites distinguish between snow and clouds based on
Differentiation reflectance in different spectral bands.
Enhanced Combining day and night data facilitates tracking cyclone formation
Predictions and predicting thunderstorms, improving early warnings.
Advanced Upgraded radiometers in satellites like 3DR offer superior spatial
Radiometers resolution and functionality.
Atmospheric Instruments measure temperature, humidity, and water vapour,
Sounders providing detailed atmospheric profiles for analysis.
Continual Each new satellite in the INSAT series incorporates improved. The
Improvement INSAT 3DS meteorological satellite, expected to launch in February
2024, will further enhance India's weather monitoring capabilities.
How Satellites Analysis Colour and Snow?

Satellites, such as INSAT 3D, use RGB (Red,
Green, Blue) imaging for colour determination
based on solar reflectance and brightness
temperature. This involves analyzing visible,
shortwave infrared, and thermal infrared
signals to represent green, red, and blue
colours.
The unique signature of snow, which reflects
similarly to clouds in the visible spectrum but
strongly absorbs shortwave infrared
radiation, enables satellites to distinguish snow from clouds.
India has several weather satellites:

1. Kalpana 1 (2002-2017)
2. INSAT 3A (2003)
3. INSAT 3D and 3DR
4. INSAT 3DS: The "3DS" indicates it's a subsequent iteration following the INSAT 3D and 3DR
series.
3. Global Positioning System (GPS)

• Established by the U.S. Department of Défense in 1973, GPS is a constellation of 24 satellites
orbiting the Earth, providing location information through a network of ground control
stations and user devices.
Functioning:
• The GPS system consists of three main segments: the space segment with 24 satellites in six
orbits, the control segment managing satellite performance and commands, and the user
NOTES
segment incorporating GPS across various sectors like agriculture, construction, military
operations, and more.
• The satellites emit radio signals at specific frequencies (L1 and L2) with encoded information
about their location and time.
• GPS receivers on devices, like smartphones, pick NavIC, known as the Navigation with
up these signals to calculate the distance from Indian Constellation, owned and
satellites and, by triangulation, determine the operated by India, offering precise
user's precise location in three dimensions of navigation and positioning up to 1500
space and one of time. km beyond its territorial boundary.
Other Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) It functions similarly to GPS but is
worldwide, such as GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou, owned and operated by India,
operate alongside GPS. covering the entire Indian subcontinent
with a positional accuracy of 5 meters,
India has developed NavIC system, with rubidium surpassing GPS's 15-20 meters.
atomic clocks, and the GPS-Aided Geo Augmented
Navigation (GAGAN) system, developed for civil aviation applications.
NavIC’s advantages over other systems:

Advantages Explanation
Higher Accuracy Once fully operational, NavIC open signals are expected to provide
accuracy up to 5 meters, surpassing GPS accuracy (20 meters).
Geo-stationary Unlike GPS, NavIC uses satellites in high geo-stationery orbit, ensuring
Satellites constant coverage over the designated region.
Improved Signal NavIC signals arrive in India at a 90-degree angle, making them easier
Reception to receive even in congested or obstructed areas (unlike GPS).
Indigenous NavIC is developed by ISRO, showcasing India's technological
Development capabilities and reducing dependence on foreign systems.
4. Age of Moon
A recent study using crystals brought back by Apollo Lunar Soil:
astronauts in 1972 has revealed that the Moon is • It is not dusty but rather lumpy,
approximately 40 million years older than previously indicating that something is
believed. binding the soil together.
• The research used these lunar crystals to • Lunar Soil is a thick layer of
pinpoint the Moon's formation age, revising regolith, fragmental and
it to a minimum of 4.46 billion years old. unconsolidated rock material, that
• These crystals, which are the oldest known covers the entire lunar surface.
solids to form after a massive impact, serve • Lunar soil contains no organic
as a reference point for lunar chronology. matter.
• The study utilized an analytical method called
atom probe tomography to determine the
age of the crystals and revealed that the Moon is indeed at least 4.46 billion years old.
Significance: This information is crucial for understanding the Moon's role in stabilizing Earth's
rotational axis and affecting tides, which, in turn, has influenced life on Earth.
5. Subsurface Water Ice Mapping (SWIM) project

The Subsurface Water Ice Mapping Project (SWIM) has created a map of Mars, indicating
regions where NASA missions have detected subsurface water ice.
• This map is a valuable resource for scientists to identify potential landing sites for the first
astronauts on Mars.
NOTES
• Water ice on Mars is crucial for drinking, rocket fuel, and other purposes, as the planet's thin
atmosphere cannot sustain liquid water.
The Subsurface Water Ice Mapping (SWIM) project is a NASA-funded project that aims to detect
where there's most likely water ice beneath Martian ground. The project also aims to locate the
best places to access water ice buried under the Martian.
The SWIM project supports NASA's Mars Exploration Program in identifying the location and
nature of potential water resources on Mars. Scientists can use the map to decide where the
first astronauts to set foot.
The SWIM project uses the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) to study fresh
impact craters. The fourth comprehensive map of potential subsurface water ice locations on
Mars was released.
6. Asteroid Dinkinesh
NASA's Lucy spacecraft, on a mission to observe Jupiter's Trojan asteroids, recently made an
unexpected discovery.
• It found that the main belt asteroid Dinkinesh, which it was set to fly by, is actually a binary
system of two asteroids bound together.
• Preliminary analysis suggests that the larger asteroid is about 790 meters wide, while the
smaller one is approximately 220 meters in size.
About Asteroids:
1. An asteroid is a rocky, metallic, or icy minor planet that orbits within the inner Solar
System.
2. Asteroids are smaller than planets but larger than meteoroids. They can range in size from 1-
meter rocks to a dwarf planet almost 1000 km in diameter.
3. Asteroids are remnants left over from the early formation of our solar system about 4.6
billion years ago. Most of them can be found orbiting our Sun between Mars and Jupiter
within the main asteroid belt.
4. Asteroids are also known as minor planets or planetoids. The larger forms of asteroids are
also known as planetoids.
7. Concept of White Hole and Big Bounce

Carlo Rovelli, an Italian physicist, explores the concept of white holes in his latest work, "White
Holes: Inside the Horizon."
• These are considered the opposite of black holes and might generate new universes, a
theoretical idea supported by the math.
White Holes vs. Black Holes: White holes are akin to a movie running in reverse. Matter falling
into a black hole, according to Rovelli, bounces back in the form of a white hole, predicted by
quantum mechanics, and alters our understanding of space and time
• Quantum Bounce Theory: Black holes potentially transition to white holes via a bounce. This
theory suggests the possibility of a universe emerging from a white hole, creating something
similar to the Big Bang, implying we might be products of a "big bounce."
• Concept of Time: Rovelli suggests that time isn't uniform, as discovered through relativistic
effects, where it passes differently for different observers. It's a product of space-time,
influenced by gravity and subject to quantum granular aspects.
• Space-Time and Quantum Effects: The combination of quantum mechanics and gravity
indicates that space-time might have granular aspects, influenced by what's known as "time-
steps" or atoms in space that are static entities shaping space itself.
NOTES
8. Polarized emissions from an Extragalactic Black hole

Researchers from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Guwahati and the UR Rao Satellite
Centre of ISRO have achieved a groundbreaking discovery by detecting polarized emissions from
an extragalactic
black hole (i.e.,
outside our Milky
Way Galaxy)
marking the first
such observation
beyond our Milky
Way Galaxy.
The team utilized X-

ray polarimetry to
study the binary star
system 'Large
Magellanic Cloud X-
3 (LMC X3),'
consisting of a black
hole and a massive
star.
The findings
observed using
NASA's Imaging X-
ray Polarimetry
Explorer (IXPE) and
other missions,
provide insights into
understanding the
nature of astrophysical black hole sources.
• IXPE was the first mission of NASA to study the polarization of X-rays from celestial objects
• ISRO’s X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) mission is the second satellite with this capability.
What is Polarized emissions?

Polarized emissions refer to electromagnetic waves, such as light or X-rays, whose electric field
vectors oscillate predominantly in a specific direction. In astrophysics, detecting polarized
emissions from celestial objects, like black holes, provides valuable information about the object's
physical properties and surrounding environment.
9. Saturn's rings
Saturn's rings will not disappear permanently by 2025. Although they will become almost
invisible from Earth during that time, it is a regular occurrence due to the thinness of the rings.
What is Saturn's ring and how it was formed?

Saturn's rings are a vast system of icy particles, rocks, and dust that orbit the planet. They were
formed from the debris of comets, asteroids, and moonlets that either collided with each other
or were captured by Saturn's gravity.
How will the ring become invisible for some time?

Saturn's rings will become almost invisible from Earth in 2025 due to the edge-on perspective
from our viewpoint. This phenomenon occurs because the rings are so thin that, when seen from
NOTES
a distance, they appear to vanish when viewed edge-on. The rings' edge-on appearance happens
twice per Saturnian year, making them seem to vanish, but they will gradually reappear.
Which planets have rings and why do earth doesn't have rings?
Saturn, Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune have rings. Earth does not have rings because any rings it
might have formed in the past would have likely been disrupted by various gravitational forces
and atmospheric effects. Additionally, the relatively strong gravitational influences of the Moon
and other celestial bodies make it challenging for Earth to maintain stable rings.
Recently Saturn became a planet with most moons.
10. Coseismic ionospheric perturbations (CIP)

A study conducted by scientists from the Indian Institute of Geomagnetism reveals that
earthquake processes, even relatively small ones, leave a distinct mark in the ionosphere.
• The study demonstrates that coseismic ionospheric perturbations (CIP), caused by vertical
crustal movements during earthquakes, can be influenced by multiple fault segments,
challenging the assumption of a single source for near-field CIP.
• The study suggests that space-based observations of ionospheric perturbations could
provide valuable insights into earthquake precursors, paving the way for improved
earthquake monitoring and prediction.
Coseismic ionospheric perturbations (CIP) refer to disturbances in the Earth's ionosphere caused
by seismic activity, specifically by the vertical crustal movements during an earthquake.
NOTES
These perturbations result from the excitation of acoustic waves (AWs) in the atmosphere due
to the vertical movement of the Earth's crust during an earthquake
11. Ghost particle

China is constructing the world's largest "ghost particle" detector, a massive underwater
telescope in the South China Sea, designed to detect neutrinos, which are often referred to as
"ghost particles."
• The telescope, named "Trident," is expected to span 7.5 cubic kilometers and be 10,000
times more sensitive than existing underwater telescopes.
• It is being built in the South China Sea to detect neutrinos, which can interact with water
molecules.
The significance of detecting neutrinos lies in their mysterious behaviour and their potential role
in solving scientific mysteries.
Neutrinos are subatomic particles that have very little mass and no charge, and they interact
very weakly with other particles, making them challenging to detect
12. Bubble of galaxies

Astronomers have discovered a massive "bubble of galaxies" in the nearby universe,
approximately 820 million light years away from our Milky Way galaxy.
• This cosmic structure spans a billion light years in diameter, making it about 10,000 times
wider than our galaxy.
• Inside the bubble, there is the Bootes supercluster of galaxies, surrounded by a vast void
referred to as "the Great Nothing."
• The discovery confirms a phenomenon first theorized by cosmologist Jim Peebles in 1970,
where sound waves created bubbles in the early universe, and these structures have been
preserved over time.
This bubble, named Ho'oleilana, represents the first known single baryon acoustic oscillation
(BAO) and was discovered by chance during a search through new galaxy catalogues. The finding
opens the possibility of discovering more such bubbles across the universe using advanced
telescopes.
Baryon Acoustic Oscillations (BAO) are regular, periodic fluctuations or ripples in the distribution
of matter (primarily baryonic matter, which includes protons and neutrons) in the universe.
These oscillations are a fundamental feature of the large-scale structure of the cosmos and
provide important clues about its geometry, expansion rate, and the distribution of dark matter
and dark energy.
13. Geospatial intelligence

It is the collection and integration of data from various technologies like satellites, sensors, and
aerial images to create real-time maps and simulations. It aids in identifying and managing
threats, supporting emergency response, environmental monitoring, logistics, and more.
Geospatial technology uses tools like GIS (Geographic Information System), GPS (Global
Positioning System), and Remote Sensing for geographic mapping and analysis of Geospatial data.
NOTES
Status of geospatial data and technology in India

• India has a robust ecosystem in geospatial, with the Survey of India (SoI), the Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO), Remote Sensing Application Centres (RSACs), and the National
Informatics Centre (NIC) in particular, and all ministries and departments, in general, using
geospatial technology.
Key applications of geospatial intelligence:

Application Description
Emergency Monitoring natural disasters such as Cyclones, and hurricanes to allocate
Preparedness resources efficiently, issue timely storm warnings, and order evacuations
as needed.
Disaster Response Assisting in post-disaster efforts by identifying damaged areas,
assessing the extent of impact, locating access points for first
responders, facilitating efficient search-and-rescue operations and the
distribution of aid.
Environmental Tracking climate-related variables like temperature, precipitation, and
Monitoring ice to anticipate and prepare for environmental disturbances, including
heatwaves, floods, and polar ice melt.
Military and Reporting on military movements, and troop deployments, and
Civilian providing valuable spatial data for civilian applications such as global
Applications supply chain optimization and logistics management.
Transportation and Utilizing GPS-generated spatial data to enhance transportation and
Logistics logistics operations
Autonomous Supporting the development of autonomous vehicles by offering high-
Vehicles resolution imagery for road analysis, and traffic management.
Digital Twins Creating virtual replicas of real-world systems, such as cities and
buildings, which can be updated in real-time to simulate changes in
NOTES
various conditions, aiding decision-making across different sectors,
including military and urban planning.
14. Planet Mercury

NASA recently shared a captivating image of Mercury, the solar system's smallest planet, on
Instagram.
• The picture, taken by MESSENGER, the first spacecraft to orbit Mercury, showcases the
planet's tan and blue hues, along with its cratered surface.
About Mercury:
• NASA provided intriguing details about Mercury, emphasizing its diminutive size, its
proximity to the Sun (about 36 million miles or 58 million km away), and its incredible speed,
travelling at nearly 29 miles (47 km) per second, resulting in a year on Mercury being just 88
Earth days.
• The post also highlighted Mercury's unique characteristics, such as its thin exosphere
consisting of elements like oxygen, sodium, hydrogen, helium, and potassium.
• Due to its lack of atmosphere and proximity to the Sun, the planet experiences extreme
temperature fluctuations, ranging from a scorching 800ºF (430ºC) during the day to a frigid -
290 ºF (-180 ºC) at night.
• Additionally, Mercury possesses a relatively weak magnetic field, only 1% as strong as
Earth's, which interacts with solar winds to create magnetic tornados across the planet's
surface.
15. Galactic tides

Galactic tides, similar to the tides in Earth's
oceans but on a much larger scale, are caused by
gravitational forces within galaxies, resulting from
interactions between celestial objects like stars
and gas clouds.
• These tidal forces play a significant role in
shaping the evolution of galaxies. They can
alter a galaxy's structure by creating features like tidal tails and bridges, stimulating star
formation, and disrupting smaller star systems.
• Over vast stretches of time, galactic tides also perturb the orbits of stars, leading to long-term
changes in the structure of galaxies. Galactic tides even influence how neighbouring galaxies
interact with each other.
• Galactic tides also impact supermassive black holes located at the centres of galaxies,
resulting in events that alter how these cosmic giants interact with nearby stars.
16. Red giant star Betelgeuse

Recent research on the massive red giant star Betelgeuse suggests that it is in its late carbon-
burning stage (near the end of its life) and may explode as a supernova within a few decades.
Life Cycle of a Star:

• A star is born from a dense cloud of gas and dust called a nebula.
• Through the process of nuclear fusion, it converts hydrogen into helium, releasing energy and
emitting light.
• As the star exhausts its hydrogen fuel, it expands and becomes a red giant.
• In this phase, it fuses helium into heavier elements like carbon and oxygen.
While smaller stars, like our Sun, eventually shed their outer layers and form a white dwarf.
NOTES
Larger stars undergo a supernova explosion, where their cores collapse and release an immense
amount of energy.
This explosion disperses heavy elements into space and may result in the formation of a neutron
star or a black hole.
What is a red giant star?

