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MARTIN HALPERN Institute for Geological Sciences, University of Texas ai Dallas, Dallas, Texas 75230
Regional Geochronology of Chile
South of 50° Latitude
ABSTRACT
In southern Chile the oldest known rocks are
metamorphosed. Gneiss from the basement
rocks of the Magellan Basin at the Atlantic
entrance to the Strait of Magellan has been
dated by Rb-Sr total-rock analyses at 306 ±
156 m.y. (X/3 = 1.47 X l O ^ y r " 1 ) , with an
initial S r ^ / S r 8 6 ratio of 0.7112 ± 0.0033.
Biotite from a sample of gneiss has been dated
as Permian age by the Rb-Sr and K-Ar
methods; this implies that the basement rocks
of the Magellan Basin have been involved in
one or more Paleozoic geologic events. Par-
aschist from the basement complex along
Chile's Pacific margin indicated Paleozoic to
Mesozoic total-rock Rb-Sr ages, based on an
assumed initial Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 ratio of 0.710; minerals
separated from the schists gave late Mesozoic
Rb-Sr and K-Ar dates.
Volcanic rocks that overlie the basement
rocks and are generally accepted as being of
Late Jurassic or Early Cretaceous age based on
stratigraphic position gave total-rock Rb-Sr
and K-Ar dates of Late Cretaceous to Tertiary
age; these dates are considered to represent the
time of final closure of their isotopic systems,
perhaps associated with deformation in the
region.
T h e plutonic igneous rocks that constitute
the southern Andes Patagonian batholithic
complex range in age from Jurassic to Tertiary.
Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (155 to 120
m.y.), Late Cretaceous (100 to 75 m.y.), and
middle to late Tertiary (50 to 10 m.y.) phases
of magmatic activity have been recognized. In
the Cordillera Darwin region of the Beagle
Canal, minerals separated from plutonic rocks
of the Cordillera Darwin suite and from the
metamorphic rocks it intrudes gave Rb-Sr and
K-Ar dates of Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary
age.
Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 84, p. 2407-2422, 5 figs., July 1973
2407
INTRODUCTION
T h e southeast Pacific Ocean is rimmed by a
complex array of islands and mountain chains.
Because of the remote setting, little is known
of the detailed relations of the geology of the
Andes Mountains of southern Chile. T h e
timing of geologic events in this orogenic belt
is difficult to interpret owing to the structural
complexity of the region, scarcity of sedi-
mentary formations containing index fossils,
inaccessible fiordlike topography, and incle-
ment weather.
T h e area under investigation lies south of the
Chile Rise and east of the presently inactive
Chile-Peru Trench near the boundary be-
tween the South American and Antarctic
plates. T h e aim of this study is to establish a
radiometric chronology for the major igneous
and metamorphic rock units encountered
along the Pacific margin of southern Chile and
to examine the dates in relation to their field
relations. Knowledge of the sequence of events
in the cordillera is necessary to better under-
stand important geologic processes such as
mountain building and continental growth and
drift.
Table 1 lists the results of the rubidium,
strontium, potassium, and argon analyses used
in the age calculations. T h e Phanerozoic time
scale of Harland and others (1964) has been
used in the stratigraphic interpretation of the
ages.
GENERAL GEOLOGY
Metamorphic Basement Complex
T h e metamorphic basement schists deline-
ated on the geologic maps of Chile (Chile Inst.
Inv. Geol., 1968) and South America (UN-
E S C O , 1964) are designated Precambrian
and(or) Paleozoic age. T h e y are generally
 TABLE 1. RB-SR AND K-AR ANALYTICAL DATA OF ROCKS FROM SOUTHERN CHILE

Location on
Sr R b
Figs. 1 and 2; Lat. S., Material Duplicate "' " Rb" Sr" K Ar 40 rad. Rad. Age' Sr 87
Sample no. Long. W. Rock type analyzed sets Sr 81 Sr 88 OM/g) (jtM/g) (%) (std c m ' X IO -4 ) (%) (m.y.) Sr8« initial

Magellan Basin approximately gncissic total 0.7170 1.16 0.366 0.315 '
ME2, T-I6, 1,897 m 52 20' to 53° granodiorite rock
Magellan Basin 68°20 / to 69°40' gneissic total a. 0.7142 1.13 0.316 0.280
ME2, T-17, 1,941 m granodiorite rock b. 0.7152 1.12 0.314 0.279
Magellan Basin gneissic total a. 0.7179
ME2, T-16, 1,896.5 m granodiorite rock b. 0.7170 1.15 0.340 0.296
Magellan Basin gneissic total a. 0.7221 306 ± 156 0.7112 ± 0.0033»
ME3, T-28, 2,862 m granodiorite rock b. 0.7215 2.40 0.554 0.230
Magellan Basin gneissic total a. 0.7185
POS3, T-2, 1,762 m granodiorite rock b. 0.7173 i.43 0.248 0.174
Magellan Basin gneissic total a. 0.7145
POS3, T-2, 1,763 m granodiorite rock b. 0.7156 0.970 0.202 0.208
Magellan Basin gneissic plagioclase a. 0.7127 0.827 0.263 0.318
ME2, T-17, 1,941 m granodiorite b. 0.7131 0.821 0.263 0.320
Magellan Basin gneissic biotite a. 0.9966 75.0 1.35 0.0180 254 ± 1 0 0.710 ± 0.0025
ME2, T-17, 1,941 m granodiorite b. 1.000 79.2 1.34 0.0169
5.11 0.552 87.0 251 ± 12
Magellan Basin granodiorite total a. 0./214 '/.32 0.481 0.0657
CC9, T-3, 1,837.5 m rock b. 0.7220 155 ± 20 0.705 ± 0.0025

Puerto Ano Nuevo 52°12' granite total a. 0.7342 13.1 0.555 0.0425
H-70-6 73°38' rock b. 0.7343 13.1 0.556 0.0425
H-70-8 granite total 0.7192 6.55 0.371 0.0566 151 ± 10 0.7049 ±0.0020*
rock
H-70—u giauiic K'iciutpiu w./-T4G 1 / .O 0.976 0.054^
H-70-8 granite K-feldspar 0.7360 13.9 0.869 0.0623
H-70-10 basalt total 0.7074 0.371 0.0859 0.232 0.46 0.0166 65.7 91 ± 5
dike rock 0.0175 64.0

