24.

RESEARCH DESIGN
● Discusses the general type of research and the specific design/s of the study
● This section explains the general plan or blueprint of addressing the research objectives of the
study
1. The first paragraph describes the general type of the research
a. Indicate whether the study is quantitative or qualitative
b. b. Define the research type. Include proper citations
c. c. Justify why this research type is best in addressing your research problem
2. The second paragraph describes the specific research design
a. Indicate the specific research design you are using
i. Quantitative: Experimental, non-experimental (further specify)
ii. Qualitative: Phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, case study, historical,
narrative analysis, discourse analysis, qualitative descriptive, qualitative exploratory,
etc. Indicate the specific design.
b. Define the specific research design. Include proper citation.
c. Justify why this research type is best in addressing your research problem
Types of Quantitative Research Design
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
- It is a quantitative research design that bases its research method on a scientific activity called
experiment, in which a test or examination of a thing under a manipulated or controlled
environment is done to determine the validity or truthfulness of such thing.
This design involves two groups of subjects:
1. The experimental group on which the condition, treatment, or intervention is applied
2. The control group that is not given any treatment or condition
TWO TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
1. True Experimental Design
- A statistical approach to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between different variables
- It is a bias-free selection that ensures objectivity of results
2. Quasi-experimental Design
- Studies that aim to evaluate interventions but that do not use randomization
- A research with the capacity to yield findings that are seemingly or more or less true
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Pre-test vs Post-test
Pretest is an assessment measure given to participants before they have undergone some type of
treatment as part of a research study. A posttest is an assessment measure given to participants after
they have received treatment as part of a research.
NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
- It is a quantitative research design that is capable of giving qualitative and quantitative data, but
more on qualitative data; hence, this is often used in the field of social sciences
- The groups already exist and the experimenter cannot or does not attempt to manipulate an
independent variable
- It is a way of finding out truths about a subject by describing the collected data such subject and
determining their relationships or connections with one another
TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL
1. Descriptive – depicts an image or a picture of an individual or a group
2. Comparative – states the differences or similarities between or among people, things, objects,
etc.
3. Correlative – shows the extent and direction of variable relationships, that is, whether a
negative or positive relationship exists between or among them
4. Survey – describes the attitudes, preferences, views, feelings, and other behavioral patterns of
a big number of people for arriving at a certain conclusion about social concerns and issues
5. Ex Post Facto – translates itself into these English words, “that which is done afterwards”
- how actions that have already occurred can predict certain causes
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. Ethnography
- The direct description of a group, culture, or community
- It is often used in the social and behavioral sciences
- Data are collected through observations and interviews, which are then used to draw
conclusions about how societies and individuals function
When to use an Ethnographic Approach:
● When you want to understand a culture-sharing group
● When studying a group in a natural setting helps you understand a larger issue
● When you want a day-to-day picture
What distinguishes ethnography from a narrative study, phenomenology, and grounded theory is its
focus on the shared/collective meanings, beliefs, and attitudes that are constructed between a group
of people in a particular space (Creswell, 2013, p. 90).
What is a culture-sharing group?
Individuals who have shared patterns of behaviors, beliefs, and language and who interact on a regular
basis and over a period of time
Data Sources
People - their behaviors, communications, beliefs, styles (consider norms and values that prompt
actions)
Places - settings, their locations, and designs
Things - objects or artifacts that have meaning or significance, either by their acceptance or rejection
The research methods are as follows:
● Immerse themselves in the culture or subculture they study and try to see the world from a
cultural member’s point of view. Data are collected during fieldwork through participant
observation and interviews with the key informants as well as through documents
● They compare these with their own ethnic view and explore the differences between the two
● Field notes are written throughout the fieldwork about events and behavior in the setting
● Ethnographers describe, analyze and interpret the culture and the local, ethnic perspective of
its members while making their own ethnic interpretations
● The main evaluative criterion is the way in which the study presents the culture as experienced
by its members
Data Collection
There are two main methods of collecting data for ethnography:
1. Participant observation is crucial to effective fieldwork and requires an immersion in the
culture
2. Understanding what is seen in observation is enhanced by interviewing, an equally important
tool in ethnographic research
A third strategy is document review, which helps validate and inform
Types of Observation
Privileged observer - researcher just observes
Participant observer - researcher functions as frequent and familiar visitor to the group
Immersion research - researcher becomes embedded into the cultural group being studied
Data Analysis and Reporting
● Analyze the data that you collected from the various sources and come to a deeper
understanding of the “culture-sharing group”
● Develop themes disclosed in the data (emic)
● Interpret their significance and meaning (etic)
● Report your study by creating a “cultural portrait” of the group, how it operates
2. Grounded Theory (GT)
- Is an approach that generates and modifies a theory
- It is an approach to collecting and analyzing data
- Data usually are collected through non-standardized interviews and participant observation but
also by access to other data sources
- The theory that is generated has exploratory power and is grounded in the data
When to use Grounded Theory?
1. When there is no existing theory that explains a phenomenon
2. If there is an existing theory, but the data is incomplete
The research methods are as follows:
1. Data collection and analysis are cyclical
2. You start with raw data such as transcripts and turn them into a theory, grounded in the data
The data collection process is called theoretical sampling.
Analysis:
Open Coding —> Collect more data —> Compare Data —> Axial Coding —> Selective Coding —> Theory