A red giant star is a large,
ageing star that has
expanded and cooled down,
causing it to appear red in
colour. It occurs in the later
stages of a star's life cycle
when it exhausts its
hydrogen fuel and starts
burning heavier elements.
About Betelgeuse
It is a red giant star located in the constellation Orion. It is one of the largest and brightest stars
visible to the naked eye.
How have astronomers found the stage of Betelgeuse:

Astronomers have suggested the stage of the red giant star Betelgeuse by studying its pulsations.
Betelgeuse undergoes periodic expansion and contraction (similar to a boiling pot releasing
steam), causing variations in its brightness. By analysing these pulsations, researchers can infer
the star's current state.
17. X-class solar flare

Recently, a powerful solar
flare, classified as an "X-
class" flare, hit Earth,
causing an eruption of X-
ray and ultraviolet
radiation.
• The flare resulted in a
radio blackout for
about an hour in parts
of southeast Asia,
Australia, and New
Zealand due to the
ionization of the
upper atmosphere.
• This event follows a
series of strong solar
activities, including
coronal holes and
eruptions, which even
led to the appearance
of the Northern Lights
as far south as
Arizona.
• The frequency of solar
flares and eruptions is expected to increase as the Sun approaches the peak of its 11-year
solar cycle in 2025.
NOTES
Defence Technology
1. DRDO anti-drone tech - Drone, Detect, Deter and Destroy (D4 System)
The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has developed a comprehensive
integrated anti-drone system, focusing on the detection, identification, and neutralization of
drones.
• The anti-drone technology is designed to counter various types of drones, including micro
drones, and is suitable for land borders.
• D4 system can instantly detect and jam micro drones (Soft kill) and use a laser-based kill
mechanism to terminate targets (Hard kill).
• Utilizing the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), it identifies the frequency employed
by the controller and subsequently disrupts the signals.
2. Drishti 10 Starliner
The Indian Navy has received its first indigenous medium-altitude long-endurance (MALE)
drone, the Drishti 10 Starliner, developed by Adani Defence and Aerospace.
Features:
• The Drishti 10 Starliner, a variant of Elbit Systems’ Hermes 900 Starliner, is equipped
with state-of-the-art sensors, automatic take-off and landing capabilities, and a 36-hour
endurance.
• It can carry a payload of 450 kg and has the potential for weaponization if required.
• The drone is 70% indigenous and will enhance the Navy's intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance capabilities.
3. New Generation AKASH missile

The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully conducted a flight
test of the New Generation AKASH (AKASH-NG) missile from the Integrated Test Range (ITR),
Chandipur off the coast of Odisha.
• The test involved intercepting a high-speed unmanned aerial target at a very low altitude.
About AKASH NG Missile:

The AKASH-NG is a medium-range, mobile surface-to-air missile defense system. It's a state-of-
the-art missile system that can intercept high-speed, agile aerial threats with a range of around
80 km.
The AKASH-NG has advanced technologies and features, such as improved missiles, seekers, and
radars. It also includes an indigenously developed Radio Frequency Seeker, Launcher, and Multi-
Function Radar.
4. ASW Shallow Water Craft (CSL) project

The first three ships of the ASW Shallow Water Craft (CSL) project for the Indian Navy, named
Mahe, Malvan, and Mangrol, were simultaneously launched on November 30, 2023, at Cochin
Shipyard Limited (CSL), Kochi.
About Mahe class ships:

They are part of the 08 x ASW Shallow Water Craft project and are equipped with indigenously
developed underwater sensors for anti-submarine and maritime operations. The project aims for
'Aatmanirbhar Bharat' with over 80% indigenous content.
Aim: To undertake anti-submarine operations in coastal waters, Low-Intensity Maritime

Operations (LIMO) and Mine Laying Operations.
NOTES
Other warships:
5. INS Imphal
INS Imphal, the third warship of Project 15B forming the Visakhapatnam class stealth-guided
missile destroyers, was commissioned into the Indian Navy.
• The commissioning of INS Imphal holds special significance, being the largest and most
advanced destroyer named after a city from the northeast.
Features:
• The Visakhapatnam class is recognized as one of the most advanced ship classes in the
Indian Navy, capable of independent offensive operations.
• The arsenal of the Visakhapatnam class includes BrahMos surface-to-surface cruise missiles,
vertically launched Barak-8 surface-to-air missiles, a 127 mm main gun, AK-630 30mm guns
for close-point engagement, indigenously developed 533 mm torpedo launchers, and RBU-
6000 anti-submarine rocket launchers.
• Strategically, destroyers play a vital role in naval operations, protecting fleets and carrier
battle groups from short-range attackers.
• It can operate independently and is well-equipped for network-centric warfare, utilizing
information technology and computer networking tools.
NOTES
Various Projects of the Indian Navy:
Project Name Examples of Warships

Project 15A (guided missile destroyers of INS Kolkata, INS Kochi, INS Chennai
the Kolkata class)
Project 15B (advanced version of 15A) INS Visakhapatnam, INS Mormugao, INS Imphal,
INS Surat
Project 17 INS Shivalik, INS Satpura, INS Sahyadri
Project 17A INS Nilgiri, INS Himgiri, INS Udaygiri
Project 28 INS Kamorta, INS Kadmatt, INS Kiltan
Project 75 INS Kalvari, INS Khanderi, INS Karanj
Project 75I (Future Submarines) Under development
Project 71 (Indigenous Aircraft Carrier) INS Vikrant (Under construction)
Project 15 (Delhi-class) INS Delhi, INS Mysore, INS Mumbai
Project 25A (Kamorta-class) INS Kamorta, INS Kadmatt, INS Kiltan
6. Light Combat Helicopter Prachand

The Indian Army's Light Combat Helicopter (LCH) Prachand recently conducted its inaugural
firing during both day and night operations.
The Prachand is India's first indigenous multi-role combat helicopter. It was developed by
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
Features
• Designed for: The Indian armed forces operating in deserts and mountainous areas
• Range: 700 km
• Flight ceiling: The highest among all attack helicopters in the world
• Landing and take-off altitude: 5,000 meters (16,400 ft)
• Weapons: Can carry lethal weapons and destroy targets
Various types of aircraft used by the Indian Air Force:

Aircraft Type Examples
Fighter Aircraft Sukhoi Su-30MKI - Dassault Rafale - MiG-29 - Tejas (Light
Combat Aircraft)
Attack Aircraft SEPECAT Jaguar - HAL Tejas - MiG-27
Transport Aircraft Lockheed C-130J Super Hercules - Antonov An-32 - Boeing
C-17 Globemaster III
Helicopters HAL Dhruv - Mil Mi-17 - Boeing AH-64E Apache - HAL Rudra
(Weaponized Dhruv); HAL’s Prachand
Reconnaissance Aircraft IAI Heron - Embraer EMB 145 AEW&C - HAL Cheetah
Trainer Aircraft HAL HJT-16 Kiran - BAE Hawk - Pilatus PC-7 Mk II
Airborne Early Warning and Embraer EMB 145 AEW&C - DRDO Netra
Control (AEW&C)
Aerial Refueling Aircraft Ilyushin Il-78 (MARS)
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles DRDO Rustom - IAI Searcher II - General Atomics MQ-9
(UAVs) Reaper
7. Project Kusha
India is embarking on Project Kusha, a mission designed to enhance its air defence capabilities
with a system rivalling the effectiveness of the renowned S-400.
• It includes the acquisition of three long-range Interceptor missiles with ranges of 150km,
250km, and 350km, ensuring comprehensive protection against aerial threats.
NOTES
About S-400 Triumf:

The S-400 Triumf is a mobile surface-to-air missile (SAM) system developed by Russia.
The S-400 is capable of intercepting and destroying various aerial targets, such as aircraft,
drones, cruise missiles, and ballistic missiles.
It has an operational range of up to 400 kilometres and a surveillance range of up to 600

kilometres. It can engage targets up to an altitude of 30 kilometers flying at a speed of 17,000
kilometers per hour or around 13 Mach – 13 times the speed of sound.
The S-400 is considered one of the world's most advanced air defence systems that can
simultaneously track and neutralize a range of incoming aerial threats.
8. MiG-21 fighter jets
9. Igla-S
Russia has announced its plan to supply the Igla-S man-portable air defence missile system to
the Indian armed forces.
About Igla-S:
The Igla-S is a man-portable air defence missile system (MANPADS) developed by Russia.
MANPADS are shoulder-launched surface-to-air missiles designed to be operated by an
individual soldier. The Igla-S is an upgraded variant of the earlier Igla system
NOTES
Feature Description
Interception The Igla-S has an improved interception range of up to 6 kilometres.
Range
Portability As a man-portable system, it is designed to be carried and operated by a
single soldier or a small crew, providing flexibility on the battlefield.
Guidance System The missile is equipped with an infrared homing guidance system,
allowing it to track and target enemy aircraft based on their heat
signature.
Countermeasures The Igla-S is designed to be resistant to various countermeasures
employed by aircraft, enhancing its effectiveness in the presence of
electronic jamming or other defensive measures.
10. Astra missiles

The Astra is a family of Indian air-to-air missiles. It's the first indigenous air-to-air missile
developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). The Astra is a
beyond-visual-range (BVRAAM) missile that uses radar guidance to navigate and position the
target.
Astra is already integrated into the SU-30MKI and was successfully test-fired from the Light
Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas. The IAF intends to equip its frontline fighters with the Astra-MK1,
while the Astra-2 is expected to become a mainstay of the IAF's BVR missile arsenal, reducing
import dependency.
11. 'Pralay' ballistic missiles

The Indian defence ministry has approved the acquisition of a regiment of 'Pralay' ballistic
missiles for deployment along the Line of Actual Control and the Line of Control.
• 'Pralay' will become the longest-range surface-to-surface missile in the Army's inventory and
will form a key part of India's Rocket Force, alongside the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile.
About Pralay:
• 'Pralay' has a strike range of 150 to 500 kilometres and can carry a conventional warhead of
350 kg to 700 kg.
• It is highly versatile, capable of carrying different types of warheads, and features advanced
technology to counter interceptor missiles.
• It can alter its trajectory mid-flight and is powered by a solid propellant rocket motor.
• Developed by the Défense Research and Development Organization (DRDO).
12. Dhanush guns
The Indian Army is on track to complete the induction of 114 Dhanush artillery guns by 2026,
with one regiment already operational.
About Dhanush:
• These 155 mm, 45-caliber towed artillery guns have a range of 36 km and have
demonstrated a range of 38 km with specialized ammunition.
• It is the first indigenously built long-range artillery gun.
Features:
Equipped with an inertial navigation-based sighting system, and auto-laying facility. An advanced
day-night direct firing system. Self-propulsion unit allows the gun to deploy itself in the field.
13. Varunastra
The Indian Navy and Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) achieved a
significant milestone as an indigenous heavy-weight torpedo, Varunastra, successfully engaged
an underwater target in a live test.
NOTES
What is a Torpedo?
A torpedo is a self-propelled underwater weapon designed to target and destroy enemy vessels or
submarines. It is typically cylindrical in shape and equipped with explosives, propulsion systems,
and guidance mechanisms.
About Varunastra:
It is an indigenously
designed and developed
ship-launched anti-
submarine torpedo. It was
designed and developed by
the Vizag-based Naval
Science and Technological
Laboratory (NSTL) under
the DRDO and is
manufactured by Bharat
Dynamics Ltd (BDL).
• It has a maximum speed of 40 knots and a maximum operating depth of 600 m, has a long
range with multi-manoeuvring capabilities
• It features advanced capabilities such as low drift navigational systems, acoustic homing, and
autonomous guidance algorithms.
Other types of Torpedos with the Indian navy: Advanced Light Torpedo Shyena (ALT-S);
Whitehead A244/S; APR-3E; SET-65E
NOTES
Technologies / New Discoveries
1. Radiocarbon dating
Radiocarbon dating is a scientific method that utilizes the isotope carbon-14 to determine the
age of organic materials.
• Carbon-14 is created in the Earth's atmosphere when cosmic rays interact with nitrogen-14
atoms, producing carbon-14.
• This isotope enters the food chain through plants, animals, and other biomass.
• Carbon-14 is unstable and undergoes radioactive decay over time.
How Radiocarbon Dating works:

• The process involves measuring the remaining amount of carbon-14 in an organic sample.
• While the organism is alive, it constantly exchanges carbon with its surroundings.
• When it dies, this exchange stops, and the concentration of carbon-14 in the body decreases
over time due to radioactive decay.
• By measuring the remaining carbon-14, scientists can estimate the time since the organism's
death.
The advent of radiocarbon dating is considered a revolution in archaeology and geology,

providing an objective and numerical dating method for organic remains.
Limitations of Carbon-14 dating:

• Limited Time Range: Carbon-14 dating is effective for objects up to approximately 50,000
years old due to the short half-life of carbon-14 (5,700 years).
• Contamination Issues: Contamination from modern carbon sources can affect the accuracy of
carbon-14 dating, leading to inaccurate age estimates.
• Incomplete Preservation: Organic materials must be well-preserved to contain sufficient
carbon-14 for dating. Poor preservation or exposure to environmental factors can
compromise the reliability of carbon-14 dating.
Advantages of Calcium-41:
• Longer Half-Life: Calcium-41 has a much longer half-life of 99,400 years, allowing for the
dating of much older materials compared to carbon-14.
• Abundance in Earth's Crust: Calcium-41 is found in the Earth's crust, making it available for
dating various geological materials, including fossilized bones and rocks.
• Atom Trap Trace Analysis (ATTA): The technique of ATTA enables the detection of calcium-41
atoms with high sensitivity and selectivity, improving the accuracy of dating methods.
• Potential for Extension: The successful application of ATTA to calcium-41 opens the
possibility of using similar techniques for other metal isotopes, expanding the range of
dating methods available.
• Earth-Science Applications: Calcium-41 and ATTA can be used to study geological processes,
such as determining how long rocks have been covered by ice, providing valuable insights into
Earth's history and climate changes.
2. Direct-to-mobile (D2M) technology services

• D2M (Direct-to-mobile) technology is a new-age communication approach that combines
broadband and broadcast.
• D2M allows mobile phones to capture territorial digital TV signals, enabling the direct
streaming of multimedia content, including live TV matches, without the need for internet
connectivity.
• It is similar to that of an FM radio, where a receiver within the device can tap into different
radio frequencies.
NOTES
Benefits:
It proves beneficial for delivering emergency alerts, disaster management audio content, and
citizen-centric information directly to mobile devices, reducing reliance on internet data
consumption.
Difference between Broadband and Broadcast?

Broadband involves high-speed internet access, transmitting data in both directions. Broadcast
is a one-way transmission of content, such as TV or radio signals, to a wide audience. Broadband
is interactive, while broadcast is typically unidirectional.
3. Electric Battery
The electric battery serves as a portable source of electric power, playing a fundamental role in
convenience and sustainability.
Invention:
In 1749, Benjamin Franklin coined the term "battery" while experimenting with electricity. The
first real battery was invented by Alessandro Volta in 1800. In the early 19th century, Michael
Faraday worked out why these cells worked the way they did and named their various
components (anode, cathode, electrolyte, etc.)
How do Electric batteries

work?
It works by converting
stored chemical energy into
electrical energy.
1. Anode (Negatively
Charged Electrode):
Oxidation occurs,
releasing electrons and
creating ions.
2. Cathode (Positively
Charged Electrode):
Reduction takes place, consuming electrons and accepting ions.
3. Electron Flow: Electrons generated at the anode flow through an external circuit to the
cathode, creating an electric current.
4. Salt Bridge (electrolyte): A salt bridge connects the two half-cells, allowing ion exchange to
maintain electrical neutrality.
Challenges: Corrosion is a common issue affecting battery performance, and various factors, such
as environmental conditions, can contribute to degradation.
Types of Batteries:
1. Lithium-ion (Li-ion): A rechargeable battery that converts chemical energy to electrical energy
during discharge and vice versa during charging.
a. M. Stanley Whittingham, John Goodenough and Akira Yoshino were awarded the
2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their contributions to the development of lithium-
ion batteries.
2. Fuel Cells: A source of electric power, like hydrogen fuel cells, where hydrogen is separated
into protons and electrons at the anode, creating electricity and water at the cathode.
3. Lead Acid Batteries: Used in automotive starting batteries, backup power systems, UPS
4. Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) Batteries: Used in Portable power tools, medical equipment, and
emergency lighting.
NOTES
4. Solid-state battery
Solid-state batteries use solid electrodes
and a solid electrolyte, instead of the
liquid or polymer gel electrolytes found in
lithium-ion or lithium polymer batteries.
Solid-state batteries use a variety of

materials, including ceramics, solid
polymers, and glass.
The working principle of a solid-state battery is similar to a conventional lithium-ion

battery. During discharge, the cathode is reduced and the anode is oxidized. Lithium ions move
from the anode to the cathode through the solid electrolyte. The reverse process occurs during
charge.
NOTES
5. Room Temperature Superconductivity
A recent study by scientists in China and Japan has reported signs of superconductivity in a
material called LK-99, which had been controversially claimed to be a room-temperature and
pressure (RTP) superconductor.
The researchers observed the Meissner effect in copper-substituted lead apatite, indicating
superconductivity. The Meissner effect is crucial in identifying materials that conduct electricity
without resistance.
Previously, in August (2023), Reddmatter (a new superconductor material) was developed.
What is the Meissner effect?