Bahia Isthmus 52°10' granodiorite biotite a. 1.253 280 1.93 0.0069 135 ± 8 0.705 ± 0.0025
H-70-11 73°38' 1.249 272 1.92 0.0070
H-70-18 schist total 0.7185 1.98 0.379 0.192 ?292 ± 7 0 P0.710 ±0.0025
rock
1.96 0.135 90.1 ?I66 ± 10
0.136 91.6
4 Bahia Sandy 52°08' quartz biotite a. 1.001 166 1.30 0.0078
H-70-24 73°43' diorite b. 0.9993 170 1.30 0.0076 119 ± 6 0.705 ± 0.0025
5.46 0.271 94.3 117 ± 6

5 Isla Rennell 51°59/ diorite biotite a. 0.7306 39.8 1.01 0.0254

H-70-37B 73°53' b. 0.7307 39.1 1.01 0.0259 44 ± 6 0.705 ± 0.002!
6.58 0.0902 75.7 34 ± 4

6 Isla Tabara 51°48' schist total 0.7136 1.68 0.404 0.241 ?145 ± 80 ?0.710 ± 0.002!
H-70-40A 73°57' rock
H-70-40B schist total 0.7143 1.76 0.460 0.262 ?165 ± 80 F0.710 ± 0.0025
rock
H-70-41 basalt total 0.7039 0.171 0.0802 0.470 0.703«
dike rock
H-70-41 basalt total
dike rock 0.54 0.0160 63.5 73 ± 5
0.0245 70.1 110 ± 7
H-70-42 diorite biotite a. 0.7719 73.1 1.56 0.0213
b. 0.7714 73.0 1.55 0.0213 63 ± 5 0.705 ± 0.0025
H-70-43 diorite biotite + 2.09 0.0240 70.0 29 ± 3
hornblende
H-70-45 diorite biotite 0.7142 50.9 0.926 0.0182 15 ± 10 0.705 ± 0.002!
H-70—48A diorite schist hornblende 0.46 0.0087 62.6 47 ± 5
H-70-49 diorite biotite + 1.51 0.0209 82.0 34 ± 4
hornblende
H-70-49 diorite biotite 5.62 0.0397 75.6 18 ± 3

7 Bahia Stewart 51°46' diorite biotite 1.744 525 2.47 0.0047 135 ± 7 0.705 ± 0.002!
H-70-30 73°4l' 5.49 0.322 95.7 142 ± 7
H-70-32 basalt total 0.7059 0.347 0.132 0.380 0.7056»
dike rock
0.48 0.0125 45.7 63 ± 6
0.0119 57.2

8 Seno Yuseff 51°40' adamellite total a. 0.7398 49.7 0.991 0.0199 }

H-70-28 73°39' rock b. 0.7403 49.8 0.992 0.0199 1 45 ± 6 0.707 ± 0.002«
H-70-29 adamellite total a. 0.7307 34.4 0.652 0.0190 [
rock b. 0.7296 34.8 0.652 0.0188 J

9 Peninsula Staines 51°28' adamellite biotite 1.068 203 1.84 0.0091 122 ± 5 0.705 ± 0.0025
H-70-50 73°56' 6.28 0.341 95.2 131 ± 7
 TABLE 1. (Continued)

Location on
Figs. 1 and 2; Lat. S., Material Duplicate Sr 8 '* Rb" Rb 87 Sr" K. Ar« rad. Rad. Age» Sr"
Sample no. Long. W. Rock type analyzed sets Sr»« Sr" (fM/g) (MM/g) (%) (std c m ' X IO"«) (%) (m.y.) Sr8» initial

10 Islas Daroch 51°28' adamellite total 0.7249 9.57 0.457 0.0481

H-70-56A 74°44' rock
H-70-56B adamellite total 0.7227 8.52 0.492 0.0578 138 ± 2 0 0.705 ± 0.0025
rock
H-70-56C adamellite total 0.7207 7.45 0.448 0.0651
rock
H-70-56A adamellite biotite 6.24 0.315 95.6 122 ± 6

11 Cerro Payne 51 quartz total 0.7044 3.33 0.593 0.178

73° diorite rock 0.7054 3.34 0.592 0.177
quartz biotite 0.7446 232 2.78 0.0170
diorite 0.7438 232 2.81 0.0121 12 ± 2 0.705 i 0.0025
5.10 0.0266 71.3 13 ± 1

12 Puerto Bueno so^ quartz biotite 0.9397 183 1.58 0.0086 90 ± 5 0.705 ± 0.0025
H-70-51 74°13' diorite 7.70 0.284 86.6 90 ± 5

13 Cabo San Antonio 50°52' diorite hornblende 0.99 0.0311 79.0 77 ± 7

H-70-76 74° 12' 0.0307 88.7

14 Bahia Inservable 50°45' diorite biotite a. 0.7305 95.1 1.11 0.0116

H-70-59 74°24' b. 0.7314 95.3 1.09 0.0115 19 ± 3 0.705 ± 0.0025
7.49 0.0611 63.7 20 ± 2
15 Isla Froilon 50°38' granodiorite biot-ir? á, l.UUU
H.7« 7! Â vrw b. 0.9998 152 1.36 0.0090 132 ± 6 0.705 ± 0.0025
4.83 0.266 93.9 133 ± 6

16 Isla Robert 50°32/ volcanic ? total

H-70-62 74°40' rock 0.43 0.0058 33.1 33 ± 5
0.0056 32.9

17 Isla Duque de York 50°32' quartz biotite 1.017 170 1.68 0.0099 125 ± 8 0.705 ± 0.0025
H-70-68 75°05' diorite
18 Isla Caracciola 50°28' quartz biotite 0.8015 54.1 0.801 0.0148
H-70-63A 75°08' diorite 0.8020 53.6 0.796 0.0149
H-70-63A quartz total 0.7065 0.747 0.209 0.279
diorite rock
H-70-63B granodiorite biotite 0.7522 28.3 0.515 0.0182 120 ± 8 0.7049 ± 0.0031»
0.7522 27.9 0.514 0.0184
H-70-63B granodiorite feldspar 0.7150 5.86 0.951 0.162
H-70-63B granodiorite total 0.7102 2.52 0.461 0.183
rock
H-70-63A quartz biotite 3.72 0.188 87.2 122 ± 6
diorite

