UENG 103_2024

Reading material set 4

Telling time
 Telling time

• Relative time • Absolute time

 Geological Time Scale (GTS)

• Calendar for events in Earth history

• The concept of time in geology refers to matter
of putting the events in their proper order.
• Encompassing a total time span of about 4.6 by,
the geological time is represented by past
geological events and phenomena including
volcanic, palaeoclimatic, tectonic activities,
mass extinctions, and sea level fluctuation
event.
 Geological Time Scale (GTS)

• Subdivided in descending order of duration: Eons,

Eras, Periods, Epochs, and Ages
• Basis of classification:
1. Stratigraphy: Correlation and classification of rock
strata
2. Fossil forms found in rocks: Emergence and
disappearance of widespread species and evolution
of life
3. Radiometric dating: assigning absolute dates
 Geological Time Scale (GTS)

• Subdivided in descending order of duration: Eons,

Eras, Periods, Epochs, and Ages
• Basis of classification:
1. Stratigraphy: Correlation and classification of rock
strata
2. Fossil forms found in rocks: Emergence and
disappearance of widespread species and evolution
of life
3. Radiometric dating: assigning absolute dates
Nucleosynthesis
Different types of radioactive nuclides Parent = radioactive
Different types of radioactive decay Daughter = radiogenic
 Law of Radioactive decay
• Rate of decay of an unstable parent nuclide is proportional to the number of
atoms remaining at any time t
 Law of Radioactive decay

Half-life: abundance of parent atoms is half of its original: N/N0 = 1/2

Half-lives:
147Sm = 106 x 109 years
87Rb = 49 x 109 years
238U = 4.468 x 109 years
14C = 5.730 x 103 years
226Ra = 1.601 x 103 years

Longer the half life – smaller is the decay constant

 Law of Radioactive decay

Radiogenic daughter (D*)

But,
D* = D – D0 N = N0 e-lt
= N0 – N
Or
= Nelt – N
= N(elt – 1)
N0 = N/e-lt = N elt
D – D0 = N(elt – 1)
D = D0 + N(elt – 1)
 Law of Radioactive decay

N0 +D0 = N + D*
85Rb/87Rb = 2.593
Sr has a electronic configuration similar to Ca and readily substitutes for Ca in minerals
 N0 – N = D* - D0

Age determined graphically or by least-squares regression technique

Radiogenic isotopic composition of a system depends on:
• Amount of parent isotope (Parent/daughter ratio)
• Time (half life, decay constant)
Meteorite Chronology
Meteorite ages cluster at 4.56 Ga
Why were achondrites used to infer the initial 87Sr/86Sr of our SS?
 Disturbed isochron

Due to metamorphism, alteration, etc.

 At the time of mineral formation
At the time of measurement
At the time of measurement

t = time elapsed since closure

of mineral to U, Th, Pb

All ‘t’s from 3 different decay series should yield age of the mineral (concordant) ONLY IF:

•The mineral has remained closed to U, Th, Pb and intermediate daughters from time of
crystallization till measurement – almost never the case

•Correct values of initial Pb isotopes

Pb-Pb aredating
used

etc…
 U-Pb isochron

U-Pb isochron in silicates disturbed by U mobility

How to address U mobility?

 Pb loss – discordant system
“207Pb-206Pb dates”
For Phanerozoic rocks,
discordant zircons lie
clumped, close to the
concordia – hence a
good discordia cannot
be generated

(207Pb/206Pb)* 1/137.88
No need to know U
concentration in the mineral
 Geochron
first application of common Pb-Pb dating

4.55 +/- 0.07 Ga

CD troilite provides primordial Pb isotopic composition

of the SS since its U/Pb is very low (0.025)
 Geological Time Scale (GTS)