It is a phenomenon observed in superconductors, where these materials expel magnetic fields
from their interior when cooled below a critical temperature. This expulsion occurs as the
material transitions to a superconducting state, displaying the ability to conduct electric currents
without any resistance.
6. Amaterasu
Japanese scientists discovered a high-energy cosmic-ray event named 'Amaterasu,' making it the
second-highest-energy cosmic ray ever detected.
• The energy level of Amaterasu is about 40 million times higher than that produced by the
Large Hadron Collider.
• The discovery of such ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) could contribute to
understanding cosmic phenomena and subatomic particles better, as well as potentially
challenging existing theories in high-energy particle physics.
• Amaterasu's unique characteristic is that it appears to have originated from an empty region
of the universe, presenting intriguing possibilities for unknown astronomical phenomena.
NOTES
The study of these cosmic rays may offer insights into the sources of cosmic rays and enhance
our understanding of high-energy physics beyond the Standard Model.
7. End-to-end encryption
End-to-end encryption (E2E) is a method of protecting digital information by transforming it into
an unreadable format, and it has significant implications for privacy and security.
• Encryption fundamentally involves changing consumable information into an unconsumable
form based on specific rules.
There are two main types of encryptions: symmetric and asymmetric.

• Symmetric Encryption: In symmetric encryption, the key used to encrypt information is the
same key needed for decryption. Notable examples include the Data Encryption Standard
(DES) and the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).
• Asymmetric Encryption: Asymmetric encryption uses different keys for encryption and
decryption. A public key encrypts the information, and a corresponding private key decrypts
it. The length of the key influences the level of protection. Asymmetric encryption is useful
when the sender and recipient are different, providing a higher level of security.
Issues with E2E encryption:

• E2E encryption is not
foolproof. It can be vulnerable
to man-in-the-middle (MITM)
attacks, where an attacker
intercepts the key and
decrypts the message.
• E2E encryption may induce
user complacency, and other
vulnerabilities like malware or
backdoors installed by service
providers could compromise security.
End-to-end encryption (E2EE) is a secure communication method that prevents third parties
from accessing data while it's transferred from one device to another.
8. Dynamic wireless charging technology

The Union Ministry of Road Transport and Highways is considering the electrification of the
Golden Quadrilateral, connecting Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata, as part of Vision 2030:
PM Public Transport Sewa.
• The plan, expected to be implemented over the next seven years, aims to boost e-mobility
and deploy e-buses.
• The proposal includes dynamic wireless charging technology, enabling EVs to charge while
on the move.
• This approach could potentially reduce the battery size, making EVs more affordable.
About Dynamic Wireless Charging Technology:

Dynamic wireless charging technology refers to a system that enables electric vehicles (EVs) to
charge while on the move by using base pads embedded under the surface of the road.
Unlike traditional stationary wireless charging, dynamic wireless charging allows EVs to receive
power continuously as they travel, eliminating the need to stop charging.
NOTES
This technology relies on inductive transfer of energy, similar to stationary wireless charging.
The base pads installed beneath the road's surface generate a magnetic field, and a
corresponding pad on the vehicle receives this energy, facilitating charging without physical
connections.
9. E Ink displays
A new crowdfunded phone, called the Minimal Phone, has featured a white E Ink display. E Ink
displays, used in devices like the Kindle, are based on technology developed in the 1990s at MIT
and owned by E Ink Corporation.
Functioning of E Ink Displays:

• These displays utilize microcapsules filled with positively charged white particles and
negatively charged black ones suspended in fluid.
• By applying electrical charges, the particles rise to the surface, creating text and images on
the display.
• E Ink reflects light like paper, making it easier on the eyes, consuming little power as it
doesn't require backlighting, and offering better readability under bright lighting conditions.
• E Ink has advantages like low power consumption and reduced eye strain but has downsides
such as a slower refresh rate, colour limitations, and higher costs.
10. Gemini
Google has unveiled its latest AI project, "Gemini," designed to exhibit human-like behaviour.
• The rollout will occur in phases, introducing less sophisticated versions named "Nano"
and "Pro" into Google's AI-powered chatbot Bard and the Pixel 8 Pro smartphone.
• Google emphasizes Gemini's potential in problem-solving, particularly in math and
physics, while expressing commitment to addressing AI risks responsibly.
11. IBM’s Condor

IBM has introduced Condor, its latest quantum computing chip featuring 1,121 superconducting
qubits, surpassing the 1,000 qubit milestone.
What are Qubits?
NOTES
A qubit, short for a quantum bit, is the basic unit of quantum information in quantum
computing. Unlike classical bits, which can exist in a state of 0 or 1, qubits can exist in a
superposition of both 0 and 1 simultaneously. This property, along with entanglement and other
Superposition, enables quantum computers to perform complex calculations much more
efficiently than classical computers for certain tasks.
However, qubits exhibit high sensitivity and may cause calculation errors, and the problem
worsens as quantum computer size increases
IBM plans to leverage the quantum low-density parity check (qLDPC) error-correction scheme,
aiming to reduce the number of physical qubits needed for each logical qubit.
NOTES
12. Majorana zero modes

Researchers at Microsoft have announced a breakthrough in creating Majorana zero modes, a
type of particle that could greatly advance quantum computing.
About Majorana zero modes:

• Majorana zero modes are unique particles that could make quantum computers less fragile
and more computationally powerful.
• The particles, also known as Majorana fermions, were first proposed by Italian physicist
Ettore Majorana in 1937. They possess special properties that make them their own
antiparticles, which is advantageous for building quantum computers.
• Majorana zero modes can be used as qubits, the fundamental units of information in
quantum computing, and have the potential to protect encoded information from
decoherence, a major challenge in quantum computing.
NOTES
13. AI Supercomputer ‘AIRAWAT’
14. Fractals
Physicists are using fractal geometry to study quantum systems, providing a unique perspective
on the uncertainties of quantum physics.
What are Fractals?

Fractals are geometric shapes that exhibit self-similarity at
different scales.
Example 1: The Koch snowflake, starting as an equilateral triangle,

evolves with self-similar patterns at each iteration.
Applications:
• Overcome measurement limitations: Examples include the magnetic properties of
neodymium nickel oxide and the fractal distribution of electron density in graphene.
• Fractals are applied in data compression, antenna design, and studying patterns in galaxies
• They provide a unique tool to understand complex systems and patterns in nature.
15. 'AMRIT' technology

Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) - Madras has developed the 'AMRIT' technology for removing
arsenic and metal ions from water
NOTES
What is AMRIT Technology?
It has been developed by IIT-Madras, and focuses on removing arsenic and metal ions from
water to address water quality issues. Using nano-scale iron oxy-hydroxide, it selectively
eliminates arsenic when water passes through it. This technology is suitable for both domestic
and community-level water purification, aligning with the objectives of the Jal Jeevan Mission.
• The 'Standing Committee' of the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation has
recommended AMRIT for consideration in addressing water and sanitation challenges.
What is Arsenic?
Arsenic is a chemical element (symbol: As) that occurs naturally in the Earth's crust. Arsenic can
be found in various forms, including inorganic and organic compounds. Inorganic arsenic is often
considered toxic and can pose serious health risks to humans when present in drinking water,
leading to issues like arsenic poisoning.
What is Jal Jivan Mission?

The Jal Jeevan Mission, launched in 2019, aims to provide safe and sufficient drinking water
through individual household tap connections to all rural households in India by 2024. It targets
supplying 55 litres of water per person per day through Functional Household Tap Connections
(FHTC) by 2024. The mission also covers urban areas, ensuring universal water supply through
functional taps in all statutory towns.
16. Web 3.0
17. Krutrim
Ola has announced the development of a "Made for India" Large Language Model like ChatGPT
equivalent called Krutrim.
NOTES
• This AI system, designed to support 10 Indian languages, will operate independently from
Ola's mobility and EV businesses.
• The system, trained on proprietary datasets, aims to address India's linguistic diversity and
cultural context.
A large language model (LLM) is a type of artificial intelligence (AI) program that can recognize
and generate text. LLMs are built on machine learning, specifically a type of neural network
called a transformer model
18. Multimodal artificial intelligence

Multimodal artificial intelligence (AI) is gaining prominence as the next frontier in AI
development.
• Multimodal AI systems allow users to interact with AI through various means, such as
images, sounds, videos, and text. This approach is important because it aligns more closely
with how humans understand and interpret information from diverse sources.
Working of Multimodal Artificial Intelligence:

• It involves combining different modalities such as text and images or text and audio during
training. This enables AI systems to understand and generate content across various
modalities. For example, OpenAI's DALL.E model connects text and images to generate
visual content based on text prompts, while GPT's voice processing capabilities are rooted in
Whisper, its speech-to-text translation model.
NOTES
Applications of Multimodal AI:
• Multimodal AI has practical applications, such as automatic image caption generation,
detecting hate speech in memes, predicting dialogue in videos, and even potential uses in
fields like medicine, autonomous driving, and robotics.
• In medicine, multimodal AI is useful for processing complex datasets from sources like CT
scans. In speech translation, AI models can perform text-to-speech, speech-to-text, speech-
to-speech, and text-to-text translations for various languages.
19. Touchscreens
• Touchscreens serve the dual purpose of receiving inputs and displaying outputs, making
them integral to devices like smartphones, ATMs, household appliances, and more.
There are two main types of touchscreens, capacitive and resistive.

• Capacitive touchscreens, used in smartphones, operate by detecting changes in electric
fields when a finger touches the screen.
• Resistive touchscreens, with two conductive sheets separated by a small gap, function based
on the change in resistance when touched.
The rising dominance of capacitive touchscreens in consumer electronics since 2007 due to their
superior image clarity, sensitivity, and durability compared to resistive touchscreens.
20. Formaldehyde
Researchers developed a low-cost, non-invasive sensor for detecting formaldehyde adulteration
in fish at room temperature.
• The sensor, made of tin oxide-reduced graphene oxide composite, overcomes the limitations
of existing formalin sensors, which are either expensive or invasive.
• The graphene oxide's low electrical conductivity was addressed by creating the tin oxide-
reduced graphene oxide composite.
• The sensor demonstrated effective detection of formaldehyde vapor in adulterated fish
samples, showing promise for addressing food adulteration issues.
About Formaldehyde
It is a colourless, flammable gas with a strong odour. It is classified as a human carcinogen and is
linked to long-term adverse health effects and cancer.
Formaldehyde is used in many industries, including:
Glues and resins, Dyes, Textiles, Disinfectants, Building materials, Automobile parts, Embalming,
Laboratories.
21. Kavach
• Kavach is a train control system with anti-collision features that was developed over ten
years by the Indian Railways Research Designs and Standards Organisation (RDSO).
• It functions as a watchdog over the existing signalling system and is designed to warn the
train's loco pilot (driver) when they fail to notice a "red signal."
• If the loco pilot does not slow down the train to obey the signal, the Kavach system
automatically applies the emergency brakes to bring the train to a halt.
How Kavach is Deployed?

Kavach is deployed along designated railway routes and consists of three key components.
• Railway stations along the route are equipped with Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
technology in the tracks.
• The locomotive (driver's cabin) is equipped with RFID readers, a computer, and brake
interface equipment.
NOTES
• Radio infrastructure, including towers and modems, is installed at railway stations to
facilitate communication.
Role in Accident Prevention

• The system can function effectively even in conditions with visual interference, such as hilly
terrain or haze.
• Locomotives have antennas that communicate with towers at railway stations and display
warnings to the driver on their monitor.
22. Fibre optic cables

The importance of fibre optics has been increasing in recent times.
• Optical fibres, made of thin glass strands, can transmit various forms of digital information,
such as text, images, voices, and videos, across long distances at nearly the speed of light.
• The development of fibre optic communication can be traced back to physicist Charles Kao,
who proposed glass fibres as a superior medium for telecommunication over 60 years ago.
Working principle of optical fibres:

• It relies on total internal reflection to guide light through the glass strands, allowing signals
to travel across significant distances with minimal loss of optical power.
• The historical evolution of fibre optic cables is outlined, starting from early experiments with
light guiding in the 19th century to the breakthroughs in the mid-20th century that led to
the development of long-distance transmission.
• The current state of fibre optic technology is highlighted, with optical fibres playing crucial
roles in telecommunication, medical science, laser technology, and sensing.
23. 5G Network Infrastructure

• The fifth generation of mobile networks, or 5G, is what comes after the 2G, 3G, and 4G
generations. 5G is expected to deliver substantially higher connection speeds.
Features and benefits of the 5G technology:

• Operate in the millimetre wave spectrum (30-300 GHz) which has the advantage of sending
large amounts of data at very high speeds.
• Operate in 3 bands, namely low, mid and high-frequency spectrum.
• Reduced latency (means higher speed) will support new applications that leverage the power
of 5G, the Internet of Things (IoT), and artificial intelligence.
• Increased capacity on 5G networks can minimize the impact of load spikes, like those that
take place during sporting events and news events.
NOTES
About private 5G network:
• Also called a captive non-public network (CNPN), it is a network that is set up solely for a
firm’s own use. Unlike a public network, it is closed to external communication.
• The network relies on high-frequency, low-wavelength airwaves and is therefore ideal for
institutions like factories, manufacturing plants, hospitals, universities etc.
5G networks are deployed mainly on two modes: standalone and non-standalone. Both
architectures have their advantages and disadvantages.
• In the standalone mode, which Jio has chosen, the 5G network operates with dedicated
equipment and runs parallel to the existing 4G network
o Advantages: The standalone mode provides access to full 5G capabilities and new
network functionalities such as slicing that provides greater flexibility to operators to
efficiently use their spectrum holdings.
o Disadvantage: It is costly and will require software updates on existing smartphones
to work.
• Non-standalone mode, the 5G network is supported by the 4G core infrastructure.
o Advantages: initial cost and the time taken to roll out services through this track is
significantly less than standalone networks and can work on most smartphones.
o Disadvantage: Operators eventually will have to go for Standalone mode as the traffic
increases.
Difference between 4G and 5G:

5G 4G
Frequency Uses utilise much higher radio Uses lower reading frequencies of
frequencies of 28 GHz. 700 MHz to 2500 MHz.
Speed Transfer more data over the air at Speed is lesser with less data
faster speeds. transfer.
Data transfer speed is up to 1 Gbps Supports data bandwidth in Mbps
Latency Has ultra-reliable low latency (ranging Has higher latency (20-30
between 10 milliseconds and 1 milliseconds)
millisecond) i.e., the delay before a
transfer of data begins following an
instruction.
NOTES
Spectrum & Uses a millimetre wave spectrum Support a lesser number of devices
Connectivity which enables more devices to be of about 4,000 devices per square
used within the same geographic area kilometre.
supporting around one million per
square kilometre.
Coverage Uses a new digital technology that Has led to more congestion and
improves coverage, speed and lesser coverage as compared to 5G.
capacity.
Other Has added advantages for machine Limited
Advantages learning, robotics, IoT and other
programming modules. It can provide
faster processing of data.
What are the potential health risks of 5G?

To date, and after much research performed, no adverse health effect has been causally linked
with exposure to wireless technologies.
• Tissue heating is the main mechanism of interaction between radiofrequency
fields and the human body. Radiofrequency exposure levels from current
technologies result in negligible temperature rise in the human body.
Provided that the overall exposure remains below international guidelines, no consequences for
public health are anticipated.
24. 6G technology
India is trying to develop infrastructure for 6G technology and its adoption.
The Bharat 6G Alliance (B6GA) has been formed as a collaborative platform involving public and
private companies, academia, research institutions, and standards development organizations.
NOTES
• The alliance aims to foster international collaboration, forge coalitions with global 6G
alliances, and drive the design, development, and deployment of 6G technologies in India.
25. JioSpaceFiber
Reliance Jio has successfully demonstrated JioSpaceFiber, India's first satellite-based gigabit
internet service.
This technology, developed in partnership with Luxembourg-based SES, leverages medium Earth
orbit (MEO) satellites, particularly SES's O3v and o3b mPOWER networks.
How is it different from Elong Musk’s Starlink?

Unlike the more common low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellite internet (e.g., StarLink or OneWeb),
JioSpaceFiber uses MEO satellites, orbiting at a greater distance from the planet, which may result
in higher latency (latency is the time that data takes to transfer across the network). However,
MEO satellites can cover larger areas with fewer satellites.
To access JioSpaceFiber, a larger

satellite dish may be required.
Reliance Jio has already
connected some remote
locations using this technology.
What is Satellite Internet?