19 Pta. Hope 54°07' quartz total a. 0.7065 0.200 0.179 0.897

H-64-144 71° diorite rock b. 0.7070 0.197 0.178 0.904
quartz biotite a. 0.7237 14.8 1.07 0.0723
diorite b. 0.7225 14.8 1.07 0.0724 85 ± 10 0.705 ± 0.0025
quartz biotite 5.80 0.205 89.0 87 ± 5
diorite

20 Pta. Mai-Mai-Mai 54°21' basalt total

H-70-94A 71°02' flow? rock 0.29 0.0080 55.8 69 ± 7

21 Pta. Pirando 54°26' quartz biotite a. 0.7522 45.5 1.59 0.0349

H-70-91 71°07 / diorite b. 0.7517 45.6 1.59 0.0348 70 ± 8 0.705 ± 0.0025

22 Seno Agostini 54°24' volcanic total 0.7264 12.9 0.689 0.0535

H-70-96 (2) 70°19 / rock
H-70-96 (1) volcanic total 0.7205 7.25 0.785 0.108
rock 74 ± 5 0.7125 ± 0.0006»
H-70-96 (4) volcanic total 0.7199 6.84 0.597 0.0872
rock
H-70-96 (3) volcanic total 0.7176 4.83 0.565 0.117
rock
23 Bahia Pliischow 54°36' schist total a. 0.7212 ?310 ± 60 P0.710 ± 0.0025
H-70-94 70°39 / rock b. 0.7202 2.35 0.286 0.122
schist biotite a. 0.7677 48.0 1.71 0.0356
b. 0.7683 47.3 1.71 0.0360 71 ± 7 0.718 ± 0.002»
schist chlorite a. 0.7244 5.82 0.0849 0.0146
b. 0.7247 5.74 0.0846 0.0147
schist total 1.43 0.055 85.4 ?95 ± 8
rock 0.058 88.6
schist biotite 4.58 0.221 89.0 117 ± 7
0.222 84.7
 TABLE 1. (Continued)

Location on
Figs. 1 and 2; Lat. S., Material Duplicate Sr 8 '* Rb87 Rb 8 ' Sr8« Ar40 rad. Rad. Age» Sr 8 '
Sample no. Long. W. Rock type analyzed sets Sr8« Sr8« (cM/g) (fM/g)
4
(%) (std c m ' X IO" ) (%) (m.y.) Sr 8t initial

24 Seno Ventisquero 54°50/ quartz biotite 0.7533 41.6 0.999 0.0240 79 ± 5 0.705 ± 0.0025
H-70-90 70°19' diorite 5.70 0.197 89.5 85 ± 5
25 Isla Londonderry 54°55' quartz biotite 0.7757 51.3 1.25 0.0243 94 ± 6 0.705 ± 0.0025
H-70-80 70°47' diorite
H-70-81 quartz biotite 0.7525 36.8 0.912 0.0248 88 ± 5 0.705 ± 0.0025
diorite 6.82 0.253 89.4 91 ± 5
H-70-82 quartz-feldspar total a. 0.7046 1.60 0.498 0.312 0.704«
dike rock b. 0.7060 1.57 0.499 0.317
26 Bahia Tres Brazos 54°58' quartz total a. 0.7048 0.279 0.195 0.700
H-64-123 69°48' diorite rock b. 0.7053 0.276 0.193 0.699
quartz biotite a. 0.7230 15.2 1.07 0.0705
diorite b. 0.7225 15.1 1.06 0.0701 80 ± 10 0.705 ± 0.0025
quartz hornblende
diorite 0.92 0.0333 87.1 88 ± 5
27 Ventisquero Alemania 54°53' amphibolite hornblende 0.89 0.0242 66.6 67 ± 4
H-64-131 69°25'
H-64-131I gneissic total a. 0.7054 0.334 0.235 0.703
quartz rock b. 0.7056 0.336 0.235 0.699
diorite biotite a. 0.7410 42.3 1.07 0.0253 60 ± 6 0.705 ± 0.0025
b. 0.7399 42.1 1.06 0.0252
6.62 0.182 92.1 68 ± 4
0.185 89.9
H-64-131F diorite total a. 0.7066 0.841 0.322 0.383
rock b. 0.7063 0.850 0.324 0.381
diorite biotite a. 0.7550 49.0 1.47 0.0300 68 ± 6 0.705 ± 0.0025
b. 0.7530 49.3 1.47 0.0298
diorite biotite 7.54 0.203 88.4 66 ± 4
H-64-131G gneissic biotite 7.71 0.203 75.0 65 ± 4
granodiorite 0.203 74.6
28 Ventisquero Italia 54°56' amphibolite hornblende 0.48 0.0112 69.4 64 ± 6
H-64-130 69°09' 0.0111 79.4
29 Bahia Yendegaia 54°49' schist muscovite 4.09 0.106 68.8 54 i 4
H-64-90 68°53' 0.107 72.4
H-64-91 schist total 0.7166 3.08 0.403 0.131
rock f 145 ± 4 5 P0.710 ± 0.0025