• Calendar for events in Earth history

• The concept of time in geology refers to matter
of putting the events in their proper order.
• Encompassing a total time span of about 4.6 by,
the geological time is represented by past
geological events and phenomena including
volcanic, palaeoclimatic, tectonic activities,
mass extinctions, and sea level fluctuation
event.
 Geological Time Scale (GTS)

• Subdivided in descending order of duration:

Eons, Eras, Periods, Epochs, and Ages
• Basis of classification:
1. Stratigraphy: Correlation and classification of
rock strata
2. Fossil forms found in rocks: Emergence and
disappearance of widespread species and
evolution of life
3. Radiometric dating: assigning absolute dates
 Relative dating

The Grand Canyon

Source: USGS
Relative dating
Relative dating
Relative dating

Source: USGS
 Relative dating

Earth’s surface is active:

Deformation
Weathering
Deposition
Tilting
Magmatic intrusion

…What we see
 Geological Time Scale (GTS)
• Eon = The largest unit of time
• Era = A unit of time shorter than an eon but longer than a period
• Period = A unit of time shorter than an era but longer than epoch
• Epoch = A unit of time shorter than a period but longer than an
age
• Archean = “Ancient” eon from 4,500 Mya – 2,500 Ma
• Proterozoic = “Early life” eon from 2,500 Ma – 540 Ma
• Paleozoic = “Ancient life” era from 540 Mya – 248 Ma
• Mesozoic = “Middle life” era from 248 Mya – 65 Ma
• Cenozoic = “New life” era from 65 Mya to Present
• Holocene = “All recent/entirely new” epoch from 10 Ka to Present
• Ma = Mega annum, i.e., million years ago before present
• Ka = Thousand years ago before present
Geological Time Scale (GTS)

Source: NPS Geologic Resources Inventory, 2018

Earlier time scale: two Eons (Precambrian
and Phanerozoic) and Five Eras
(Archaean, Proterozoic, Palaeozoic;
Mesozoic; Cenozoic).

The latest Geological Time Scale (2004

onward) has three Eons (Archean,
Proterozoic and Phanerozoic) and ten Eras
(Hadean, Palaeo-, Meso-, Neo- Archaen;
Palaeo-, Meso-, Neo- Proterozoic;
Palaeozoic; Mesozoic; Cenozoic)

The name of the erathems have been

derived from Greek words-
Archeos means oldest,
Proteros = older,
Paleo=Early,
Mesoz=Middle/intermediate,
Neo/Cainos=new and endings of each
name, zoicos means life.
 All the rock successions of the earth have been grouped with reference to the
type of life existed on the surface of the earth.
The rock successions Archaean
and Proterozoic times containing
primitive life without hard parts are
generally considered
unfossiliferous and these
sequences are earlier referred to
as Azoic denoting absence of life.

Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and

Cainozoic successions containing
fossils of early, middle and new
forms of life preserved with hard
parts together grouped in
Phanerozoic.

The classification of Phanerozoic

successions is based on
paleontological (fossil) data.
Relative dating

Moon’s surface is not active

Crater counting on Moon

Geological timescale on Mars
Differentiation of the Earth
 Differentiation of the Earth

Earth started as a bulk chondrite – Chondritic Uniform Reservoir (CHUR)

Differentiation of the Earth

Earth started as a bulk Earth is a differentiated

chondrite – Chondritic planetary body
Uniform Reservoir
(CHUR)

Separation of a metallic core from the silicate mantle

 Planetary differentiation:
Observation of terrestrial planets
• M.I. factor for homogeneous body (uniform sphere) = 0.4 * MR2
• M.I. factor<< 0.4 => central mass concentration
• Additional accurate information of Earth’s core from seismic data
Differentiation of the Earth

Earth started as a bulk Earth is a differentiated

chondrite – Chondritic planetary body
Uniform Reservoir
(CHUR)

Sources of heat?
 Differentiation of the Earth
Sources of heat?
Planetary collisions

Hierarchical accretion
model

Heat generated by radioactive decay

Decay of which nuclides?