Satellite internet is an online
connection provided by
satellites in space. Internet
service providers launch satellites into orbit around Earth, and these satellites communicate with
user equipment, including a modem and satellite dish, to transmit and receive data. It's
advantageous for connecting remote or rural areas and enabling multi-device access.
26. SIM cards

The growing use of mobile phones have highlighted the importance of SIM cards, or Subscriber
Identification Module cards, which are essential components for connecting mobile phones to
cellular networks following the GSM standard.
• The SIM card contains information, such as the International Mobile Subscriber Identity
(IMSI), the subscriber's location, a list of preferred networks for roaming, emergency
numbers, and, space permitting, the subscriber's contacts and SMS messages.
• SIM cards adhere to international standards (ISO/IEC 7816) maintained by organizations like
the International Organization for Standardization.
Functioning:
The SIM card hardware features an integrated
circuit connected to metal contacts on the card's
surface.
These contacts serve specific purposes, like power
supply, clock access, data transmission, and
grounding, as defined by ISO/IEC 7816-2.
The SIM card plays a crucial role in authenticating a
phone's place within a cellular network.
Evolution of SIM cards:
NOTES
SIM cards have evolved in size, from full-size SIMs to nano SIMs. The latest development is the
eSIM (eUICC), where the SIM software is preloaded onto the mobile equipment, eliminating the
need for a physical card.
This reprogrammable eSIM is environmentally friendly and enhances security, as it is not

physically removable, making it harder for malicious individuals to access the SIM application.
However, it can potentially allow network operators to track users' data more comprehensively,
even within apps on the device.
27. Nanophotonic Electron Accelerator (NEA)

Researchers have activated the world's smallest particle accelerator, known as a "nanophotonic
electron accelerator" (NEA), which is approximately the size of a small coin.
What are particle accelerators?

It is a device that accelerates charged particles, such as electrons or protons, to very high speeds
and energies. These accelerated particles are then used for various scientific and practical
purposes, including fundamental research in particle physics, medical treatments, and industrial
applications.
• E.g., the Large Hadron Collider (LHC)
How this miniature accelerator is different from LHC?

NEA consists of a small microchip containing an even smaller vacuum tube which is made up of
thousands of individual pillars. Unlike traditional particle accelerators (like LHC), this tiny
accelerator relies on directing miniature laser beams at thousands of individual "pillars" on a
microchip to accelerate electrons.
While the NEA's energy field is weaker than large particle accelerators like the Large Hadron
Collider (LHC), its smaller size and potential for further enhancements make it promising for
applications in medical treatments, particularly for precise radiotherapy. The NEA's compact
design offers advantages for medical purposes and could replace more invasive cancer treatment
methods.
28. LIGO-India
LIGO-India, part of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory, is set to become a
prominent astronomical observatory in the world, aiming to detect and study gravitational
waves, offering a new way to observe the universe.
• Currently, there are two LIGO setups in the US, and a third one will be built in the Hingoli
district of Maharashtra, India. The facility’s construction is expected to be completed by
2030.
LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory) is a physics experiment designed to
detect gravitational waves, which are ripples in the fabric of spacetime caused by massive objects
in accelerated motion.
What are Gravitational Waves?
NOTES
Gravitational waves are ripples in the fabric of space and time that travel at the speed of light.
They are created by the motion of massive objects, such as black holes or neutron stars, which
generate gravitational waves when they orbit or collide with each other.
The science behind Gravitational waves:

According to Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity (1916), any object with mass warps the
space-time around it. When two massive objects orbit each other or collide, they produce ripples
or waves in space-time that propagate outward at the speed of light.
Why use LIGO?

Gravitational waves are extremely weak and difficult to detect. They were first directly detected
by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) in 2015, a century after they
were predicted by Einstein’s theory.
What is LIGO-India?
NOTES
Working of LIGO?
29. BS 6 Stage II 'Electrified Flex Fuel Vehicle'

Toyota Kirloskar Motor has launched the world's first prototype of a BS 6 Stage II 'Electrified Flex
Fuel Vehicle' in India.
NOTES
Flex Fuel Vehicles (FFVs): It is designed to run on a flexible combination of fuels, typically
gasoline and ethanol. These vehicles are equipped with engines that can adjust their fuel mixture
based on the available fuel blend E.g., E20 (20% ethanol and 80% gasoline) or even higher
percentages.
Electrified Flex Fuel Vehicles: They are a more advanced version of FFVs that
offer the advantage of being able to operate on both ethanol-based fuels and electricity,
providing increased fuel efficiency and potentially reducing emissions compared to traditional
gasoline-only vehicles.
Significance:
• These vehicles offer higher ethanol use and better fuel efficiency similar to Strong Hybrid
Electric Vehicles (SHEVs)
• Electrified Flex Fuel Vehicles use minimal advanced chemistry batteries to reduce
dependence on imports.
Challenges:
• Higher cost of ownership and running cost for customers, which may affect their acceptance
unless retail fuel prices are competitive.
• Developing FFVs requires significant effort and calibration with multiple fuel blends, making
them less viable without widespread fuel availability.
About Ethanol Blended Petrol Programme (EBPP):

• The target of 10% ethanol blending for 2021-22 has already been achieved.
• The National Policy on Biofuels – 2018 targets 20% blending of ethanol in petrol by ESY 2025-
26.
About Bharat Stage VI (BS VI):

It is a set of emission standards established to regulate the level of air pollutants emitted from
internal combustion and spark-ignition engine equipment.
India has made it mandatory to follow BS-VI emission (from previously BS-IV) norms starting on
April 1, 2020.
• BS-VI contains enhanced fuel quality, and reduced the permissible Sulphur content by 80%,
from 50 Parts Per Million (ppm) to a maximum of 10 ppm.
30. Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS)

Car manufacturers have started providing ADAS which could create a safe traffic environment
resulting in reduced accidental death.
Information
What is Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) is an electronic system of
ADAS? automated vehicle safety features.
Components The System uses innovative sensor technology to provide information,
warnings, and assistance to the driver while they are driving.
Role The role of ADAS is to prevent deaths and injuries by reducing the number
of car accidents and the serious impact of those that cannot be avoided on
the road.
ADAS Adaptive Cruise Control, Glare-Free High Beam Light, Adaptive Light Control,
Applications Automatic Parking, Autonomous Valet Parking, Navigation System, Night
Vision,
NOTES
What is Autonomous
Autonomous driving is the
Driving? ability of a
vehicle to
drive itself.
Challenges Limited success; No consensus on technology to be used; Available

to Self- technology at present do not have the capacity of humans to predict and
Driving Cars take decision in complex traffic scenario; and lack of government support.
31. Higgs boson decay

Physicists working with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) particle-smasher at CERN, reported that
they had detected a Higgs boson decaying into a Z boson particle and a photon which is a very
rare decay process.
About Higgs Boson:

• The Higgs boson is a subatomic particle that gives other particles mass. The strength of a
particle's interaction with the Higgs boson determines its mass.
• For Example, Electrons have a certain mass, protons have more, and neutrons have slightly
more than protons because of their interactions with the Higgs boson. The Higgs boson can
also interact with other Higgs bosons, indicating its greater mass.
Need for understanding Higgs Boson:

• The properties of the Higgs boson and how particles interact with it can provide insights into
the universe.
Z boson and a photon:

• Virtual particles are particles that briefly exist and cannot be directly detected but have
lingering effects according to quantum field theory.
• The creation of a Higgs boson at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) involves interactions with
virtual particles, resulting in the production of a Z boson and a photon. Photons, which are
particles of light, have no mass because they do not interact with the Higgs boson.
About the Standard

Model of Particle
Physics:
• The Standard
Model is a theory in
physics that
describes how the
smallest particles
in the universe
behave and
interact with each
other.
NOTES
• According to the Standard Model, there are several types of particles. There are particles
called quarks, which are the building blocks of protons and neutrons, and there are particles
called leptons, which include electrons. These particles have different properties like mass
and electric charge.
• The theory explains how these particles interact with each other through different forces.
• The Standard Model predicts the probabilities of different decay paths. The recent
measurement confirms the decay of a Higgs boson into a Z boson and a photon, which was
previously observed but now with increased statistical precision.
32. Foucault pendulum

A Foucault pendulum has been installed inside the new Parliament which is designed by the
National Council of Science
Museums, Kolkata.
• Invented by French
physicist Léon Foucault in
the mid-19th Century, the
pendulum provided the
first laboratory
demonstration in history
to show that the Earth
spins on its axis. The
pendulum in the new
Parliament is meant to
symbolise the ‘integration
of the idea of India with
that of the universe’.
About Foucault Pendulum:

• The pendulum consists of a heavy bob suspended at the end of a long, strong wire from a
fixed point in the ceiling. As the pendulum swings, the imaginary surface across which the
wire and the bob swipe is called the plane of the swing.
Why is it important:
• It helped us understand that the Earth is rotating or spinning. As it swings back and forth, it
seems to change its direction over time.
• This happens because while the pendulum swings, the Earth is spinning beneath making it
look like the pendulum is changing its direction. This effect is called the Coriolis effect.
Depending on where you are on Earth, the pendulum will appear to rotate in different ways.
• For example, if you're in the Northern Hemisphere (like in Europe or North America), the
pendulum will rotate clockwise. But if you're in the Southern Hemisphere (like in Australia or
South America), it will rotate counterclockwise.
• By observing this rotation, scientists like Foucault were able to prove that the Earth is
spinning on its axis.
NOTES
Nuclear Technology
1. ANEEL (Advanced Nuclear Energy for Enriched Life)
Clean Core Thorium Energy, a Chicago-based company, has developed ANEEL (Advanced Nuclear
Energy for Enriched Life), (named after India’s scientist, Dr Anil Kakodkar) - a fuel that combines
Thorium and High Assay Low Enriched Uranium (HALEU).
▪ ANEEL can be used in India's existing Pressurized Heavy-Water Reactors (PHWRs), offering a
potential game-changer for the country's nuclear energy sector.
▪ India has the world's largest reserves of Thorium, estimated at 1.07 million tonnes, and
ANEEL could facilitate the efficient utilization of Thorium in nuclear reactors.
The fuel's benefits include reduced nuclear waste volume, lower operating costs, and longer-
lasting efficiency.
2. Nuclear Battery
Chinese startup Betavolt has developed a "nuclear battery" that can produce power for 50 years
without charge.
The battery, which is smaller than a coin, contains 63 nuclear isotopes and converts radioisotope
energy into electrical energy. Betavolt claims it is the world's first battery to achieve
miniaturization of atomic energy production, challenging traditional notions of nuclear
technology.
Such batteries use energy from the decay of a radioactive isotope (Like nickel-63) to generate
electricity. Unlike nuclear reactors, they do not rely upon nuclear fission for power generation.
Application: The company plans to produce batteries with 1 watt of power by 2025 and sees
applications in aerospace, AI equipment, medical devices, microprocessors, sensors, drones, and
micro-robots. The nuclear battery is fire-resistant, jerk-proof, and operational in temperatures
from -60°C to 120°C.
3. JT-60SA (Nuclear Fusion reactor)

The world's largest nuclear fusion reactor, the JT-60SA in Japan's Ibaraki Prefecture, has
commenced operations, marking a significant step toward achieving clean energy.
More about the News:

• Aim: The joint project between the European Union and Japan aims to explore the viability of
nuclear fusion as a sustainable and virtually limitless power source.
• The achievement follows recent breakthroughs in nuclear fusion, including a net energy gain
by scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California.
• Another, even larger fusion reactor is currently under construction in France and is set to
begin operations in 2025.
4. Nuclear fusion
• It is the process by which two light atomic nuclei combine to form a single heavier one while
releasing massive amounts of energy.
• It is the opposite of nuclear fission, where heavy atoms are split apart.
• Nuclear fusion is described as the "holy grail" of energy production.
• It is the process that powers the Sun and other stars.
• Fusion reactions take place in a state of matter called plasma — a hot, charged gas made of
positive ions and free-moving electrons with unique properties distinct from solids, liquids,
or gases.
NOTES
Why is nuclear fusion so
important?
• Nuclear fission reactors
produce a lot of
radioactive waste,
which can be
dangerous and must be
stored safely -
potentially for
hundreds of years
whereas the waste
produced by nuclear
fusion is less
radioactive and decays
much more quickly.
• Nuclear fusion doesn't
need fossil fuels like oil
or gas.
• It also doesn't generate
greenhouse gases
• Most fusion
experiments use
hydrogen, which can be extracted cheaply from seawater and lithium, i.e., fuel supplies
could last for millions of years.
• Fusion could generate four times more energy per kilogram of fuel than fission (used in
nuclear power plants) and nearly four million times more energy than burning oil or coal
Challenges with Nuclear Fusion:

• It is challenging to obtain high enough plasma densities, temperatures, and energy
confinement times simultaneously for a reactor to approach ignition conditions.
• Forcing and keeping the elements together in fusion requires very high temperatures and
pressures.
Evolution of Nuclear Fusion Study:

• The IAEA has been at the core of international fusion research. The IAEA launched the
Nuclear Fusion journal in 1960 to exchange information about advances in nuclear fusion.
• The world’s largest international fusion facility, ITER was established in 2007 in France, to
demonstrate the scientific and technological feasibility of fusion energy production.
Nuclear Fusion and Nuclear Fission:

The nuclear energy currently in use across the world comes from the fission process, in which
the nucleus of a heavier element is split into those of lighter elements in a controlled manner.
In fusion, nuclei of two lighter elements are made to fuse together to form the nucleus of a
heavier atom.
A large amount of energy is released in both these processes, but substantially more in fusion
than fission. For example, the fusion of two nuclei of a heavier isotope of hydrogen, called
tritium, produces at least four times as much energy as the fission of a uranium atom which is the
normal process of generating electricity in a nuclear reactor. Besides greater energy yield, fusion
is also a carbon-free source of energy, and has negligible radiation risks.
NOTES
But fusion reactions happen only at very high temperatures, 10 times the temperature that
exists at the core of the Sun, and creating such an extreme environment in a laboratory requires
huge amounts of energy.
5. Fourth-generation nuclear plant

China has launched the world's first commercial operations of a fourth-generation gas-cooled
nuclear reactor power plant, the Shidao Bay plant in eastern Shandong province.
Unlike conventional reactors, this plant utilizes small modular reactors (SMRs), which are high-
temperature reactors cooled by gas instead of pressurized water. SMRs are considered more
efficient and cost-effective and can be employed for various applications such as heating,
desalination, or steam for industrial purposes.
What are SMRs?

They are advanced nuclear
reactors with a capacity of up
to 300 MW per unit, offering
advantages such as simplicity,
safety, and cost-effectiveness.
• SMRs can be factory-made
and transported to a site
for installation.
• SMRs are economical and
time-efficient, and unlike
traditional reactors that
require refuelling every 1-
2 years, SMRs only need refuelling every 3-7 years.
SMRs have the following characteristics:

1. Can produce a large amount of low-carbon electricity
2. Designed with modular technology using module factory fabrication
3. Pursue economies of series production
4. Have short construction times
5. Are flexible in design and require a smaller footprint
6. Have a power capacity of up to 300 MW per unit
SMRs also have some disadvantages, including:

1. They take longer to build
2. Have higher capital costs so are harder to finance
3. Are arguably becoming too complex
The Indian Government is considering offering incentives, similar to a production-linked incentive

(PLI) scheme, to encourage the manufacturing of small modular reactors (SMRs) with the goal
of increasing nuclear power’s share in India’s energy production.
6. Kakrapar-4 nuclear reactor

The fourth unit of the Kakrapar Atomic Power Project (KAPP-4) in Gujarat, with a capacity of 700
MWe, achieved criticality recently, marking the initiation of a controlled fission chain reaction.
• The Kakrapar facility, houses the largest indigenous nuclear power reactors built by the
Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL).
• These pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs) utilize natural uranium as fuel and
heavy water as coolant and moderator.
NOTES
• The Kakrapar Atomic Power Station includes two operating PHWRs with a capacity of 220
MWe each, known as KAPS-1 and -2.
The NPCIL, a public sector undertaking of the Department of Atomic Energy, already operates
indigenous PHWRs at other facilities.
7. Nuclear Medicine
Nuclear Medicine is a medical speciality that uses radioactive substances to diagnose and treat
diseases.
• It involves the use of small amounts of radioactive materials, known as
radiopharmaceuticals, which are introduced into the body.
• These substances emit gamma rays that can be detected by specialized cameras to create
images of organs and tissues.
• This imaging technique helps in diagnosing various conditions, such as cancer, heart disease,
and bone disorders, by providing detailed information about the functioning and structure of
internal organs.
• Nuclear medicine treatments involve using radioactive substances to target and destroy
specific cells or tissues, such as cancer cells.
NOTES
Government Initiatives /Departments
1. Marine Energy Conversion Systems Sectional Committee (MECSSC)
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has taken a significant step in promoting standardization in
the field of Marine Energy Conversion Systems by establishing the Marine Energy Conversion
Systems Sectional Committee under ETD 54.
What are Marine Energy Conservation System?