* Normalized to Sr 8 , /Sr M ratio of 0.1194. At the time of these analyses, the normalized S r ^ / S r " ratio of the M.I.T. standard Eimer it Amend SrCOi was 0.7080 ± 0.0003 (mean of 4 analyses).
• R b " : X/3 = 1.47 X 10"" yr" 1 . ' Calculated S r " / S r M initial ratio.
K.40: X« - 0.584 X 10"10 yr - 1 . 5 Assumed S r " / S r " initial ratio.
- 4.72 x lO"10 yr" 1 .
4
K « / K total - 1.22 X 10" g/g.
Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.org on October 18, 2014
REGIONAL GEOCHRONOLOGY OF CHILE SOUTH OF 50° LATITUDE
rocks of greenschist facies and are considered to
be the oldest exposed rocks in Chile. Basement
schist has been mapped as far north as about
30° S. (Gonzalez-Bonorino and Aguirre, 1970;
Fig. 1).
At Estero Poca Esperanza (52 15 S.,
72°50' W.) and along the north side of Seno
Agostini (Fig. 2, location 22), Late Jurassic
and (or) Early Cretaceous volcanic breccia and
conglomerate units contain clasts of basement
schist. Near Seno Agostini, Jurassic to Early
Cretaceous volcanic and sedimentary rocks
overlie the basement rocks unconformably
(Kranck, 1932, p. 59). In the region of southern
Chile covered in this paper (Figs. 1 and 2), the
basement schist is cut by acidic to intermediate
volcanic rocks, granitic plutons, and basic
dikes.
At the eastern entrance to the Strait of
Magellan (Fig. 1, location 1), gneissic basement
rock is known, from drill holes, to underlie the
Magellan Basin. T h e gneiss is overlain uncon-
formably by tuffaceous acidic volcanic rocks of
the Jurassic Serie Tobifera, which in turn is
covered by arenaceous and argillaceous sedi-
mentary rocks of Cretaceous to Tertiary age.
N o r t h of the north arm of the Beagle
Canal (Fig. 2, location 27), metamorphic rocks
are intruded by plutonic bodies of the Cordil-
lera Darwin suite. These greenschist-facies
paraschists are, in part, considered to be the
metamorphic equivalent of the late Mesozoic
Yahgan Formation that crops out to the west
of and on Navarino Island (Fig. 2; Kranck,
1932; Katz, 1964).
Late Paleozoic Sedimentary Rocks
Bordering the Pacific Ocean between 50°
and 52° S., a thick Late Pennsylvanian to
Early Permian sedimentary section of massive,
fusulinid-bearing limestone, slate, and gray-
wacke-type sandstone with sole markings and
minor conglomeratic units containing a few
granitic pebbles is exposed (Cecioni, 1956;
Dalziel, 1970; Halpern, 1970). T h e late
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks have not been
observed in contact with the schist, nor have
any clasts of the schist been recorded from the
sandy or conglomeratic units. F r o m field rela-
tions, folding can be inferred as post-Early
Permian to pre-Late Jurassic.
Volcanic Rocks Stratigraphically Older than
Late Cretaceous
Volcanic rocks of predominantly acidic com-
position crop out throughout the cordillera of
2413
southern Chile (Kranck, 1932; Katz, 1964;
Dalziel and Elliot, 1971). From field relations
they are considered to be of Late Jurassic age.
T h e presence of volcanic detritus (Katz and
Watters, 1966) in the upper Mesozoic Yahgan
Formation (Halpern and Rex, 1972) is f u r t h u r
evidence of volcanic activity in the southern
Chile Cordillera during or before Early Cre-
taceous time.
Igneous Rocks of the Andean and
Cordillera Darwin Suites
Plutonic igneous rocks of the Patagonian
batholithic complex occur along the present
Pacific margin of southern South America.
These rocks have been assigned a Mesozoic-
Cenozoic age ( U N E S C O , 1964) and can be
traced southward along the Pacific margin of
west Antarctica (Halpern, 1971; Rex, 1973).
T h e Andean intrusive suites of the Chile
Cordillera south of 50° have a wide range of
composition, with quartz diorite and horn-
blende-bio tite diorite as the predominant com-
positions. T h e occurrence of pegmatite, granite,
or gabbro is rare. T h e igneous rocks are, as a
general rule, postorogenic and intrude all
lithologic units that are Early Cretaceous or
older. Basic dikes commonly cut the medium-
to coarse-grained plutonic rocks of the Andean
suite.
In the vicinity of Cordillera Darwin (54°45'
S., 69°50' W.), pretectonic, syntectonic, and
post-tectonic granitic rocks have been recog-
nized (Kranck, 1932; Dalziel, 1971). T h e
petrology, field relations, and chemistry of the
Andean and Cordillera Darwin suites in the
area west of Navarino Island (Fig. 2) have been
discussed in detail by Kranck (1932), who con-
cluded (p. 183) that the close chemical rela-
tion of the Andean and Cordillera Darwin
intrusive suites indicated their derivation from
a common parental magma.
A general survey of the regional and
stratigraphic relations of the Andean intrusive
suite in the area under discussion and to the
north and south has been presented in papers
by Kranck (1932), K a t z (1964; 1973), Dalziel
and Elliot (1971), Halpern (1971), Dalziel
(1972), Dalziel and Cortés (1972), and Rex
(1973).
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
Rubidium and strontium isotopic com-
positions were measured at the University of
Texas at Dallas on the 6-in.-radius (15 cm)
mass spectrometer previously described (Hal-
 Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.org on October 18, 2014
2414 M. HALPERN
pern, 1968). For duplicate dissolution analyses
(Halpern, 1968), the Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 ratios agree to
about 0.1 percent; the Rb 8 7 /Sr 8 6 ratios to
about 2 percent. For rubidium-strontium plots
containing more than three sample analyses, the
least-squares method of York (1966) was used
to fit straight lines to the data, and the calcu-
lated ages and S r ^ / S r 8 6 initial ratios were given
at the 95-percent confidence level. Where the
line joins two or three sample analyses, the age
and Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 initial ratio were calculated using
an equation for a straight line. T h e error at-
tached to a calculated rubidium-strontium
biotite age is approximately twice the analyti-
cal precision for routine duplicate dissolution
analyses.
T h e muscovite concentrate from Bahia
Yendegaia was analyzed at the Mobil Research
and Development Corporation Laboratory,
Dallas, Texas. Potassium was determined by
flame photometry and tetraphenylboron gravi-
metric method, and argon was analyzed on a
Reynolds-type mass spectrometer.
All other potassium and argon measurements
were carried out at the University of Leeds,
England. Potassium was determined with an
E E L flame photometer with a digital o u t p u t ;
all samples were analyzed in triplicate. Argon
isotopic composition was measured with a
modified A E I MS10 mass spectrometer with a
digital o u t p u t (Rex and Dodson, 1970). T h e
combined uncertainty in the A r 4 0 / K 4 0 ratio
was about 2.4 percent at the 95-percent con-
fidence level (Dodson and Rex, 1971).
RESULTS A N D DISCUSSION
Metamorphic Basement Complex:
Rb-Sr Ages
Nine total-rock samples of basement schist
collected from the Curepto and Nirivilo series
(Gonzalez-Bonorino, 1971) between approxi-
mately 35° and 40° S. gave an isochron age of
322 ± 5 m.y. (X/3 = 1.47 X l O ^ ' y r " 1 ) and an
initial Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 ratio of 0.7105 (F. Munizaga,
1972, written commun.). This Carboniferous
date is considered by Munizaga to reflect the
time of sedimentation or regional meta-
morphism of the sediments that produced the
schists. A K-Ar date of 245 m.y. was obtained
for muscovite separated from a sample of base-
ment schist collected 6 k m to the east of
Valdivia (39°50' S., 73°15' W . ; Munizaga,
1972, written commun.).
Along that portion of the Pacific margin of
Chile discussed in this paper (Figs. 1 and 2), the
basement complex is predominantly green-
schist-facies rocks. Attempts to obtain Rb-Sr
total-rock isochrons were unsuccessful. Ages
have been calculated from the Rb-Sr analyses
of total-rock samples from several localities,
based on Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 ratio of the total-rock speci-
men of 0.71C ± 0.002 at the time of meta-
morphism. T h e value of 0.710 + 0.002 for the
Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 initial ratio is a "best guess" based on
the value of 0.7105 determined by Munizaga
(1972, written commun.) for petrologically
similar basement schist that crops out farther
north in Chile. If we assume initial Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6
ratios of 0.710 ± 0.002, the :alculated ages are
as follows (Table 1): Bahia Isthmus (Fig. 1,
location 3), 292 ± 70 m.y.; IslaTabara (Fig. 1,
location 6), 145 ± 80 m.y.; 165 + 80 m.y.;
Bahia Pliischow (Fig. 2, location 23), 310 ± 60
m.y.; and Bahia Yendegaia (Fig. 2, location
29), 145 + 45 m.y. Samples collected at any
one locality had homogeneous R b / S r ratios
and, in general, were only slightly enriched in
radiogenic Sr. T h e low R b / S r ratios, low en-
richment in radiogenic Sr, and lack of de-
finitive Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 initial ratios resulted in the
large error values attached to the calculated
ages given above. Although the age of the low-
grade metamorphic basemem: of southern Chile
cannot be given with a high degree of precision
at this time, the Rb-Sr analyses indicate that
the metamorphism of the basement is not Pre-
cambrian, but Paleozoic and(or) Mesozoic, and
that the parent material of the schist could
have been derived from late Precambrian or
younger rocks.
Samples of basement gneiss from the
Magellan Basin (Fig. 1, location 1) were
analyzed for R b and Sr; the results gave the
poorly defined regression line shown in Figure
3A. F r o m the slope of the line, the age was
calculated as 306 ± 156 m.y., with an initial
Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 ratio of 0.7112 ± 0.0033. Biotite,
concentrated from a specimen of basement
gneiss, was dated by the Rb-Sr and K-Ar
methods at 254 ± 10 m.y. and 251 ± 12 m.y.,
respectively (Table 1). T h e R b / S r ratio of the
sample of core recovered from well M E 3 ,
T-28, 2,862 m, relative to the other five total-
rock samples, controls the slope of the line
in Figure 3A and, therefore, the calculated age.
Little variation was found in the R b / S r ratios
of the analyzed specimens of gneiss and, in
general, the basement appears to be character-
ized by low enrichment in radiogenic Sr.
Furthermore, five of the total-rock analyses
are scattered about a position low on the
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REGIONAL GEOCHRONOLOGY OF CHILE SOUTH OF 50° LATITUDE 2413