 Differentiation of the Earth
Sources of heat?
Planetary collisions

Hierarchical accretion
model

Heat generated by radioactive decay

Short-lived radio nuclides/ extinct radionuclides – e.g., 26Al

 Earth’s ‘Core’ facts

• 32% of total mass of the planet

• CMB – 2891 km; size of core from seismic data
• Core-mantle differentiation occurred during accretion
• Core of the Earth formed through a long series of events over an
extended time period
 Cores are ubiquitous
• Large abundance of Fe – end-product of nuclear burning and max.
nuclear stability
• Metallic iron and alloys are denser than silicates

• Study of Fe meteorites – trace element groupings indicate that these

are derived from cores of 100 separate differentiated bodies with
diameters of 30-100 km (based on Fe/Ni diffusion profiles)
• 182Hf-182W measurements indicate that Fe meteorite parent bodies
differentiated very early
Differentiation of the Earth

How do we know anything about the Earth’s interior?

How do we tell what is in the Earth’s interior?

JOIDES Resolution

• We can only drill a few km depth on Earth.

• Most inferences about Earth’s interior rely on indirect evidence rather
than direct sampling
How do we tell what is in the Earth’s interior?
Propagation of seismic waves

Primary – travel faster

Can travel through fluids

Secondary shear waves

– travel slower
Cannot travel through fluids
Earth’s interior
Earth’s interior
 Chemical composition of Earth-layers
• Link density (seismic velocity) with chemical composition

Table 7-1. Common rocks of the crust and mantle

Density at low
Principal
Rock Location pressure ~ Chemical composition
minerals
(gm/cc)
SiO2 Al2O3 MgO FeO CaO
Granite/ryolite Continent 2.70 Feldspar, quartz
~70 ~16 ~1 ~3 ~6

Continent/ Feldspar, quartz,

Diorite/andesite 2.85 ~55 ~18 ~2 ~5 ~8
island arc pyroxene

Ocean crust/ Feldspar,

Gabbro/basalt 3.00 ~49 ~15 ~8 ~0 11
flood basalts pyroxene, olivine

Olivine,
Peridotite Mantle 3.30 ~44 ~4 ~39 ~8 ~3
pyroxene
 Common rock-forming silicate minerals

Single tetrahedra :Olivine: X2SiO4 e.g. Forsterite, Fayalite

Garnet: X3Y2 Si3O12 (X=Mg, Fe, Ca Y = Fe, Al, Cr,)

Single chains: Ortho-pyroxene: XSiO3 (X =Mg, Fe, Ca, Mn, Ni) e.g. Enstatite, Ferrosilite
Clino-pyroxene: XYZ2O6 (X=Ca, Y =Mg, Fe, Al, Cr, Z =Si, Al) e.g. Diopside

Double Chains: Amphiboles: W0-1X2Y5Z8O22(OH)2 (W =Na, X =Ca, Na, Mg, Fe2+, Y =Mg,
Fe, Al, Ti, Z =Si, Al) – mineralogical waste basket

Layers: Micas: X2Y4-6Z8O20(OH)4 (X =Na, K, Y =Mg, Fe, Al, Ti, Z =Si, Al)

Framework silicates: Feldspars, Quartz

Non-silicate: Spinel sensu stricto: AB2O4 e.g. Mg Al2O4

What is the mantle made up of?
• Mantle xenoliths
 What is the mantle made up of?
• Need an Al bearing mineral in the mantle

Table 7-1. Common rocks of the crust and mantle

Density at low
Principal
Rock Location pressure ~ Chemical composition
minerals
(gm/cc)
SiO2 Al2O3 MgO FeO CaO
Granite/ryolite Continent 2.70 Feldspar, quartz
~70 ~16 ~1 ~3 ~6