Marine Energy Conversion Systems refer to technologies that harness energy from the ocean,
converting it into electricity or other usable forms. Examples include:
• Tidal Energy: Utilizing the rise and fall of tides to generate electricity through tidal turbines or
barrages.
• Wave Energy: Capturing the kinetic energy of ocean waves to generate power through
devices like wave energy converters.
• Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): Leveraging temperature differences between the
warm surface water and cold deep water to produce electricity.
• Salinity Gradient Power: Generating energy from the difference in salt concentration
between freshwater and seawater.
About BIS:
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) (HQ: New Delhi) is the National Standards Body of India
under the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution. Established by the Bureau of
Indian Standards Act, 2016, effective from October 12, 2017, it replaced the Indian Standards
Institution (ISI). The BIS Act, 2016, designates the Minister in charge of the relevant Ministry as
the ex-officio President. It also serves as India's WTO-TBT (Agreement on Technical Barriers to
Trade) enquiry point.
2. Moving Off Information Systems (MOIS)

The government's technical committees, including the Central Motor Vehicle Rules-Technical
Standing Committee (CMVR-TSC) and the Automotive Industry Standards Committee (AISC), are
working on formulating standards for Moving Off Information Systems (MOIS) in vehicles.
What is MOIS?
Moving Off Information Systems (MOIS) is an advanced driver assistance system designed to aid
drivers during low-speed moving-off manoeuvres, particularly in situations involving vehicles
carrying passengers or goods.
The system detects and informs the driver of the presence of pedestrians and cyclists in the
close-proximity forward blind spot of the vehicle, aiming to enhance road safety.
Additionally, the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has developed a Computer Aided
Dispatch System and NHAI ERS Mobile Application to expedite emergency response calls,
aligning with the broader focus on improving traffic safety as per the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.
3. AGNI – ‘Ayurveda Gyan Naipunya Initiative’

The Central Council for Research in Ayurveda Sciences (CCRAS), under the Ministry of Ayush, has
launched the "Ayurveda Gyan Naipunya Initiative" (AGNI) to promote research and mainstream
pragmatic practices in Ayurveda.
• AGNI aims to provide a platform for Ayurveda practitioners to report innovative practices
and experiences in various disease conditions, fostering a culture of evidence-based
practice.
NOTES
• The initiative also seeks to identify interested practitioners for collaboration in creating a
database and offers training in research methods.
The initiative aligns with CCRAS's commitment to research on scientific lines in Ayurveda, and it
complements other programs initiated by the organization, such as SPARK, PG-STAR, and SMART,
aimed at promoting scientific research in Ayurveda.
4. Battery energy storage system

The Indian government has approved viability gap funding (VGF) to cover up to 40% of the total
capital cost for the establishment of a 4,000 MWh battery energy storage system (BESS) in the
country.
• This initiative is aligned with India's renewable energy goals, as the country has seen
significant growth in solar and wind energy capacity, meeting 25% of its energy demand
from renewables, including large hydro plants.
• The BESS aims to enable the use of stored renewable energy during peak hours, promoting
round-the-clock renewable energy supply.
• The scheme supports India's ambition to achieve 50% of its energy requirements through
renewable and non-fossil energy sources by 2030, while also contributing to carbon
emissions reduction.
About Battery Energy Storage Systems:

Term Definition
Battery Energy A system that stores electrical energy in batteries for later use.
Storage System (BESS)
Purpose To store surplus electricity when available and discharge it when
demand is high or during power outages.
Components • Batteries (lithium-ion, lead-acid, etc.).
• Inverters for converting DC to AC power.
• BMS (Battery Management System) for monitoring and managing
battery health and performance.
Applications • Grid stabilization and frequency regulation.
• Energy shifting to optimize energy consumption.
• Backup power during outages.
• Integration of renewable energy sources.
Benefits • Smoothing out intermittent renewable energy generation
• Reducing peak demand and associated costs
• Enhancing grid reliability
• Supporting renewable energy adoption.
Types • Residential BESS for homes
• Commercial BESS for businesses
• Utility-scale BESS for large-scale energy storage.
Environmental Impact BESS can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by improving energy
efficiency and integrating renewable energy sources.
Challenges • High initial costs
• Battery degradation over time
• Recycling and disposal of batteries
• Regulatory and grid integration issues.
NOTES
5. National Consortium
National Consortium is an apex-level body set up on Deep Tech refers to advanced and
the recommendation of the Prime Minister's Science, cutting-edge technologies that are
Technology, and Innovation Advisory Council (PM- based on significant scientific and
STIAC) to propose a comprehensive policy framework engineering innovations.
for the Indian deep tech startup ecosystem.
• Chaired by the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Example: Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Government of India, it represents a diverse group and Machine Learning (ML) are
of stakeholders, including high-level examples of Deep Tech. They involve
representatives from various government the development of sophisticated
departments, industry associations, research algorithms and models that enable
institutions, and innovation centres. machines to learn from data and
make intelligent decisions.
About PM-STIAC:
It is an overarching body which assesses the status of specific S&T domains, comprehends
challenges, formulates immediate, mid and long-term interventions and presents a roadmap to
the Prime Minister. It has identified nine national science missions which aim to address major
scientific challenges to ensure India’s sustainable development.
6. SAGAR SAMPARK
Ministry of Ports, Shipping, and Waterways (MoPSW) has launched the 'SAGAR SAMPARK'
Differential Global Navigation Satellite System (DGNSS) to strengthen the maritime sector in
India.
What is Differential Global Navigation Satellite System?

DGNSS is a technology that helps make GPS and other satellite navigation systems more
accurate. The major GPS system includes GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (Europe), BeiDou
(China), NAVIC(India)
How does it work?

It works by using reference stations on the
ground that send correction signals to GPS
receivers. These correction signals help the
receivers to correct any errors or
inaccuracies in the satellite signals they
receive.
Advantages:
• The implementation of DGNSS has
improved GPS error correction
accuracy from 5 to 10 meters to less
than 5 meters for 100 Nautical Miles
from the Indian coastlines.
• It will also enhance the capabilities of
the Directorate General of Lighthouses
and Lightships (DGLL) (under MoPSW)
in providing radio aids to marine
navigation along the Indian coast.
• Fulfilment of international navigation obligations of the International Maritime Organisation
(IMO), Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) and International Association of Marine Aids to
Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA).
NOTES
Significance: The significance of DGNSS lies in its ability to provide more precise positioning
information, and safe navigation, reduce the risk of accidents in port and harbour areas, and
fulfil international navigation obligations.
About IMO:
The International Maritime Organization (agreement in 1948 and came into existence in 1958;
HQ: London) is a specialised agency of the United Nations responsible for regulating shipping.
About SOLAS:
SOLAS Convention is related to the safety of merchant ships. It first came in 1914 after the
famous Titanic incident.
About IALA:
The International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities is an
intergovernmental organization founded in 1957 to collect and provide nautical expertise and
advice
NOTES
Biotechnology
1. Newborn genome-sequencing
It is the process of analyzing the complete genetic information of a newborn baby. It involves
sequencing the entire genome to identify any genetic variations or mutations that may be
associated with specific diseases or conditions e.g., Sickle cell anaemia, Down syndrome, Fragile X
syndrome etc.
Genome sequencing is figuring out the order of DNA nucleotides, or bases, in a genome—the
order of Adenine, Cytosine, Guanines, and Thymine that make up an organism's DNA.
2. Population-level genome sequencing

The UK recently completed sequencing half a million whole genomes, marking a significant
milestone in population-scale genomics.
• This approach offers unprecedented insights into human diversity and has transformative
implications for various scientific fields.
Various large-scale genome programs are ongoing worldwide, including the U.S.'s AllofUS
program, the European Union's '1+ Million Genomes' initiative, and the planned 'Three Million
African Genomes.'
Benefits:
• Population-scale genome efforts serve diverse objectives, from understanding disease
prevalence and biomarkers to informing therapeutic target discovery and supporting public
health initiatives.
In Asia and India, initiatives like the GenomeAsia project and India's GenomeIndia aim to conduct
population-level sequencing, contributing to the broader understanding of human evolution,
migration patterns, and adaptation to diverse environments
About Population-level sequencing (also known as population-scale sequencing)

It is the process of sequencing the DNA or mRNA of multiple individuals of one or more
species. This process uses probabilistic matching tools and large amounts of sequence
information to identify genomes
3. Genome sequencing of jamun

Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Bhopal have
conducted the first-ever genome sequencing of the jamun tree (Syzygium cumini).
• The analysis revealed a higher number of coding genes in the jamun genome, suggesting
a neopolyploidy event.
The study identified key genes involved in the adaptive evolution of jamun, contributing to its
anti-diabetic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties.
A neopolyploidy event refers to the occurrence of polyploidy, a condition in which an organism

has multiple sets of chromosomes, leading to an increase in the number of chromosomes in its
cells.
Polyploidy can arise through different mechanisms, including errors during cell division or
hybridization between different species.
NOTES
4. Anthrobots
Scientists have created tiny robots, called anthrobots, made from human tracheal cells capable
of repairing damaged neural tissue.
• Unlike previous xenobots made from frog cells, anthrobots are self-assembling and formed
from human tissue, potentially paving the way for personalized medicine.
How it works?
• The researchers grew clusters of human tracheal skin cells, developing anthrobots with cilia
acting as oars.
• When placed on scratched neural tissue, anthrobots fused into a 'superbot,' leading to
complete healing within three days without genetic modification.
• The researchers envision using person-specific anthrobots for tasks like clearing arteries,
breaking up mucus, or drug delivery, with potential applications in regenerative medicine.
5. CRISPR technology
In the 10 years since it was developed, the genome- A vast number of diseases and
editing technology called CRISPR has begun to deliver disorders are genetic in nature —
on the near unlimited potential that scientists say it has that is, they are caused by unwanted
to improve the quality of human life. changes or mutations in genes. These
include common blood disorders like
The technology enables a simple but remarkably sickle cell anaemia, eye diseases
efficient way to ‘edit’ the genetic codes of living including colour blindness, several
organisms, thus opening up the possibility of types of cancer, diabetes, HIV, and
‘correcting’ genetic information to cure diseases, liver and heart diseases. Many of
prevent physical deformities, or to even produce these are hereditary as well.
cosmetic enhancements.
CRISPR is short for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, which is a
reference to the clustered and repetitive sequences of DNA found in bacteria, whose natural
mechanism to fight some viral diseases is replicated in this gene-editing tool.
It is simple, and still far more accurate — and it does not involve the introduction of any new
gene from the outside. A bad
stretch in the DNA sequence,
which is the cause of disease or
disorder, is located, cut, and
removed — and then replaced
with a ‘correct’ sequence. And the
tools used to achieve this are not
mechanical, but biochemical —
specific protein and RNA
molecules.
The technology replicates a

natural defence mechanism in
some bacteria that uses a similar
method to protect itself from
virus attacks.
The first task is to identify the

particular sequence of genes that
is the cause of the trouble. Once
that is done, an RNA molecule is
NOTES
programmed to locate this sequence on the DNA strand, just like the ‘find’ or ‘search’ function on
a computer. After this, a special protein called Cas9, which is often described as ‘genetic
scissors’, is used to break the DNA strand at specific points, and remove the bad sequence.
A DNA strand, when broken, has a natural tendency to re-attach and heal itself. But if the auto-
repair mechanism is allowed to continue, the bad sequence can regrow. So, scientists intervene
during the auto-repair process by supplying the correct sequence of genetic codes, which attaches
to the broken DNA strand.
6. Casgevy
The UK drug regulator recently approved Casgevy, a gene therapy for sickle cell disease and
thalassaemia, marking a breakthrough as the world's first licensed therapy using Crispr-Cas9
gene editing technology.
What is Casgevy?
It is a groundbreaking gene-editing therapy for sickle cell anaemia, utilizing the CRISPR-Cas9 tool.
Casgevy edits the faulty gene causing these blood disorders, potentially providing a lifelong cure.
The therapy, targets the BCL11A gene to increase foetal haemoglobin production, reducing
severe pain crises and the need for transfusions.
However, challenges include the high potential cost (estimated up to $2 million per patient) and
the necessity for improved local manufacturing facilities to make the therapy more accessible
globally
About Sickle Cell Disease:

Description
What is It is an inherited blood disease
Sickle Cell common among people of
Anaemia? African, Arabian, and Indian
origin. It affects haemoglobin,
delivering oxygen to cells.
NOTES
A typical haemoglobin
molecule (haemoglobin S)
distorts red blood cells,
causing a sickle shape, and
blocking blood flow and
oxygen.
Symptoms include severe pain (sickle cell crises) and organ damage over
time.
Treatment Medication, blood transfusions, and occasionally bone marrow transplants.
Implications High Prevalence: 30,000 to 40,000 children are born with sickle cell disease
annually in India, mostly in tribal areas
Government India aims to eliminate the SCA by 2047 through a national program.
Initiatives National Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Programme
ICMR and NRHM implement outreach programs for disease management and
control
Universal screening, awareness, and counselling funded under the National
Health Mission
7. CAR-T cell therapy

India's Drug Controller General (DCGI) has granted market authorization for CAR-T (Chimeric
Antigen Receptor-T) cell therapy developed by ImmunoACT, a spin-off company from IIT-
Bombay.
• This ground-breaking treatment, known as NexCAR19, is now approved for use in cases of
relapsed-refractory B-cell lymphoma and leukaemia.
NOTES
8. Gene drive technology
Scientists are developing a "gene drive technology" to potentially eliminate malaria-causing
mosquitoes in Africa.
• This technique involves releasing genetically modified male mosquitoes into the
environment to prevent female mosquitoes from producing new female offspring, leading to
a reduction in malaria transmission.
• Despite the promising nature of the technology, there are ecological concerns, and some
advocacy groups oppose it, emphasizing potential unpredictable consequences on the
ecosystem.
Gene drives work by increasing the chances of a particular gene being passed on to more than
50% of the next generation, potentially leading to the extinction of a population
9. Stem cells
The Delhi High Court had allowed two children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) to undergo
stem cell therapy for their condition.
What are stem cells?

A stem cell is a cell with the unique ability to develop into specialised cell types in the body. In the
future they may be used to replace cells and tissues that have been damaged or lost due to
disease.
Stem cells provide new cells for the body as it grows, and replace specialised cells that are
damaged or lost. They have two unique properties that enable them to do this:
• They can divide over and over again to produce new cells.
• As they divide, they can change into the other types of cell that make up the body.
Classification based on Stem Cells formation at different times of human lives

There are 3 types under this classification
• Embryonic stem cells
• Adult stem cells
• Induced pluripotent stem cells or iPSC’s
NOTES
What are Embryonic Stem cells?
These are the Stem cells that exist only during the earliest stage of development.
What are Adult Stem Cells?

• These are the cells that can multiply when there is a need to repair adult organs and tissues.
• These cells are present in almost all organs of the human body.
• They are multipotent i.e. they can give rise to a limited number of mature cell types, usually
corresponding to the tissues in which they reside. A most well-known example is the blood-
forming (hematopoietic) stem cells from bone marrow that give rise to different blood cells in
our body.
• Some tissue-specific stem cells can only give rise to one or two mature cell types and are
called unipotent and bipotent, respectively. Stem cells found in the skin produce new skin
cells and are an example of unipotent stem cells.
What are induced

pluripotent stem
cells (iPSC’s)?
• These cells are
not found in the
body but made
in the laboratory
from cells of the
body.
• The iPSC cells
have properties
similar to those of embryonic stem cells.
• Human iPSC’s were generated in 2007.
What is stem cell scaffolding?

Developing a stem cell scaffolding architecture (temporary platform to build tissues) supports
vascular cell ingrowth, and promotes wound healing and regenerative medicine that is effective
in treating bone, cartilage, blood vessel, skin, tendon, and nerve damage.
Using a bio-printer, a stem cell scaffold is made to repair abnormalities to valves in blood vessels
and to mend holes between the two main pumping chambers of the heart.
What is a stem cell transplant?

• A stem cell transplant (SCT) is
a medical procedure in which
healthy stem cells are infused
into a patient to replace
damaged or diseased stem
cells.
• Stem cells are special human
cells that can replicate and
differentiate into various
types of cells in the body.
• The transplant aims to restore
the body's ability to produce healthy blood cells, boost the immune system, and treat certain
diseases like leukaemia and lymphoma.
NOTES
10. Metagenome sequencing
The pandemic led to the development of rapid and unbiased genome sequencing techniques for
pathogen surveillance. The metagenomic approach, used to directly sequence patient samples
without prior knowledge of the infectious agent, quickly identified SARS-CoV-2 as the cause of
COVID-19.
• This genomic approach, termed metagenomics, has revolutionized pathogen identification
and surveillance. The widespread adoption of genome sequencing techniques birthed
numerous technologies, including the CovidSeq assay, which facilitated national and
international genome surveillance efforts.
Genome sequencing has also been employed to track avian influenza, a prime candidate for
genomic surveillance due to its potential for rapid spread and impact on both animals and
humans.
What is Metagenome sequencing?