Theoretical Sampling —> Collection Data

THEMATIC ANALYSIS VS NARRATIVE ANALYSIS
Thematic Analysis - Breaks up transcripts into quotes and compare them to develop core themes
Narrative Analysis - Breaks up transcripts into narrative blocks and compare them to develop core
narratives
NARRATIVE INQUIRY
- It includes stories that reflect on people’s experience and the meaning that this experience has
for them
- It is a useful way of gaining access to feelings, thoughts and experience in order to analyze
them
- In narrative inquiry, the final story is constructed by participant, researcher, and reader
Types of Narratives
Topical Story - one specific time
Personal Narrative - a series of long interviews about someone’s life (individual)
Entire Life Story - collection of interviews, observations, and documentations about someone’s life
Dual Layer of Interpretation
● The research participants (storytellers) interpret their own lives through narrative
● The researcher interprets the construction of that narrative
Researchers should not take what the interviewee says at a face value.
The point of narrative analysis is not to figure out fact from fiction.
It’s about interpreting how the research participant forms their own self narrative.
Inductive Method of Narrative Analysis
1. Break up transcripts by narrative
2. Compare and contrast narratives
3. Develop core narratives
The inductive approach takes a bottom-up view, allowing the data to speak for itself, without the
influence of any preconceived notions.
Deductive Method of Narrative Analysis
With the deductive approach to narrative analysis, you begin by using existing theories that a
narrative can be tested against. Here, the analysis adopts particular theoretical assumptions and/or
provides hypotheses, and then looks for evidence in a story that will either verify or disprove them.
Beginning, Middle, and End Method
Beginning: Sean is a Red Sox fan who wants to see game 6 of the World Series
Middle: He and his friends all get tickets, but Sean skips the game when he meets a beautiful girl
End: Sean marries the girl, and has no regrets about missing the game
Story Circle
1. You - character is in a zone of comfort
2. Need - they want something
3. Go - they go looking for it
4. Search - they search for it
5. Find - they find it
6. Take/Pay - they pay a heavy price for it
7. Return - return to their familiar situation
8. Change - having changed
Doing Narrative Analysis
1. Abstract: The core thesis of the story
2. Orientation: Time, place, and characters
3. Complicating action: Sequence of events, plot
4. Resolution: Outcome of the story
5. Coda: Story’s ending
6. Evaluation: How the storyteller comments on meaning
Methods of Narrative Inquiry:
● Interview
● Qualitative survey
● Recordings of oral history
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
- A 20th century school of philosophy rooted in philosophy and psychology which focuses on
subjective experience of the individual and seeks to understand the essence or structure of a
phenomenon from the perspective of those who have experienced it
- Writers developed different conceptual formulations, (very broadly) descriptive (Husserl),
interpretive (Heidegger) and ontological-existential (Sartre) which have been adapted as
methods of inquiry by researchers
- The approach should not be mechanical but insightful and illuminate the phenomenon under
study and capture its essence
Doing Thematic Analysis
1. Familiarize yourself with the data by reading it several times. As you read, write down
everything that comes into your mind.
2. Do open coding by identifying meaningful chunks in your data.
3. Merge the open codes into several categories.
4. Merge the categories into themes
[ blank space, be sure to drink water and take care of yourself if you see this! c: ] <3
Methods:
1. Familiarization with the data
2. Identification of relevant statements
3. Formulation of meanings while bracketing perceptions
4. Clustering identified meanings to themes
5. Developing inclusive description of phenomena based on themes
6. Developing fundamental structure of phenomena by condensing descriptions
7. Verification of structures by returning to participants
Case Study
- A bounded system, a single entity, a unit around which there are boundaries
- An empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context,
especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident
25. POPULATION AND SAMPLING
For studies involving human participants, the population and sampling section discusses the complete
details of who are qualified to participate in the study and how they are selected in the study.
The first subsection (population) should answer the following:
● Who are the target participants?
● What are the inclusion, exclusion and withdrawal criteria?
i. Include the basics such as age and sex, and then details specific to your study
ii. Justify the important criteria selected/deselected with cite literature
● What is your sampling frame (if available)?
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- Utilizes some form of random selection
- All the eligible individuals have a chance of selecting the sample from the whole space
- The benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees the sample that should be the
representative of the population
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Simple Random Sampling
- Every item in the population has an equal and likely chance of being selected in the sample
Systematic Sampling
- The items are selected from the target population by selecting the random selection point and
selecting the other methods after a fixed sample interval
- It is calculated by dividing the total population size by the desired population size
Stratified Sampling
- The total population is divided into smaller groups to complete the sampling process. The small
group is formed based on a few characteristics in the population. After separating the
population into a small group, the statisticians randomly select the sample
Clustered Sampling
- The cluster or group of people are formed from the population set. The group has similar
significant characteristics. Also, they have an equal chance of being a part of the sample. This
method uses simple random sampling for the cluster of population
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- A technique in which the researcher selects the sample based on subjective judgment rather
than the random selection
- Not all members of the population have a chance to participate in the study
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Convenience Sampling
- The samples are selected from the population directly because they are conveniently available
for the researcher
Consecutive Sampling
- Similar to convenience with a slight variation. The researcher picks a single person or a group
of people for sampling. Then the researcher researches for a period of time to analyze the
result and move to another group if needed
Quota Sampling
- The researcher forms a sample that involves the individuals to represent the population based
on specific traits or qualities. The researcher chooses the sample subsets that bring the useful
collection of data that generalizes the entire population
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
- The samples are selected only based on the researcher’s knowledge
Snowball Sampling
- Also known as a chain-referral sampling technique
- The samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a population is
asked to find the other sampling units. Those sampling units also belong to the same targeted
population
26. RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
- It discusses the tools used by the study in order to orderly and accurately collect and store
data.
- Introduce this part by discussing the number of instruments used in the study