Continent/ Feldspar, quartz,

Diorite/andesite 2.85 ~55 ~18 ~2 ~5 ~8
island arc pyroxene

Ocean crust/ Feldspar,

Gabbro/basalt 3.00 ~49 ~15 ~8 ~0 11
flood basalts pyroxene, olivine

Olivine,
Peridotite Mantle 3.30 ~44 ~4 ~39 ~8 ~3
pyroxene
 What is the mantle made up of?
• Need an Al bearing mineral in the mantle

Table 7-1. Common rocks of the crust and mantle

Density at low
Principal
Rock Location pressure ~ Chemical composition
minerals
(gm/cc)
SiO2 Al2O3 MgO FeO CaO
Granite/ryolite Continent 2.70 Feldspar, quartz
~70 ~16 ~1 ~3 ~6

Continent/ Feldspar, quartz,

Diorite/andesite 2.85 ~55 ~18 ~2 ~5 ~8
island arc pyroxene

Ocean crust/ Feldspar,

Gabbro/basalt 3.00 ~49 ~15 ~8 ~0 11
flood basalts pyroxene, olivine

Olivine,
Peridotite Mantle 3.30 ~44 ~4 ~39 ~8 ~3
pyroxene

Garnet
 Rocks that make up the crust

Igneous rocks – rocks that formed by solidification of melts of ‘mantle/crustal’

rocks

Sedimentary rocks – rocks that originate from particles that settle our of
water/air of from minerals that precipitate from water

Metamorphic rocks - result when existing rocks are changed by heat,

pressure, or reactive fluids, such as hot, mineral-laden water
 Igneous rocks

Table 7-1. Common rocks of the crust and mantle

Density at low
Principal
Rock Location pressure ~ Chemical composition
minerals
(gm/cc)
SiO2 Al2O3 MgO FeO CaO
Granite/ryolite Continent 2.70 Feldspar, quartz
~70 ~16 ~1 ~3 ~6

Continent/ Feldspar, quartz,

Diorite/andesite 2.85 ~55 ~18 ~2 ~5 ~8
island arc pyroxene

Ocean crust/ Feldspar,

Gabbro/basalt 3.00 ~49 ~15 ~8 ~0 11
flood basalts pyroxene, olivine

Olivine,
Peridotite Mantle 3.30 ~44 ~4 ~39 ~8 ~3
pyroxene
Igneous rocks
•Intrusive (plutonic) rocks.
•Extrusive (volcanic) rocks
 Igneous rocks
•Intrusive (plutonic) rocks.
•Extrusive (volcanic) rocks

Fine versus coarse grained minerals: e.g., basalt versus gabbro

 Igneous rocks
Mafic: more dark-colored Felsic: more light-colored
minerals composed mainly minerals like feldspar and
of Mg, Fe quartz (Al, Si rich)
 Igneous rocks
Basic: 45 to 55% silica (mostly Acidic: >63% silica (mostly
mafic minerals plus plagioclase feldspar minerals and
feldspar and/or feldspathoid quartz), e.g., granite
minerals), e.g., basalt
Igneous rocks
 Igneous rocks
•Intrusive (plutonic) rocks.
•Extrusive (volcanic) rocks

Fine versus coarse grained minerals: e.g., basalt versus gabbro

Can igneous rocks only have one grain size?
 Igneous rocks
•Can igneous rocks only have one grain size?
•NO – when the rate of cooling changes suddenly (Slow to fast)

Clues from Texture: e.g., porphyritic https://openpress.usask.ca/app/

uploads/sites/29/2018/06/porphy
ry_3rd.png
 Igneous rocks
Felsic: more light-colored Mafic: more dark-colored
minerals like feldspar and minerals composed mainly
quartz (Al, Si rich) of Mg, Fe

https://openpress.usa
sk.ca/app/uploads/sit
es/29/2018/06/igneo
us-rock-
classification-
JY2021.png

When are some minerals found together in rocks while others are never associated together?
 Igneous rocks: Bowen’s* reaction series
When are some minerals found together in rocks while others are never associated together?