Metagenome sequencing is a technique that directly analyzes genetic material from samples
without prior knowledge of the organisms present. It's used to identify and study the entire
genetic diversity of microbial communities, enabling the detection of known and unknown
pathogens in a high-throughput manner.
11. Somatic genetic variants

• Somatic genetic variants, also known as somatic mutations or somatic changes, refer to
alterations in the DNA sequence that occur in the cells of an individual's body after
conception.
• Somatic mutations can occur for various reasons, such as errors during DNA replication,
exposure to environmental factors (like radiation or chemicals), or simply as a natural
consequence of cellular processes.
• Somatic mutations can have different effects depending on where they occur in the genome
and which genes are affected.
NOTES
• Some somatic mutations are harmless and have no discernible impact on the cell or
individual. However, others can lead to the development of diseases, including cancer.
12. Y chromosome
For the first time, scientists have successfully
sequenced the Y chromosome, providing insights that
could impact the understanding of male infertility and
various health issues.
The Y chromosome presented challenges due to its

repetitive nature. Unlike other chromosomes, a
significant portion of the Y chromosome consists of
repetitive sequences and palindromes.
About Chromosomes:
Chromosomes are thread-like structures that carry genetic information from cell to cell. They
are made of DNA and proteins. DNA is the material that holds genes, which are the building
blocks of the human body.
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. The first 22 pairs are called autosomes. These code for
most of the genetic traits in the body. The 23rd pair are known as the sex chromosomes. These
chromosomes decide if a person will be born male or female. Females have two copies of the X
chromosome, while males have one X and one Y chromosome.
13. Mitochondrial Donation Treatment (MDT)

A baby has been born in the UK using a technique called mitochondrial donation treatment
(MDT) (popularly called ‘Three Parents Baby’), which involves using the DNA of three people in
an effort to prevent children from inheriting incurable diseases.
Working:
The procedure combines the
sperm and eggs from the
biological parents with
mitochondria from a donor's
eggs. Harmful mutations in
mitochondria, which are
inherited only from the mother,
can affect all the children a
woman has. As of now, the
technique is still in its
experimental stage.
Approximately 1 in 5,000-10,000 children are born each year with mitochondrial disease.
Concerns: Development of designer babies, dilutes parenthood, costly in nature etc.
NOTES
Health
1. Zosurabalpin
Researchers have identified a new class of antibiotics, specifically zosurabalpin, with the
potential to combat drug-resistant bacterium Acinetobacter baumannii.
• This antibiotic was found to be effective against CRAB (carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter
baumannii)-induced pneumonia and sepsis in mouse models.
• Zosurabalpin, a drug candidate, was developed through the optimization of a tethered
macrocyclic peptide (MCP) that selectively kills A. baumannii.
• The antibiotic's unique mode of action involves inhibiting the transport of lipopolysaccharide
(LPS), an essential process for creating the outer-membrane structure of Gram-negative
bacteria.
• Zosurabalpin blocks LPS transport, leading to the abnormal build-up of LPS in the cell and the
subsequent death of the bacterium.
2. Bio-Imaging Bank
Mumbai's Tata Memorial Hospital (TMH), India's largest cancer treatment facility, is leveraging
artificial intelligence (AI) to address the increasing challenge of cancer cases.
• TMH has established a 'Bio-Imaging Bank' using deep learning to create a cancer-specific
algorithm for early-stage cancer detection.
• The project involves a comprehensive repository of radiology and pathology images, linked
with clinical information, for training and testing AI algorithms.
• The initiative, funded by the Department of Biotechnology in collaboration with other
institutions, has already reduced radiation exposure for pediatric patients by 40% using AI.
3. International Classification of Diseases (ICD) - 11

The World Health Organization (WHO) has launched the ICD-11 Traditional Medicine Module 2,
incorporating data and terminology related to Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani Medicine.
• The Ministry of AYUSH collaborated with WHO in preparing this classification, aiming to
strengthen India's healthcare system, research, development, and policy-making in the
traditional medicine sector.
• The inclusion of traditional medical terminologies in ICD-11 aims to establish a connection
between traditional medicine and international standards, fostering a unified global
tradition in healthcare.
About ICD:
ICD is the international standard for systematic recording, reporting, analysis, interpretation,
and comparison of mortality and morbidity data.
Previously, ICD-11 included Module-1 which covers traditional medicine conditions originating in
ancient China, which is now commonly used in Japan, Korea etc.
4. Hydroxychloroquine
A new study published in the journal Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy links hydroxychloroquine,
an antimalarial drug, to an increased mortality rate of up to 11%, suggesting a possible link to
17,000 deaths.
While hydroxychloroquine is generally safe, the study underscores the importance of evaluating
risks differently when administering it preventively to a large number of healthy people.
NOTES
Hydroxychloroquine is in a class of drugs called antimalarials and is also an antirheumatic drug.
It works by killing the organisms that cause malaria. Hydroxychloroquine may work to treat
rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus by decreasing the activity of the immune
system.
5. Cameroon (Africa) launched Mosquirix

It launched the world's first malaria vaccine Malaria is a life-threatening disease
program for children (Mosquirix), aiming to caused by a parasite. The parasite is
vaccinate about 250,000 children this year and next. spread to humans through the bites of
infected female Anopheles mosquitoes
The R21, otherwise referred to as Matrix-M malaria
vaccine, is the second vaccine ever developed for a disease, after RTS, S or mosquirix was
approved by the WHO in 2021.
Since 2015, around 9 countries have been certified by the WHO Director-General as malaria-
free, including Maldives, Sri Lanka, Kyrgyzstan, Paraguay, Uzbekistan, Argentina, Algeria, China
(2021) and El Salvador (2021).
6. Operation Amrith (AMRITH - Antimicrobial Resistance Intervention For

Total Health)
The Kerala Drug Control Department has initiated Operation Amrith (Antimicrobial Resistance
Intervention For Total Health) to curb the overuse of antibiotics in the state.
• Pharmacies are required to maintain accurate records of antibiotic sales, display posters
stating 'antibiotics not sold without doctor’s prescription,' and comply with prescription
regulations.
• Operation Amrith aligns with Kerala's Anti-Microbial Resistance Strategic Action Plan
(KARSAP), reflecting a multi-sectoral approach to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
• The state has implemented various initiatives, including the Antibiotic Literate Kerala
Campaign, block-level AMR Committees, and the Kerala Antimicrobial Resistance
Surveillance Network (KARS-NET) for surveillance.
The move aims to raise awareness about AMR, ensure responsible antibiotic use, and prevent the
spread of drug-resistant infections.
NOTES
7. Fixed-dose combination
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) in India has prohibited the use of an
anti-cold fixed drug combination in children below four years of age.
Fixed-dose combination (FDC) refers to a pharmaceutical formulation that contains two or more
active ingredients combined in a fixed ratio in a single dosage form. Each of the active
ingredients in the combination maintains a constant dose.
FDCs are commonly used in various medical fields, including the treatment of infectious
diseases, chronic conditions, and other health issues.
The Food and Drug Administration, USA defines a combination product as ‘a product composed
of any combination of a drug and a device or a biological product and a device or a drug and a
biological product or a drug, device, and a biological product.
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for
cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and medical devices. It's responsible for overseeing the import,
manufacture, sale, and distribution of medical devices in the country.
8. Pandemic Treaty and Disease X

The Draft Pandemic Treaty, proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and member
states, is an international agreement aimed at preventing, preparing for, and responding to
pandemics and global health emergencies. It focuses on strengthening global cooperation and
solidarity, covering aspects such as surveillance, detection, notification, access to health
technologies, collaboration, and accountability.
What is Disease X?
Disease X is a hypothetical pathogen or threat that could trigger a major future pandemic.
Coined by scientists and the World Health Organization (WHO), it refers to a new agent, virus,
bacterium, or fungus with no known treatment, belonging to any of the 25 families of viruses
capable of causing illness in people. Added to the WHO's Blueprint list of diseases in 2018,
scientists believe Disease X could be 20 times more deadly than the recent SARS-Covid virus,
emphasizing its potential as a serious microbial threat to humans in the future.
The WHO is undertaking initiatives, including the Financial Intermediary Fund for Pandemic
Preparedness and Response, the mRNA technology transfer hub, and the WHO Hub for
Pandemic and Epidemic Intelligence, to enhance global preparedness and collaboration in the
face of potential future outbreaks.
9. Havisure
Indian Immunologicals Ltd (IIL), a subsidiary of the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
and a leading biopharmaceutical company in India, has launched India's first indigenously
developed Hepatitis A vaccine called 'Havisure'.
• This vaccine is expected to play a crucial role in preventing Hepatitis A, a highly contagious
liver infection transmitted through contaminated food or water.
• Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver that can cause a range of health problems and can
be fatal. It's caused by swelling that occurs when tissues of the body are injured or infected.
NOTES
10. Clinical Trials

They are research studies conducted to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments,
interventions, or drugs in humans. These trials aim to gather data on the effectiveness and
potential side effects of new or existing treatments and contribute to the development of
evidence-based medical practices.
What is CTRI?
The Clinical Trials Registry – India (CTRI) (est. 2007; maintained by ICMR (under the Ministry of
Health and Family Welfare) a national clinical trial registry in India.
• It is mandatory to register for every trial at CTRI before commencing
• CTRI is a free online public record system for the registration of clinical trials (both public and
private research) conducted in India.
NOTES
The government recently passed an amendment to the New Drugs and Clinical Trial Rules
(2023) that permits researchers to utilize non-animal and human-relevant methods for testing the
safety and effectiveness of new drugs.
11. DRESS Syndrome

The Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (IPC) has issued a drug safety alert regarding the
painkiller Meftal, cautioning about potential adverse reactions associated with mefenamic acid,
including the risk of Drug Rash with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms (DRESS) syndrome.
What is DRESS syndrome?

It is a severe and potentially life-threatening idiosyncratic reaction to certain medications. It is
characterized by a delayed onset of symptoms, including fever, skin rash, lymphadenopathy,
eosinophilia (an increase in a type of white blood cells), and various systemic manifestations.
What is Meftal?
Meftal is commonly prescribed for conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis,
dysmenorrhoea, mild to moderate pain, inflammation, fever, dental pain, muscle and joint pain,
period pain, sore throats, nerve pain, and muscle aches.
Prolonged use of Meftal and similar drugs may increase the risk of stomach ulcers, bleeding, and
adverse effects on the cardiovascular system.
About
Indian Pharmacopoeia Commission (HQ: Ghaziabad (UP); founded: 1956) is an autonomous
institution of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare which sets standards for all drugs that
are manufactured, sold and consumed in India.
12. AKTOCYTE
Scientists from the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and M/s. IDRS Labs Pvt. Ltd. in
Bengaluru have collaboratively developed a breakthrough nutraceutical named AKTOCYTE
tablets.
• These tablets aim to enhance the quality of life for cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy
by minimizing the side effects associated with the treatment.
• AKTOCYTE tablets have shown remarkable results, particularly in pelvic cancer patients
undergoing radiotherapy-induced Cystitis, leading to extraordinary recovery and eliminating
the need for surgical interventions like the removal of the urinary bladder.
• The tablets, designed as an adjuvant to cancer radiotherapy, act as a regenerative
nutraceutical, immunomodulator, and antioxidant, representing a significant advancement
in cancer care.
• AKTOCYTE has received approval from the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India
(FSSAI), ensuring its safety and compliance with quality standards.
13. E-Cigarettes
The World Health Organization (WHO) states that e-cigarettes, as consumer products, have not
been proven effective for quitting tobacco use at the population level.
Aspect Description
What are e- E-cigarettes are battery-powered devices that heat a liquid into an inhalable
cigarettes? aerosol. The liquid typically contains nicotine, propylene glycol, glycerin,
flavourings, and other chemicals.
Alternative E-cigarettes are also known as vape pens, vapes, electronic nicotine delivery
Names systems (ENDS), electronic non-nicotine delivery systems (ENNDS), etc.
NOTES
Concerns E-cigarettes contain nicotine, causing addiction.
E-cigarettes are highly addictive and harmful, with potential long-term
health effects, including the generation of toxic substances linked to cancer
and increased risks of heart and lung disorders
Aerosols may contain metals (lead, chromium, nickel) and chemicals
(formaldehyde)
Nicotine A plant alkaloid found in tobacco and synthesized. It acts as a sedative and
stimulant.
Used in e-cigarettes with content up to 36 mg/mL (compared to 1.2 to 1.4
mg/mL in regular cigarettes).
Recently classified as Class A poison in Karnataka.
Regulation in The Prohibition of Electronic Cigarette Act (PECA) 2019 in India prohibits the
India production, manufacture, import, export, transport, sale, distribution,
storage, and advertisement of e-cigarettes.
14. Noma
The World Health Organization (WHO) recently added noma, a severe gangrenous disease of the
mouth and face, to its list of neglected tropical diseases (NTD).
• Also known as cancrum oris, noma has a high mortality rate of around 90% and is linked to
extreme poverty, malnutrition, and poor access to sanitation and oral hygiene.
• The disease primarily affects children aged 2-6 in poor communities, and due to a lack of
awareness, there are unreliable estimates, with the latest data dating back to 1998.
Symptoms:
• The disease, which manifests as gum inflammation, is thought to be caused by bacteria in
the mouth.
• It often starts as an ulcer on the mucous membrane, frequently after measles or other
illnesses.
• Survivors may face facial disfigurement, jaw muscle spasms, oral incontinence, and speech
problems.
The disease, also known as the 'face of poverty,' was common in the Western world in the past,
disappearing with economic progress.
Noma's inclusion in the WHO's list of neglected tropical diseases is seen as a significant step
toward eradication, prompting calls for increased attention and resources.
Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a diverse group of tropical infections that are common in
low-income populations in developing regions of Africa, Asia, and the Americas. They are caused
by a variety of pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and parasitic worms (helminths).
15. Lathyrism
Grass pea, also known as khesari dal, has been historically infamous for causing lathyrism, a
neurological disease leading to lower limb paralysis.
• In the late 19th century, an outbreak of lathyrism linked to grass pea led to its ban in India in
1961 under the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act.
• Despite the ban, grass pea cultivation continued, and researchers developed low-toxin
varieties.
• In 2015, an expert committee recommended lifting the ban, emphasizing its potential for
food security amid climate change.
NOTES
Lathyrism is a neurological disorder caused by eating too much grass pea (Lathyrus sativus). It's
also known as neurolathyrism
Lathyrism is one of the oldest known neurotoxic disorders. It's a skeletal disorder caused by the
toxin BAPN, which inhibits the copper-containing enzyme lysyl oxidase
16. Huntington’s disease

Scientists have made progress in understanding Huntington's disease by studying fruit flies
(Drosophila melanogaster).
About the study:

• Huntington's disease
patients carry a
mutated version of
the HTT gene, which
codes for a protein
called huntingtin
(Htt).
• The mutated gene
encodes an
abnormal Htt
protein, leading to
the destruction of neurons regulating movement, thinking, and memory.
• The researchers genetically engineered fruit flies to express the polyglutamine tract of a
mutated human HTT gene in their nervous system.
• The study identified the Yod1 gene, whose overexpression removed disease-like effects in
the flies, suggesting a potential avenue for therapeutic intervention in humans.
Huntington's disease (HD) is an inherited disorder that causes nerve cells (neurons) in parts of
the brain to gradually break down and die. The disease attacks areas of the brain that help to
control voluntary (intentional) movement, as well as other areas.
17. Tuberculosis (TB)

India's efforts in tuberculosis (TB) management have received international recognition from the
World Health Organization (WHO) in their 'Global TB Report 2023.'
India’s Achievements:
• 16% reduction in TB incidence from 2015 to 2022, nearly double the global decline rate of
about 8%
• TB mortality in India has decreased by 18% during the same period.
• TB treatment coverage has improved to 80% of estimated cases, representing a 19% increase
from the previous year
About TB
It primarily affects the lungs, is caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis and spreads
through the air. Common medications for TB include isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and
pyrazinamide. The Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine is the only licensed TB prevention
measure.
Risk factors for TB include diabetes, HIV infection, undernutrition, and tobacco use.
NOTES
Drug-resistant TB includes multidrug-resistant (MDR), extensively drug-resistant (XDR), and
totally drug-resistant (TDR) forms.
India’s Status:
In 2022, India reported over 24 lakh TB cases, with 27% of the world's TB cases. India's efforts are
supported by initiatives like the National Strategic Plan for Tuberculosis Elimination 2017-2025,
TB Mukt Panchayat Abhiyan, TB Harega Desh Jeetega Campaign, PM TB Mukt Bharat Abhiyan,
and Nikshay Poshan Yojana for nutritional support to TB patients, contributing to successful TB
management
18. Generic Drugs for Rare Disease Cure

The Union Health Ministry in India has introduced generic drugs to treat four rare diseases,
namely Tyrosinemia-Type 1, Gaucher's Disease, Wilson's Disease, and Dravet-Lennox Gastaut
Syndrome.
What are Generic drugs?