regression line. This scatter may be related to
open-system conditions associated with post-
metamorphism geologic events, such as frac-
turing and weathering. T h e basement speci-
mens are highly fractured and are believed to
have been exposed to subaerial weathering
prior to being covered by volcanic and clastic
sedimentary material in late Mesozoic time.
Although a large error is associated with the
Rb-Sr age for the Magellan Basin total-rock
basement gneiss, the age does indicate that the
gneiss was associated with Paleozoic geologic
events. Whether this was the same event rep-
resented by the Permian date for biotite from
the gneiss is not certain. T h e relatively low
R b / S r ratios of the analyzed samples of
gneiss and the initial ratio of 0.7112 ± 0.0033
suggest that the parent rocks of the meta-
morphic basement had an earlier crustal
history.
Metamorphic Basement Complex: K-Ar
Ages
Total-rock K-Ar analysis of schist at Isla
Tabara gave an age of 166 ± 10 m.y. and at
Bahia Pliischow (Fig. 2, location 23) an age of
9 5 + 8 m.y. (Table 1). Although it is possible
to relate these dates to geologic events related
to orogenic development in this tectonically
mobile region of southern Chile, the geologic
significance of K-Ar total-rock dates on low-
grade metasedimentary metamorphic rocks
often has proved unrealiable.
Biotite and chlorite, concentrated from the
total-rock sample of schist from Bahia Pliischow
(Fig. 2, location 23), gave the regression line of

1 »306 M - t 6 »145M-t, • 165 M - t 101138 G - t . Ol22G-b

• 251 M-b, •251 M - b •63G-b II BI2G-b. oi3G-b
• 1S5 G - t •l5G-b 12 B90 G - b . • 9oG-b
2 «151 G - t . f 047G-h 13Q77 G - h
• 91 D i - t 034G-h&b.d18G-b 14B19G-b , • 20G-b
3 B292 M - t , •166 M - t 7 a135G-b. ai42G-b 15 B132 G - b . • 133G-b
• 13SG-b •630i-t 16D33 V - 1
4 BIIBG-b. •117G-b 8 »45 G t 171125 G - b
S •44G-b. 03«Gb ?ai22G-b. • l31G-b 18«120G-t.b.«OU2G-B