Progression of minerals produced by cooling basaltic magma that undergoes #fractional crystallization

First minerals to xllise @ high T

Cooling of melt of basaltic

composition; first formed #crystals
must settle out of the magma chamber

Last minerals to xllise @ low T (residue)

*N. L. Bowen was a Canadian petrologist

 Igneous rocks: Bowen’s reaction series
When are some minerals found together in rocks while others are never associated together?

Progression of minerals produced by cooling basaltic magma that undergoes fractional crystallization

Can have rocks with Olivine and Ca-rich plagioclase (Anorthite) - Troctolite
Can have rocks with Pyroxene and Ca-rich plagioclase (Anorthite) - Gabbro
Can have rocks with Hornblende/Biotite and Na-rich plagioclase (Oligoclase) - Diorite
Igneous rocks
 Rocks that make up the crust

Igneous rocks – rocks that formed by solidification of melts of ‘mantle/crustal’

rocks

Sedimentary rocks – rocks that originate from particles that settle our of
water/air of from minerals that precipitate from water

Metamorphic rocks - result when existing rocks are changed by heat,

pressure, or reactive fluids, such as hot, mineral-laden water
 Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are layered. As the sediments pile up, water is driven out by the
weight of the overlying pile, and minerals precipitate around the sediment particles,
cementing them into rock. This process is called lithification.

Clastic/detrital (Bio)Chemical
Sedimentary rocks
Clastic/detrital
Grain size of sediments

Conglomerate

Sandstone

Siltstone
 Sedimentary rocks
Clastic/detrital
Grain size: Weathering and Erosion/Transportation and deposition

To move larger grain sizes,

higher energy water or wind
currents are required

The Hjulström curve

Practical applications: design of
…whether a river will erode, transport, or
dams on rivers, desilting of ports,
deposit sediment
etc.
 Sedimentary rocks
Chemical

Limestone Micro- Evaporites Coal e.g.,

crystalline/amorph e.g., rock compressed
ous quartz e.g., salt, plant
chert, flint, jasper, gypsum material
agate, BIF
 Rocks that make up the crust

Igneous rocks – rocks that formed by solidification of melts of ‘mantle/crustal’

rocks

Sedimentary rocks – rocks that originate from particles that settle our of
water/air of from minerals that precipitate from water

Metamorphic rocks - result when existing rocks are changed by heat,

pressure, or reactive fluids, such as hot, mineral-laden water
 Metamorphic rocks

Types of metamorphism (conversion of a precursor rock to something new):

Contact (no foliation), Regional (foliated rocks), Cataclastic, Hydrothermal, Burial,

Shock
 Metamorphic rocks

Foliated Non-foliated
 Metamorphic rocks
Non-foliated
Do NOT have aligned mineral crystals
Pressure is uniform, or low

Marble (protolith: limestone) Quartzite (protolith: sandstone)

Jabbalpur Makrana marble

Dominated by quartz, and in many cases,

the original quartz grains of the sandstone
are welded together with additional silica

Original banding lost

calcite crystals recrystallize (re-form into

larger blocky calcite crystals), and any
sedimentary textures and fossils that might
have been present are destroyed.
 Metamorphic rocks
Foliated
HAVE aligned mineral crystals

Slate (protolith: shale – clay and mica grow perpendicular

to max. stress – breaks into flat sheets – slaty cleavage)

Phyllite (protolith: shale; heated to a higher temperature.

As a result, the micas have grown large; shiny)

Schist (Mica crystals easily visible –

coarse grade)

Gneiss (forms at the highest pressures and temperatures,

crystals large enough to see with the unaided eye. Gneiss
features minerals that have separated into bands of
different colours)
Metamorphic rocks

https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/7-2-classification-of-metamorphic-rocks/
Rocks that make up the crust

https://concord.org/blog/mapping-the-distribution-of-rock-types/