Generic drugs are medications that are equivalent to brand-name drugs in terms of active
ingredients, dosage, safety, strength, quality, and intended use but are typically sold at a lower
cost. Once the patent protection for a brand-name drug expires, other pharmaceutical
companies can produce and sell generic versions.
• The price of these unbranded generic versions of medicine for the four rare diseases will be
100 times lower than the current market value of the branded drugs.
What are Rare Diseases?

WHO defines rare diseases as debilitating lifelong conditions with a prevalence of 1 or less per
1000 population. They collectively affect 6-8% of India’s population ( about 8 to 10 crore cases in
India), with nearly 80% being genetic.
The National Policy for Rare Diseases (NPRD), 2021, provides financial support up to Rs. 50 lakhs
for treatment, exempts Rare Diseases drugs from Basic Customs Duty and includes orphan drugs
in the Production Linked Incentive Scheme for Pharmaceuticals.
About the four diseases:

Rare Disease Description Impact on the Body
Tyrosinemia- An inherited metabolic disorder where the Can lead to the accumulation
Type 1 body lacks the enzyme (Fumarylacetoacetate of harmful substances,
hydrolase) needed to break down the amino affecting the liver, kidneys,
acid tyrosine. and nervous system.
Gaucher's An inherited metabolic disorder characterized Results in the buildup of fatty
Disease by a deficiency of the enzyme substances in organs,
(glucocerebrosidase) necessary for breaking primarily impacting the
down certain lipids. spleen, liver, and bone
marrow.
Wilson’s A rare autosomal recessive disorder where Excess copper can lead to
Disease abnormal copper accumulation occurs, liver and neurological
primarily affecting the brain, liver, and problems, including cognitive
cornea. decline and psychiatric
symptoms.
Dravet or A genetic epilepsy syndrome marked by Frequent and prolonged
Lennox severe seizures, typically starting in infancy. It seizures can hinder cognitive
Gastaut can lead to developmental delays and development, impacting
Syndrome cognitive impairment. motor skills, language, and
(seizures) overall cognitive function.
NOTES
19. Pneumonia
• The pneumonia caused by mycoplasma pneumoniae, often termed "walking pneumonia," is
a mild form of the infection. It is characterized by mild respiratory symptoms, and the
bacteria can cause more serious lung infections in some cases.
How it spreads?
• Mycoplasma pneumoniae spreads through respiratory droplets when an infected person
coughs or sneezes. Common symptoms include sneezing, a runny or stuffy nose, sore throat,
watery eyes, wheezing, vomiting, and diarrhoea.
• Groups at higher risk of severe infection include children, the elderly, and those with
weakened lungs.
Preventive measures recommended by WHO include vaccination, maintaining distance from ill
individuals, staying home when unwell, testing and seeking medical care, wearing masks as
appropriate, ensuring good ventilation, and practicing regular hand-washing.
20. Hemochromatosis
Hemochromatosis is a rare genetic disorder characterized by iron overload, which can lead to
severe dysfunction in various organs.
• There are two main types of hemochromatosis: hereditary hemochromatosis and secondary
hemochromatosis.
About Hemochromatosis:
• Hereditary Hemochromatosis: This genetic disorder results from a mutation in the HFE gene,
causing individuals to absorb excessive iron from their diet.
• Unlike the body's natural ability to regulate iron intake, people with hereditary
hemochromatosis accumulate iron gradually in their system, which can lead to health
problems over time.
• The excess iron can affect vital organs such as the liver, heart, and pancreas, potentially
causing cirrhosis, heart failure, diabetes, and arthritis.
Secondary Hemochromatosis: This type is typically caused by external factors like frequent
blood transfusions, excessive iron supplementation, or certain medical conditions. Iron
accumulation in secondary hemochromatosis can be more rapid and lead to organ dysfunction.
21. Lymphatic filariasis

The Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) has successfully eliminated lymphatic filariasis
(LF), a mosquito-borne infectious disease, becoming the second country to achieve this in 2023
after Bangladesh.
Around 19 countries have successfully eliminated LF, with mass drug administration being a
cost-effective method for treating affected residents and stopping transmission.
LF, also known as elephantiasis, causes severe health issues, and its elimination is a significant
global health goal. The elimination of LF contributes to the United Nations' sustainable
development goal of "health for all" by 2030
22. Niemann-Pick disease

Niemann-Pick disease refers to a group of inherited metabolic disorders in which abnormal
amounts of lipids (fatty materials such as waxes, oils, and cholesterol) build up in the brain,
spleen, liver, lungs, and bone marrow.
NOTES
Symptoms: Enlarged liver and spleen,
difficulty in coordinating movement,
frequent respiratory infections, slurred
speech among others.
Causes: This condition is inherited in an
autosomal recessive pattern, where both
gene copies must be faulty to manifest
the disease.
Occurrences: Niemann-Pick disease
affects one in 250,000 individuals and is
expensive to treat.
23. Haemoglobin
Haemoglobin is a Iron containing protein found in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the
lungs to the body's tissues and returns carbon dioxide to the lungs for exhalation. It plays a
crucial role in oxygen transport and maintaining the body's overall oxygen balance.
What does the new study says?

A recent study revealed that chondrocytes, responsible for forming cartilage, produce
haemoglobin, contrary to the previous belief that only Red Blood Cells (RBCs) contained it.
Chondrocytes play a role in strengthening and flexibilizing cartilage, and they rely on
haemoglobin for oxygen transport and survival. Haemoglobin within chondrocytes stores and
releases oxygen as needed.
What are Cartilage?

Cartilage is a flexible and connective tissue found in various parts of the body, such as joints, the
nose, and ears. It provides support and cushioning while allowing for smooth movement in the
joints.
24. Dementia
The Dementia India Alliance (DIA) has launched a national dementia support line and an online
memory screening clinic called DemClinic.
Dementia is a general term for a group of symptoms that affect memory, thinking, and social
abilities. Dementia is not a specific disease, but rather a result of various diseases and injuries
that affect the brain. Alzheimer's disease is the most common type of dementia and may
contribute to 60–70% of cases
25. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection is a common respiratory illness that primarily affects
infants, young children, and older adults. RSV belongs to the family of viruses called
Paramyxoviridae and is a leading cause of lower respiratory tract infections, such as
bronchiolitis and pneumonia, especially in children under the age of two.
The virus spreads through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes, and it
can also be transmitted through direct contact with contaminated surfaces.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has granted approval to Pfizer's vaccine, Abrysvo,
aimed at safeguarding new-borns from respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) by vaccinating pregnant
individuals during the latter stages of pregnancy.
NOTES
26. Nipah Virus
• Nipah is a zoonotic
disease, primarily
transmitted to
humans through
infected animals
particularly bats or
contaminated food,
and it can also spread
from person to person
through close contact.
• Symptoms include
fever, headache,
cough, sore throat,
difficulty in breathing,
and vomiting, with
severe cases
potentially leading to
encephalitis, coma,
and death.
• The virus is primarily
transmitted through
consumption of
contaminated food or
direct contact with
infected animals,
particularly fruit bats.
• It is highly lethal, with
mortality rates
ranging from 40% to
75%.
27. Guillain-Barre syndrome

Guillain-Barré syndrome is a rare disorder where the immune system mistakenly attacks the
peripheral nervous system. It can range from mild weakness to severe paralysis. The causes are
still unknown. Also, there is no known cure. However, treatments can help alleviate symptoms
and complications.
28. Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) virus

Climate change is aiding the spread of the deadly Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF)
virus in Europe, according to the World Health Organization (WHO).
What is CCHF?
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a viral disease transmitted by ticks
(Hyalomma ticks). It can also be contracted through contact with infected animal tissues.
• Background: Congo fever was first discovered in Crimea in 1944 and was later named as
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever.
• Threat: CCHF outbreaks pose a public health threat, as the virus can lead to epidemics and
has a high fatality rate.
• Symptoms: It includes fever, muscle ache, headache, and bleeding.
• Vaccine: There is currently no vaccine for CCHF, and treatment involves managing symptoms
and using antiviral drugs in some cases.
NOTES
• Region: It is endemic to Africa, the Balkan countries, the Middle East, and parts of Asia.
How Climate change is contributing to its spread?

Rising temperatures and disrupted climate patterns have created favourable conditions for
viruses not typically found in colder climates. Climate change contributes to the spread of
diseases by expanding the habitat of disease-carrying insects, altering water habitats, and causing
changes in animal migration patterns, increasing human contact with infected animals.
29. Phage Therapy

Phage therapy is a treatment approach that uses bacteriophages, which are viruses that infect
and kill specific bacteria. It involves
using these viruses to target and
destroy bacterial infections, serving as
an alternative to antibiotics.
How do they function?

Phage are highly specific in their
action, targeting only the specific
bacteria they are programmed to
attack, which can potentially reduce
the risk of antibiotic resistance. Phage
therapy has gained attention as a
potential solution for antibiotic-
resistant infections and is being explored as a promising avenue in medical research.
What are Bacteriophages?

Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria and use them as hosts for their replication. They
are highly diverse and can target different types of bacteria. It was discovered by Frederick
Willian Twort in 1915 (Great Britain) and Felix d'Herelle in 1917 (France).
What is Antibiotic Resistance?

Antibiotic resistance refers to the ability of bacteria or other microorganisms to withstand the
effects of antibiotics, making them ineffective in treating infections caused by these resistant
bacteria.
30. Super-engineered vaccines created to help end polio

Scientists have "super-engineered" polio vaccines to prevent them from mutating into a
dangerous form that can cause outbreaks and paralysis.
• The wild poliovirus is currently limited to small pockets in Afghanistan and Pakistan, and oral
vaccines play a crucial role in eradicating polio worldwide.
• However, the oral vaccine has genetic instability, with just one mutation capable of reversing
its safety and causing paralysis. Vaccine-derived polio cases now outnumber wild poliovirus
cases.
What are Vaccine-derived polio cases:

These are instances where the poliovirus in the oral polio vaccine (OPV) mutates and causes
paralysis in vaccinated individuals or spreads to others in the community. These cases occur when
the weakened virus in the vaccine reverts to a form that can cause disease.
To address this, researchers have genetically modified the weakened virus, making it more
resistant to causing paralysis. The modified vaccines have shown promising results in human
trials, providing more stability and addressing the instability concern (leading to Vaccine-
derived polio cases.
NOTES
However, challenges remain in achieving full coverage and delivering vaccines to impoverished
and conflict-affected areas.
About Polio:
Poliomyelitis, also known as polio, is an infection caused by a virus (poliovirus). It is a serious,
highly contagious disease that can affect a person’s nervous system.
There are three types of wild poliovirus:
• WPV 1: still exists but efforts are going on to eradicate it.
• WPV 2: eradicated.
• WPV 3: eradicated.
Polio typically affects children aged 5 years or younger. It can result in muscle weakness,
permanent disability, and even death.
31. Leptospirosis
Leptospirosis is a dangerous infectious disease that has become significant worldwide, especially
during monsoon season.
• It is caused by the bacterium Leptospira interrogans and is primarily transmitted to
humans through contact with the urine of infected animals.
The disease is more prevalent in warm, humid countries and is often associated with heavy
rainfall or flooding. Leptospirosis can range from mild flu-like symptoms to severe organ
dysfunction, and it is estimated to affect around 1.03 million people annually, resulting in
approximately 60,000 deaths.
Leptospirosis is often misdiagnosed due to its symptoms resembling those of dengue, malaria,
and hepatitis. Limited access to reliable diagnostics, lack of awareness among physicians, and
insufficient environmental surveillance further contribute to inaccurate reporting of cases.
Prevention:
• Preventing leptospirosis requires effective health education, community empowerment,
and the adoption of preventive measures. Although commonly referred to as "rat
fever," leptospirosis can be transmitted by various animals, and seasonal patterns and
extreme weather events exacerbate its incidence.
• Proper waste management, improved sanitation facilities, and control of stray animals
is crucial in preventing the disease.
32. One-shot chikungunya vaccine

According to the first phase 3 trial of the preventive published in The Lancet journal - a single-
dose vaccine (VLA1553 vaccine) for chikungunya was found safe and produced a strong immune
response against the viral disease.
About Chikungunya:
• The mosquito-borne disease is caused by the chikungunya virus (CHIKV), which is endemic in
some regions of Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
• Chikungunya causes symptoms such as fever, headaches, fatigue, and severe muscle and
joint pain and there are no approved vaccines or antiviral treatments available.
NOTES
Miscellaneous
1. Chameleon Trojan
A new version of the 'Chameleon Trojan' malware has been discovered by security researchers,
capable of disabling biometric authentication methods such as fingerprint and face unlock to
steal a phone's PIN.
• The malware attaches itself to legitimate Android apps like Google Chrome to evade
detection, running code in the background.
• It uses the Accessibility service to gain unauthorized access, showing an HTML page with
instructions on enabling the service in newer Android versions.
• Chameleon Trojan collects sensitive information, such as PINs and passwords, and tracks
user app usage habits to launch attacks when the device is least likely to be in use.
2. Lithium Exploration
India has reached a historic milestone by signing an agreement between Khanij Bidesh India
Limited (KABIL) and Argentina's state-owned enterprise, Catamarca Minera y Energética
Sociedad del Estado (CAMYEN SE), marking the first-ever lithium exploration and mining project
by an Indian government company.
The agreement allows KABIL to explore and develop five lithium brine blocks in Argentina's
Catamarca province, covering approximately 15,703 hectares.
Argentina, as part of the “Lithium Triangle” along with Chile and Bolivia, is a significant producer
of lithium, holding the world’s third-largest lithium reserve.
KABIL is a joint venture, involving NALCO, MECL, and HCL, and is focused on identifying and
acquiring strategic minerals overseas for India’s use. It is also exploring opportunities for lithium
partnerships and acquisitions in other Latin American nations like Chile and Brazil, as well as in
Australia for lithium and cobalt exploration.
3. Centre for Fourth Industrial Revolution (C4IR)

Telangana has signed an agreement with the World Economic Forum (WEF) to establish the
Centre for Fourth Industrial Revolution (C4IR) in the state capital, Hyderabad.
What is C4IR?
C4IR stands for the Centre for Fourth Industrial Revolution. It is an initiative by the World
Economic Forum (WEF) to establish centres that focus on harnessing the potential of the Fourth
Industrial Revolution (4IR) technologies and driving collaboration between governments,
businesses, and academia to address global challenges and opportunities.
The collaboration aims to leverage technology for advancements in the life sciences and
healthcare sector, with a focus on reaching healthcare targets for the state's population.
Telangana envisions becoming a health tech hub and a global destination for healthcare
services.
About 4IR:
The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), also known as the Digital Revolution, is characterized by
the integration of technologies that blend the physical, digital, and biological realms. Coined by
Klaus Schwab, Founder and Executive Chairman of the WEF, 4IR includes technologies such as IoT,
robotics, VR, AI, quantum computing, and 3D printing. It brings about advancements in
technology, boosts productivity and efficiency, contributes to economic growth, and facilitates
good governance.
NOTES
4. Evolution of Universe
As the universe ages, its future is shaped by fundamental laws of physics. Utilizing a logarithmic
clock, cosmologists can trace the evolution of the universe from the Big Bang to the present.
Various stages in the evolution of the universe:

Stage Description
Initial The universe begins as an extremely hot and dense point called a
Singularity singularity. This marks the starting point of the Big Bang theory, where all
matter and energy are concentrated in a tiny, infinitely dense space.
Inflationary A brief period of exponential expansion, known as cosmic inflation, occurs
Epoch within the first fractions of a second after the Big Bang. This rapid expansion
helps explain the uniformity and large-scale structure observed in the
present universe.
Quark Epoch As the universe cools further, quarks and gluons combine to form protons
and neutrons. This transition occurs in a matter of microseconds.
Hadron Epoch Protons and neutrons continue to form and combine, creating a "soup" of
particles called hadrons. This epoch lasts for a few minutes and is crucial for
the formation of light elements like helium and deuterium.
Lepton Epoch The universe becomes transparent as it cools, allowing photons to move
freely. Electrons and positrons annihilate, leaving behind a small excess of
electrons, which form the basis for the cosmic microwave background
radiation.
Photon Epoch Photons dominate the universe, interacting with charged particles. As the
universe expands and cools, it enters a phase where photons no longer
interact frequently, marking the transition to the era of cosmic microwave
background radiation.
Formation of Over millions of years, gravitational instabilities lead to the formation of
Structure cosmic structures. Gas clouds collapse to form galaxies, stars, and other
celestial structures, shaping the large-scale structure observed in the
universe today.
Stellar Stars form from collapsing gas clouds, undergo fusion, and eventually exhaust
Evolution their nuclear fuel. Depending on their mass, stars may end their lives as
supernovae, neutron stars, black holes, or white dwarfs. Stellar evolution
contributes heavy elements to the cosmos.
Galactic Galaxies evolve through interactions, mergers, and the continuous formation
Evolution of new stars. Over billions of years, galaxies take on various forms,
influencing the distribution of matter and shaping the cosmic landscape.
Dark Energy In late cosmic history, dark energy, a mysterious force driving the
Dominance accelerated expansion of the universe, becomes more dominant. It
counteracts the gravitational pull, leading to an ever-faster expansion.
Beginning of Over time, stars will exhaust fuel, galaxies collide, and new stars will form
End from merging brown dwarfs. Eventually, stars will be ejected from galaxies,
and black holes will dominate, consuming rogue stars until their evaporation.
5. Execution using Nitrogen Gas