Figure 1. Location of Rb-Sr and K-Ar dated samples
from the northern segment of the area under investiga-
tion. Geographic coordinates are given in Table 1. All
dates are in millions of years. Solid squares refer to Rb-
Sr dates; open squares to K-Ar dates; M, metamorphic
rock of the basement complex; G, granitic rock of the
Andean intrusive suite; V, volcanic rock; Di, dike
rock; t, total rock; b, biotite; h, hornblende; and f,
potassium feldspar.
 Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.org on October 18, 2014
2416 M. ::-IALPERN
1 9 • 85 G - b . • 87 G - b 2 3 • 310 M - t . • 95 M - t
2 0 D 6 9 V-t • 71 M - b . D 1 1 7 M - b
21 B70G-b 2 4 • 79G-b . D85 G-b
2 2 B 74V-t 25 • 94G-b
• 88Gb D 91 G - b
Figure 2. Location of Rb-Sr and K-Ar dated samples
from the southern segment of the area under investiga-
tion. Geographic coordinates are given in Table 1. All
dates are in millions of years. Solid squares refer to Rb-Sr
dates; open squares to K-Ar dates; M, metamorphic
Figure 3C. T h e Rb-Sr age of 71 ± 7 m.y. is
controlled by the biotite analysis and is con-
sidered a reset age associated with early
Tertiary deformation that affected this region
of southern Chile (Katz, 1973). It should,
however, be noted that the K-Ar analysis of
biotite from the same sample of schist gave an
age of 117 ± 7 m.y. (Table I). T h e discordance
of the Rb-Sr and K-Ar biotite dates cannot be
satisfactorily explained at this time.
Hornblende from quartz-garnet amphibolite
at Ventisquero Italia (Fig. 2, location 28) and
prophyroblastic muscovite from quartz-chlo-
rite-sericite schist at Bahia Yendegaia (Fig. 2,
location 29) were separated from metamorphic
rocks in the vicinity of Cordillera Darwin. T h e
K-Ar dates of 64 ± 6 m.y. for hornblende and
6 4 + 4 m.y. for muscovite are considered the
time of final closure of their isotopic systems.
Volcanic Rocks Stratigraphically Older
than Late Cretaceous
O u t c r o p localities of massive volcanic rocks
collected during R / V Hero cruise 69-6 (Hal-
pern, 1970) are shown on Figures 1 and 2. T h e
2 6 • 80 G-b 2 8 a 64 M - h
• 88G-h , 2 9 id 6 4 M - m
2 7 • 60 D-b . D68D-b I1145M-t
i| • 6 8 D-b . O6 6 D-b
| • 65 D-b
• 67 D-h
rock of the basement complex; <5, granitic rock of the
Andean intrusive suite; D, granitic and associated
metamorphic reeks of the Cordillera Darwin suite; V,
volcanic rock; t, total rock; b, biotite; h, hornblende;
and m, muscovite.
rocks proved of little use for Rb-Sr or K-Ar
dating for the following reasons: (a) T h e out-
crops have been affected by chemical weather-
ing; (b) the volcanic rocks are characterized
by rather homogeneous and low R b / S r ratios;
and (c) the volcanic rocks have been affected
by post-Earlv Cretaceous structural deforma-
tion. Attempts to date the volcanic rocks f r o m
several localities gave the following results
(Table 1):
Isla Robert (Fig. 1, location 16), K-Ar total-
rock date of 33 ± 5 m.y. T h e geological sig-
nificance of this date is not presently under-
stood.
Pta. Mai-Mai-Mai (Fig. 2, location 20),
K-Ar total-rock date of 69 ± 7 m.y. This date
is tentatively considered a reset age associated
with Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary defor-
mation in this region of southern Chile (Katz,
1973, Fig. 3).
Seno Agostini (Fig. 2, location 22), Rb-Sr
total-rock regression line (Fig. 3B) for which
the calculated age is 74 ± 5 m.y., and the
initial Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 ratio is 0.7125 + 0.0006. This
Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary date for
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REGIONAL GEOCHRONOLOGY OF CHILE SOUTH OF 50° LATITUDE 2413

volcanic rocks, considered the stratigraphie
equivalent of the Late Jurassic Serie Tobifera,
is believed to represent the time of homogeni-
zation of their rubidium and strontium systems,
perhaps during early Tertiary deformation
(Katz, 1973). It is of interest to note that if a
R b / S r ratio of about 2.0 (Fig. 3B) is postu-
lated as representative of the bulk of the
highly siliceous volcanic rocks at locality 22
(Fig. 2), and an initial Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 ratio of about
0.704 is postulated as the value for the source
material of these rocks, then the calculated
time of initial crystallization is about 155
m.y., which is in accord with the stratigraphie
position of the Serie Tobifera.
Igneous Rocks of the Andean and
Cordillera Darwin Suites
Granitic Rocks. Diorite and quartz diorite
predominate as the granitic rocks that con-
stitute the Andean intrusive suite of southern
Chile. Their R b / S r ratios relative to their age
Magellan Basiri
S r 8 7 /^Sr'
Sr86
0.725-T
result in little enrichment in radiogenic Sr.
At a few localities (Fig. 1, locations 2, 8, 10,
and 18), analyses of several total-rock samples
from the same plutonic body did give geologi-
cally meaningful ages (Fig. 4). T h e total-rock
Rb-Sr ages indicate that plutonic igneous
activity occurred during Jurassic, Early Creta-
ceous, and Eocene times. W i t h the exception
of the line joining the two samples from Seno
Yuseff (Fig. 4D), for which the control on the
Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 initial ratio is poor, the calculated
initial Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 ratio is about 0.705. An initial
Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 ratio of 0.705 has therefore been as-
sumed for all Rb-Sr calculated biotite ages for
rocks from the Andean and Cordillera Darwin
intrusive suites (Table 1; Figs. 1 and 2).
T h e results of the total-rock and mineral
ages of Andean intrusive suite rocks, which,
from field relations and petrography are in-
ferred to have been unaffected by postcrystalli-
zation reheating, are plotted on Figure 5. T h e
length of any one line is the maximum esti-
B
north side of Seno Agostini
Sr'8 7 / S r 8 6
0.730- •

iaì^IL.
0.720- -

0.720- -
0 . 7 1 0 - 1 ^ - --0.7125
,

0.700
0.715-- 4 8
Rb87/Sr86

"0.7112
0.710- -

Pluschow Bay
0.705-- Sr^/Sr 8 6
0.780+

0.700-
86
0.76a •
Rb8ys

0.740- • 1*

0.720- »
Figure 3. Sr87/Sr8» versus Rb87/Sr8s dia-
grams. A, total-rock basement gneiss from the 0-718
Magellan Basin subsurface; B, volcanic rocks
from the north side of Seno Agostini; C, meta- 0.700'
morphic basement at Bahia Pluschow (t, total IO 20 30 40 SO
rock; b, biotite; and ch, chlorite). Rb 8 /Si 86
 Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.org on October 18, 2014
2418 M. HA1.PERN