Execution by nitrogen gas involves the administration of pure nitrogen to the condemned
person. The method typically includes placing a respirator-type face mask over the nose and
mouth to replace breathable air with nitrogen, causing death from lack of oxygen.
About Nitrogen gas:
NOTES
It is a colourless, odourless gas that makes up a significant portion of Earth's atmosphere. It is
inert and non-flammable, commonly used in various industrial applications, including food
packaging and electronics manufacturing.
6. Barracuda
India's fastest solar-electric boat, named Barracuda, was launched at the Navalt Solar and Electric
Boats yard in Aroor, Alappuzha (Kerala).
Designed by Navalt, the eco-friendly vessel is capable of carrying 12 passengers and cargo, with a
top speed of 12.5 knots and a range of seven hours on a single charge.
The boat is built to navigate waves up to four meters high and was commissioned by Mazagon
Dock Limited for use in Mumbai under the same Saur Sakthi.
Navalt Solar and Electric Boats received the world's best start-up award in the mobility and
transportation category at the Berlin Start-up Energy Transition Awards 2023.
7. Dark Fiber
Dark fibre, also known as unlit fibre, is unused fibre-optic cable and infrastructure. It's available
for purchase or rent from network service providers.
Dark fibre is used for private networking, internet access, and internet infrastructure
networking. It's typically used for telecom and network communications.
Dark fibre is different from "lit fibre" which refers to cables that are actively being used. Dark
fibre is inactive because no information is passed through it, so no light pulse is transmitted.
8. Zero Trust Authentication (ZTA)

In response to the increasing
threat of cyberattacks, the
Indian government has
established a secure e-mail
system for 10,000 users in
critical ministries and
departments.
• The e-mail system operates
on Zero Trust
Authentication (ZTA) and
has been developed by the
National Informatics Centre
(NIC).
• The security measures include two-factor authentication with options like facial recognition
or biometrics, and log-in and log-out times are recorded and monitored.
• These steps are part of the government's broader efforts to strengthen cybersecurity
following multiple cyberattack attempts targeting critical installations and government
websites.
Zero Trust Authentication (ZTA) is a security framework that requires users to be authenticated
and authorized before being granted access to applications and data
9. Ammonia
Ammonia is a colourless, pungent gas with the chemical formula NH3. It's made up of hydrogen
and nitrogen. In its aqueous form, it's called ammonium hydroxide.
NOTES
Ammonia is a natural byproduct and respiratory stimulant. It's produced naturally in the human
body and in nature, including in water, soil, and air. In human health, ammonia and the
ammonium ion are important components of metabolic processes.
In its concentrated form, ammonia is dangerous and caustic.

Signs and symptoms of ammonia exposure include:
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Abdominal pain
• Burns of the mouth, throat, oesophagus, and stomach
10. 'Reference' fuel

India has begun producing "reference" petrol and diesel, which are specialized fuels used for
testing automobiles, making it part of a select group of nations that produce these high-quality
fuels.
• The Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) has developed these fuels with higher specifications to replace
imports, ensuring a reliable supply at a lower cost for vehicle manufacturers and testing agencies.
Reference fuels are high-quality fuels used by gasoline and diesel vehicle manufacturers. They
are used for:
1. Engine development
2. Performance assessment
3. Ensuring operability across global climatic conditions
4. Calibration and testing of vehicles
Reference fuels are premium products. They have higher octane numbers than normal fuels
11. Semiconductor
A Memorandum of Cooperation (MoC) has been signed between the Ministry of Electronics and
Information Technology of India and the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry of Japan.
The MoC is part of India's broader initiatives for international cooperation in information
technology and aims to strengthen collaboration with Japan in the semiconductor industry. It
aligns with the "India-Japan Digital Partnership" and is seen as a step toward enhancing
semiconductor supply chain resilience for mutual benefit.
A semiconductor is a material that has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and
an insulator. Semiconductors can be compounds, such as gallium arsenide, or pure elements,
such as germanium or silicon.
Properties
• Electrical conductivity: Semiconductors have electrical conductivity between that of a
conductor, such as copper, and an insulator, such as glass.
• Resistivity: Semiconductors' resistivity falls as their temperature rises.
• Conducting ability: Semiconductors' conducting ability can be increased by chemical
treatment.
Uses
Semiconductors are used as a foundation for computers and other electronic devices.
Developments in semiconductor technology have made electronic devices smaller, faster, and
more reliable
NOTES
12. White Hydrogen
Two scientists in northeastern France discovered a substantial deposit of "white hydrogen,"
considered one of the largest concentrations of this clean energy source ever found.
What is White Hydrogen?

White hydrogen is a clean-burning energy source found naturally in the Earth's crust. It is
Natural hydrogen and is found as naturally occurring molecular hydrogen on or on Earth. The
name white hydrogen distinguishes it from green hydrogen (produced from renewable energy
sources from the electrolysis of water), and from grey, brown or black hydrogen, (which is
obtained from fossil sources)
Significance:
• White hydrogen is seen as a potentially abundant and untapped source of clean-burning
energy.
• White hydrogen deposits have been identified worldwide including in the US, eastern
Europe, Russia, Australia, Oman, France, and Mali.
13. Carbon nanoflorets

Researchers at the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay have created carbon nanoflorets
that can efficiently convert sunlight into heat.
What are Carbon nanoflorets?

Carbon nanoflorets are a unique nanostructure composed of carbon atoms arranged in a
distinctive floret-like morphology. They have a high surface area and various potential
applications in fields such as materials science, electronics, and nanotechnology due to their
exceptional properties and structure.
• These nanoflorets can absorb light at multiple frequencies, including infrared, visible light,
and ultraviolet, making them highly efficient at converting sunlight into thermal energy.
• Additionally, their unique shape ensures minimal light reflection and efficient heat
retention.
• A 1-square-meter coating of these nanoflorets can vaporize 5 litres of water in an hour,
surpassing commercial solar stills.
It can provide ecologically sustainable heating and has potential uses in various sectors,
including construction and healthcare.
14. Deepfakes
Deepfakes are digital media – video, audio, and images edited and manipulated using Artificial
Intelligence (AI) to inflict harm on individuals and institutions. It can be exploited to damage the
reputation, fabricate evidence, defraud the public, and undermine trust in democratic
institutions with fewer resources.
Deepfake is a blend of 'deep learning' (a subset of machine learning using artificial neural
networks) and 'fake.'
NOTES
NOTES
15. Unusual Nitrogen-9 isotope
Scientists have discovered "strong evidence" for the existence of the unusual nitrogen-9 isotope,
challenging previous interpretations and offering a new perspective on subatomic structures.
What is an Isotope?
An isotope is a variant of a chemical element with the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons in its atomic nucleus. This gives the isotope a different atomic mass.
For example, carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon. Both have six protons, but carbon-
12 has six neutrons, while carbon-14 has eight neutrons, resulting in different atomic masses.
Isotopes can have distinct properties and may be stable or radioactive, undergoing decay over
time.
What is Nitrogen-9?
It is characterized by seven
protons and two neutrons. A
normal Nitrogen atom has an
atomic number of 7 and an
atomic mass of 14 (7proton
and 7 Neutron)
What is Unusual about

Nitrogen-9?
Nitrogen-9 is considered
unusual because it has an
uncommon combination of
seven protons and two neutrons in its atomic nucleus. This creates an unusually high ratio of
protons to neutrons. Typically, elements have a balanced ratio for stability, but Nitrogen-9's high
proton content makes it less stable, challenging the conventional stability thresholds. This oddity
raises questions about its existence in this state and how it maintains stability, introducing
complexity to our understanding of atomic nuclei.
16. Four Fundamental Forces of the Universe

The concept of 'force' in physics revolves around four fundamental interactions between
subatomic particles:
Four fundamental forces:

Force Range Strength Mediator (Particle)
(Relative)
Gravitational (attractive) Infinite (long- Weakest Graviton (Hypothetical)
range)
Electromagnetic Infinite (long- Moderate Photon (It governs phenomena
(attractive or repulsive) range) like electricity, magnetism,
friction, and tension)
Strong Nuclear Short-range Strongest Gluon (it binds the nucleus of an
(10^-15 m) atom together, preventing it
from breaking apart. It sustains
nuclear fusion)
Weak Nuclear Short-range Weak W+, W-, Z bosons (it acts on
(10^-18 m) particles moving near the speed
of light)
NOTES
17. Thallium poisoning
About Thallium is a toxic metal element (symbol Tl) with atomic number 81, known
Thallium for its extreme toxicity. It does not freely occur in nature. Thallium has no
colour, odour or taste. Its use is regulated in India. Thallium is also called the
"poisoner's poison".
Appearance Silvery-white
tarnishes to Gray
State at Solid
Room
Temperature
Chemical Highly toxic
Symbol (considered a
poison)
Common Historically used in low-temperature thermometers. Radioactive isotopes are
Uses used in medical imaging. Limited industrial applications.
Health Extremely toxic when ingested or inhaled. Can cause severe health issues,
Hazards including nerve and kidney damage.
Mere contact with thallium can cause poisoning as it is highly soluble in water
and can easily pass through the skin. It is also a suspected carcinogen.
Antidote Prussian blue is used to remove thallium from the body.
Interesting Thallium is known for its high toxicity and was historically used as a rat poison
Fact
18. Dark pattern

Term Definition
Dark Patterns Digital design techniques used to manipulate customer behaviour are
often considered an unfair trading practice and potentially a cybercrime.
Usage by Social media and Big Tech firms like Apple, Amazon, Facebook, Google,
Companies LinkedIn, Microsoft, and Skype employ dark patterns to their advantage.
Example For instance, LinkedIn users may receive unsolicited sponsored messages
from influencers, and disabling this option can be a complex process with
multiple steps.
Forms of Dark 1. False Urgency: Creating a false sense of urgency or scarcity to prompt
Patterns immediate purchases
2. Basket Sneaking: Including additional items or charges at checkout
without user consent.
3. Interface Interference: Manipulating the design to highlight specific
information and obscure other relevant details.
4. Bait and Switch: Advertising one outcome but delivering another.
5. Drip Pricing: Withholding elements of prices upfront or obscuring them
during the user experience.
6. Other Forms: Forced action, Subscription trap, Confirm shaming,
Disguised advertising, Nagging, and more.
19. Critical Raw Materials Act

The European Parliament has approved the Critical Raw Materials Act.
• The legislation aims to reduce the European Union's (EU) reliance on China for critical
minerals, essential for green technologies like solar panels, windmills, and electric car
batteries.
About Critical Raw Materials:
NOTES
Critical raw materials are natural resources that are of strategic importance to a country or
region due to their economic, industrial, and geopolitical significance.
These materials are essential for various industries, including technology, manufacturing, energy,
and defence, and their availability can impact a nation's economic security and competitiveness.
Examples of critical raw materials may include rare earth elements, lithium, cobalt, graphite,
platinum group metals, and certain minerals and metals that are essential for advanced
technologies and clean energy solutions.
20. Spamouflage and Smishing Scam

Spamouflage:
• Spamouflage is a Chinese influence campaign that has been active on over 50 platforms and
forums, including Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, YouTube, and X (formerly Twitter).
• The accounts in the campaign have a tendency to intersperse political posts.
• The campaign has pushed positive narratives about China and negative commentary about
the United States, Western foreign policies, and critics of the Chinese government.
Smishing Scam: The Indian government has warned against a new scam called ‘Smishing’.
• Smishing is a phishing cybersecurity attack carried out over mobile text messaging, also
known as SMS phishing.
• As a variant of phishing, victims are deceived into giving sensitive information to a disguised
attacker. SMS phishing can be assisted by malware or fraudulent websites.
21. Gravity Hole

A recent study suggests that the colossal and mysterious "Gravity Hole" in the Indian Ocean may
be the remnants of an ancient sea that disappeared millions of years ago.
What is Gravity Hole?

A "Gravity Hole" refers to a large gravity anomaly, an area where gravity is significantly different
from the surrounding regions. It is characterized by a substantial decrease in gravitational pull
compared to the expected value based on the Earth's normal gravitational field.
The causes of gravity holes can vary, including geological structures, variations in mass
distribution, or other factors that affect the gravitational field in a particular area.
The phenomenon is estimated to have formed approximately 20 million years ago and is
expected to endure for millions more.
More about the News:

The Gravity Hole is a massive region in the Indian Ocean, about 1,200 kilometres southwest of
the southernmost tip of India, and has such a low pull of gravity that the sea level of the Indian
Ocean over the “hole” is around 106 metres below the global average. This pronounced dip in the
ocean is called Indian Ocean geoid low (IOGL) and was discovered in 1948
• Known as the Indian Ocean geoid low (IOGL), this vast depression spans over 2 million
square miles and lies more than 600 miles beneath the Earth's crust.
• The study proposes that the IOGL consists of slabs from the Tethys Ocean, which was a sea
that separated the supercontinents of Gondwana and Laurasia.
• The Tethys Ocean is believed to have influenced the African Large Low Shear Velocity
province, generating plumes beneath the Indian Ocean.
22. Gallium and germanium

Gallium is a soft, silvery metal that is often found in small amounts in various minerals. Gallium
has a low melting point, making it useful for applications such as thermometers and as a
NOTES
component in alloys. It is also used in the manufacture of semiconductors, LEDs, and various
electronic devices.
Germanium is a lustrous, hard, greyish-white metalloid that is commonly found in trace amounts
in certain minerals. Germanium has semiconductor properties, making it useful in electronic
devices such as transistors and diodes. It is also used in infrared optics, fibre optics, and solar
cells. Germanium has a high refractive index and excellent thermal conductivity, which makes it
valuable in optical and thermal applications.

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Defence Technology ................................................................................................... 28

Technologies / New Discoveries .................................................................................. 34

Nuclear Technology .................................................................................................... 56

Government Initiatives /Departments ........................................................................ 60

1. Square Kilometre Array (SKA) project

Major aspects of the Project:

2. ISRO and Chandrayaan-3 mission

Challenges of landing on the Moon's South Pole:

Instruments and Experiments on Chandrayaan 3:

Study objectives of the mission:

About Luna 25: Russia's Lunar Mission:

Pragyan rover confirms sulphur:

3. Laser Communication with Chandrayaan-3 Lander

About Laser communication (also known as optical communication):

5. ASPEX: ISRO's Aditya L1 spacecraft

Other Solar Missions by Different Countries:

About semi-cryogenic engines:

7. ISRO’s own Next-Gen launch vehicle (NGLV)

ISRO’S LAUNCH VEHICLES: -

1. Nasa’s Lunar Gateway Station

What is NASA’s Gateway Lunar Orbit outpost?

5. Atmospheric Waves Experiment

About Atmospheric Waves Experiment:

About Space Weather:

6. NASA's Psyche spacecraft

What is the Yarkovsky effect?

Usage: Scientists study the Yarkovsky

10. NASA's Parker Solar Probe

What is a Solar storm:

About Parker Solar Probe

About Direct to cell:

2. Einstein Probe (EP)

(Space related Concepts)

1. Plasma waves in the Martian Atmosphere

What are Plasma Waves?

How does it help understand planetary phenomena?

About MAVEN orbiter:

2. Use of INSAT Satellites to analyse Fog

How Satellites Analysis Colour and Snow?

India has several weather satellites:

3. Global Positioning System (GPS)

NavIC’s advantages over other systems:

5. Subsurface Water Ice Mapping (SWIM) project

7. Concept of White Hole and Big Bounce

8. Polarized emissions from an Extragalactic Black hole

The team utilized X-

What is Polarized emissions?

What is Saturn's ring and how it was formed?

How will the ring become invisible for some time?

Recently Saturn became a planet with most moons.

10. Coseismic ionospheric perturbations (CIP)

11. Ghost particle

12. Bubble of galaxies

13. Geospatial intelligence

Status of geospatial data and technology in India

Key applications of geospatial intelligence:

14. Planet Mercury

15. Galactic tides

16. Red giant star Betelgeuse

Life Cycle of a Star:

What is a red giant star?

How have astronomers found the stage of Betelgeuse:

17. X-class solar flare