Puerto Ano Nuevo B

Daroch Islands
87
Sr /Sr86
S r 8 7 / S r 86
0.730+
0.740-
0.720- -

0.720--
0.7lo4-
-0.705
0.700 0.700 -H 1 1 H 4-
2 4 6 8 IO
Rb87sr86
Sr87/S
D
0.820+
Caracciola Island gg Yusaff Sound
S r 8 7 / Sr

0.780-- 0.740- •

0.740- • 0.720--

•^—0.707
.0.7049
0.700 H 1 1 I 1 1- 0.700- H 1- H 1-
20 40 60 20 40
R b 8 7 / S ,86
r Rb87/Sr86
Figure 4. Sr87'/Sr/Sr86 versu
versus Rb87/Srs* diagrams. D, Seno Yuseff (t, total rock; b, biotite; and £, potas-
le Andean intrusive
Plutonic rocks of the i suite from: A, sium feldspar).
Puerto Año Nuevo ; B, Islas Daroch ; C, Isla Caracciola ;

mated errors of the Rb-Sr and K-Ar ages. T h e
emplacement of the Andean intrusive suites,
often referred to as the Patagonian Batholith,
was not a single igneous magmatic event. T h e
present data indicate at least three igneous
magmatic episodes over about the past 150
m.y., each episode lasting for about 25 to 40
m.y. T h e Andean plutonic igneous rocks of
Chile south of 50° lat are considered to have
crystallized during Late Jurassic to Early Cre-
taceous time (155 to 120 m.y.), Late Cretaceous
time (100 to 75 m.y.), and middle to late
Tertiary time (50 to 10 m.y.).
At northwest Navarino Island (Fig. 2),
granitic plutons intrude folded Late Jurassic(?)
to Early Cretaceous clastic sediments of the
Yahgan Formation (Halpern and Rex, 1972).
T h e K-Ar and Rb-Sr hornblende and biotite
dates f r o m the plutons and associated contact
metamorphic aureole are about 80 m.y. This
stratigraphie and radiometric age date pro-
vides f u r t h e r evidence of Late Cretaceous
igneous activity in southern Chile.
T h e most recent plutonic event in the area
investigated is that of Cer::o Payne (Fig. 1,
location 11). Approximately 70 k m to the east
of the main intrusive corclillera, the Payne
pluton is considered part of the Patagonian
batholithic complex in the sub-Andean belt.
Cerro Payne is one of several isolated plutonic
bodies that dome the Cerro T o r o Formation of
Upper(?) Carnpanian to Sar.tonian age (Katz,
1963). Quensel's (1912) pétrographie and field
investigations indicated that the doming that
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REGIONAL GEOCHRONOLOGY OF CHILE SOUTH OF 50° LATITUDE 2413

accompanied the emplacement of the Cerro
Payne quartz diorite was younger than the
Late Cretaceous or early Tertiary regional
folding, because the pluton lacks any traces of
having been stressed. Detailed structural anal-
ysis of this region by Katz (1962) showed that
a second, rather gentle folding cycle occurred
in Miocene time, possibly shortly before or
during the emplacement of the Payne body.
Biotite separated from the quartz diorite gave
a K-Ar calculated age of 13 + 1 m.y. and a
Rb-Sr date of 12 ± 2 m.y., which is in accord
with the conclusions of Katz (1962).
At Isla Tabara (Fig. 1, location 6), the K-Ar
and Rb-Sr biotite and hornblende dates are
discordant (Table 1). Petrographic examina-
tion of the granitic rocks and associated dikes
suggests that geologic events that postdate
initial crystallization of the magmas have
affected this area. T h e analyzed hornblende,
though perhaps not maintaining completely
closed isotopic systems, appears to have re-
mained more retentive with respect to its
daughter isotopes than the co-existing biotite,
a relation that has been well established
(Dalrymple and Lanphere, 1969).
m.y.
180-
As listed in Table 1, minerals separated from
the Cordillera Darwin intrusive suite (Fig. 2,
location 27) give Rb-Sr and K-Ar dates of
Late Cretaceous to early Tertiary age; these
dates are considered the time of final closure
of their isotopic systems. Katz (1973) has
pointed out that "metamorphism and develop-
ment of nappe structures in the more central
parts of the tectogene (Cordillera Darwin)"
characterized the orogenic evolution of parts
of southern Chile during early Tertiary time.
T h e Rb-Sr and K-Ar mineral ages falling
around 65 m.y. from the Cordillera Darwin
plutonic and associated metamorphic rocks
are possibly related to deformation and uplift
at that time.
Near the present Atlantic entrance to the
Strait of Magellan (Fig. 1, location 1), drilling
in the Magellan Basin encountered plutonic
rock of granodioritic composition beneath
clastic sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous(?) age.
T h e relation of this granitic body to the meta-
morphic basement gneiss is not known. A
Jurassic total-rock Rb-Sr date of 155 ± 20
m.y., based on an assumed initial Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6
ratio of 0.705 ± 0.002, was calculated for this

170-
t.f
160- t.b
150-

140-
c
112i
120 to 155m.y.
130-

1 2 0 -
H-70

"I
9
J
110-
b b,h
100—

90- h
I

H-70
b

I I
1
75 to 100 m.y.
60 H-70 I
80-
( a, H -I; H-64 H"8<
H-70
" 144 123
J
70-

60-

50-

40-
1
30-

20-

1 0 -
b
•
Payne
J
10
10 to 50 m.y.

O-
Figure 5. Plot of Rb-Sr and K-Ar calculated ages for one line is an estimate of the combined Rb-Sr and K-Ar
rocks of the Andean intrusive suite unaffected(?) by calculated age errors (t, total rock; b, biotite; h, horn-
postcrystallization tectonic events. The length of any blende; and f, potassium feldspar).
 Downloaded from gsabulletin.gsapubs.org on October 18, 2014
2414 M. HALPERN
sample (Table 1). Approximately 700 km tc
the north of well Cuatro Chorillo 9, the
Deseado massif of predominantly dioritic com-
position crops out in Santa Cruz Province,
Argentina. Biotite concentrates from Deseado
massif plutonic rocks, which on stratigraphic
evidence are considered as probably post-late
Paleozoic, have been dated as Triassic by the
Rb-Sr method (Stipanicic and others, 1971).
Early to late Mesozoic intrusive igneous ac-
tivity is therefore inferred to have occurred
to the east of the Chilean high cordillera along
what is now the Atlantic coast of southern
South America.
Farrar and others (1970) have postulated a
post-Paleozoic migration of granitic intrusion
foci in the Andes of northern Chile on the
basis of K-Ar dates of biotites and hornblende
from the northern Chile Andean suite. In the
region of southern Chile covered in this paper,
there is no evidence to suggest that the em-
placement of the Andean suite is indeed
progressively younger from east to west or
vice versa. Although perhaps episodic in char-
acter, the emplacement of the southern Chile
Andean plutonic rocks dates from the Late
Jurassic, with younger plutonic bodies being
superimposed upon older ones resulting in a
batholithic complex. A similar pattern of
igneous activity may also characterize the
peninsular region of west Antarctica (Halpern,
1968, 1971; Rex, 1973), although Rb-Sr total-
rock isochrons and U - P b age data from west
Antarctica are rather limited.
Dike Rocks. T h e common occurrence of
basic (basaltic) dikes as an end phase of intru-
sive igneous activity of the Andean suite has
already been mentioned. At two localities
total-rock basalts have been K-Ar dated to
determine if the calculated age is consistent
with field relations. T h e following results were
obtained (Table 1):
Puerto Año N u e v o (Fig. 1, location 2), dike
cutting about 150-m.y.-old granitic pluton was
dated at 91 ± 5 m.y.
Bahia Stewart (Fig. 1, location 7), dike cut-
ting about 140-m.y.-old granitic pluton was
dated at 63 ± 6 m.y.
T h e dikes were not emplaced during the
same intrusive event as the granitic rocks;
rather, they appear to be related to the se-
quence of igneous events at a particular
locality.
Total-rock samples of basic and acidic dikes
were isotopically analyzed for rubidium and
strontium in order to determine their Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6
initial ratios (Table 1). An acid dike from Isla
Londonderry (Fig. 2, location 25) gave a calcu-
lated Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6 initial ratio of 0.704; basalt
dike from the area of Isla Tabara (Fig. 1, loca-
tion 6) gave a measured value of about 0.704,
and from Bahia Stewart (Fig. 1, location 7) a
slightly higher value of about 0.706, possibly
due to contamination with radiogenic Sr 87
during passage of the basaltic magma through
the granitic country rock. T h e initial Sr 8 7 /Sr 8 6
ratios for the dikes support the inference that
the dikes, as well as the granitic plutonic rocks
of the Andean suite, were not derived as partial
melts of "ancient" crustal material.
CONCLUSIONS
Rocks of the metamorphic basement com-
plex of southern Chile evolved during Paleo-
zoic and Mesozoic geologic: events. T h e y are
intruded by igneous plutonic rocks of the
Andean suites that range in age from at least
Late Jurassic to middle Tertiary.
T h e folded late Paleozoic sedimentary rocks
that crop out along the Pacific margin of Chile
between 50° and 52° S. are intruded by Late
Jurassic and (or) Early Cretaceous plutonic
rocks.
T h e plutcnic rocks that constitute the
southern Andes Patagonian batholithic com-
plex range in age from Jurassic to Tertiary.
Three igneous episodes have been recognized,
each lasting for about 25 to 40 m.y.: Late
Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (155 to 120 m.y.),
Late Cretaceous (100 to 75 m.y.), and middle
to late Tertiary (50 to 10 m.y.). There is no
evidence to suggest that the plutonic bodies
become progressively younger or older f r o m
east to west.
Igneous and associated metamorphic rocks
in the region of Cordillera Darwin have Late
Cretaceous to early Tertiary mineral ages.
These dates are interpreted to represent the
time of final closure of the isotopic systems;
the geologic significance of this time interval
is not fully understood. The ages may be re-
lated to diffusive loss of daughter isotopes
since initial closure of their isotopic systems or
to thermal events associated with the orogenic
evolution of the area.
In the area of Puerto Año N u e v o (Fig. 1,
location 2), Late Jurassic granitic rocks are
intrusive into argillaceous ancl arenaceous sedi-
mentary rocks that now must be considered to
be Jurassic or older.
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REGIONAL GEOCHRONOLOGY OF CHILE SOUTH OF 50° LATITUDE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h i s paper was w r i t t e n while I was a Visiting
Research Fellow at t h e D e p a r t m e n t of E a r t h
Sciences, U n i v e r s i t y of Leeds, Leeds, E n g l a n d .
I t h a n k R . A. Cliff, I . W . D . Dalziel, M . H .
D o d s o n , A. L . Hales, W . I. M a n t ó n , and D .
C . R e x for reading various d r a f t s of t h e m a n u -
script. I . W . D . Dalziel, H . R . K a t z , a n d F .
M u n i z a g a provided prepublication copies of
papers related t o t h e geology a n d geochronol-
ogy of s o u t h e r n Chile.
Samples of core material f r o m t h e Magellan
Basin a n d t h e sample f r o m C e r r o P a y n e were
provided by E . G o n z á l e z P . of E m p r e s a N a -
cional del Petroleo, P u n t a Arenas, Chile. G .
M . Carlin, U n i v e r s i t y of T e x a s a t Dallas,
assisted in t h e R b - S r analyses. W . H . B u r k e ,
J. B. O t t o , a n d R . E . Denison, M o b i l Research
a n d D e v e l o p m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n , Dallas, Texas,
p r o v i d e d t h e K - A r analysis of t h e muscovite
f r o m Bahia Yendegaia.
M a n y Chilean institutions, personnel of t h e
N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n Office of Polar
Programs, and t h e scientific staff a n d crew
of t h e R / V Hero (cruise 69-6) provided t h e
logistic s u p p o r t t h a t m a d e t h e field p r o g r a m
possible. T h i s research was s u p p o r t e d by N a -
tional Science F o u n d a t i o n G r a n t s G A 10529
and G V 28757.
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existencia del Paleozoic superior en el archi-
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Chile Inst. Inv. Geol., 1968, Mapa geologico de
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Dalrymple, G. B., and Lanphere, M. A., 1969,
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Freeman & Co., 258 p.
Dalziel, I.W.D., 1970, Structural studies in the
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