The Development of Organizational and Leadership Paradigms

Oliver: The Development of Organizational and Leadership Paradigms in the
The Development of
Organizational and Leadership
Paradigms in the Seventh-day
Adventist Church
in the years 1901-1903. In
many ways these were very dif-
By Barry D. Oliver ficult years for the denomina-
tion. Although the membership
had grown considerably since
The history of the Seventh- the initial organization in 1863,
day Adventist Church has seen there were still only 75,000
two major periods of organiza- members. Yet these members
tional reform. The first occurred were becoming increasingly scat-
in the years 1860-1863, begin- tered and it was realized that
ning just sixteen years after other organizational structures
the bitter disappointment of were needed which could more
1844. At that time the fledgling adequately deal with the admin-
denomination had only 3,500 istrative needs of the church. In
members scattered in 125 local fact, a major reorganization was
churches and six local confer- needed to the extent that had
ences in the eastern part of the the church not reorganized its
United States. Representatives administrative structures at that
from those conferences gathered time, its future could have been
in Battle Creek, Michigan, and somewhat dubious.
despite considerable opposition There have been many other
chose a denominational name in structural and administrative
1860 and adopted an organiza- adjustments which have modi-
tional form in 1863. fied the manner in which the
The second major period of church is organized and ad-
organizational reform occurred ministered. Subsequent to the
reorganization of 1901-1903, for
Barry Oliver is example, the General Conference
the General Secre- was divided into a number of di-
tary of the South
visions which were given specific
Pacific Division of
the Seventh-day
responsibility for administering
Adventist Church. large areas of the globe, e.g., the
He holds a Ph.D. in South Pacific Division, the North
Mission and Minis- American Division, etc.
try from Andrews It is the purpose of this ar-
University. ticle to investigate the context
Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews University, 2007 1
Journal of Adventist Mission Studies
Journal of Adventist Mission Studies, Vol. 3 [2007], No. 1, Art. 2
which shaped the major periods means, in themselves, of solv-
of organizational reform in the ing the problems of the church
history of the Seventh-day Ad- and refocusing it on its mission-
ventist Church and to propose ary task. The main problems of
that continuing change needs to any organization, including the
be made to those administrative church, are not structural but
structures in order to facilitate attitudinal. Attitude and value
the realization of the mission of genesis must be given prior-
the church. The article will not ity. Commitment, integrity, and
precisely define those changes. faith, and many other intangible
That task belongs to the church realities are the most essential
at large. Some broad suggestions components of success. Struc-
will be made, however. tures merely play a role in the
Four cautions must be sound- directing and shaping of the
ed at the outset. First, if there are people and the organization. The
some readers of this article who structural role is supplementary,
are inclined to use its contents but subordinate to the other
as leverage to attack the church more essential ingredients of
or its administrators, the author organizational function.
This article is written as a construc-

tive contribution to the ongoing struggle
of the people of this church to facilitate
the accomplishment of its mission.
must state in the strongest pos- Third, despite the calls for
sible terms that such people have change that are made in this
no right to quote its contents paper, it must be emphasized
because they are misquoting the that change is best introduced
intent of the paper. This article in a conservative manner. There
is written as a constructive con- are some who would wish the
tribution to the ongoing struggle church to make such radical
of the people of this church to changes that they would destroy
facilitate the accomplishment of the church. This article does
its mission. Its perspective and not support that approach. But
presuppositions are thoroughly there are others who believe no
Seventh-day Adventist. changes are called for. Neither
Second, it should not be as- does this article support that
sumed that adjustments to the attitude.
organizational structures of Fourth, study should con-
the church are going to be the tinue to be given to ongoing
https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/jams/vol3/iss1/2
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organizational and administra- rian governance they adapted
tive flexibility as the church con- the committee system and the
tinues to grow and to diversify. concept of representation. There
Organizational structures should is little evidence that the early
be maintained which promote Seventh-day Adventists inten-
the unity and integrity of the tionally set out to construct an
church as a global organization, organization which drew together
and facilitate its missionary these diverse elements. That
mandate. such occurred was more by ac-
cident than by design.
The Context of Church Organization did not come
Organization: 1860-1863 easily. Many voices were raised
The form of organization ad- in concerted opposition to the
opted in 1863 was simple. There whole idea of organization. But
were three administrative levels: those who saw the necessity for
local churches, state conferences an efficient system of organiza-
comprising the local churches in tion won the day with the persua-
a designated area, and a General siveness of their arguments and
Conference with headquarters in the strength of their personali-
Battle Creek, Michigan. The of- ties. It was recognized then, as
ficers of the General Conference now, that the church needed a
were a president, secretary, and sound administrative system.
treasurer; and an executive com- Significantly, the arguments
mittee of three. It was decided which were used to persuade the
that General Conference ses- believers to organize themselves
sions were to be held annually. into a denomination did not de-
The form of organization pend on biblical or theological
was unique. It incorporated but reasoning. It is clear that the
adapted elements from Episco- founding fathers of the church
pal, congregational, and Pres- did not decide on a church or-
byterian forms of governance. ganizational form which was
For example, its presidents were strongly grounded in biblical or
given administrative powers akin theological models and images of
to those of Methodist bishops; the church. While some general
the presidents were elected by notions of stewardship of per-
the constituency as were bishops sonnel and financial resources
in the Methodist episcopacy; and did influence the discussion, no
the Methodist conference system evidence of a systematic theologi-
was adapted to suit the needs of cal rationale for organization can
the emerging Seventh-day Ad- be found in the extant records of
ventist denomination. the proceedings at Battle Creek
From congregational gover- (See Oliver 1989:46-48).
nance Adventists adapted the What did dictate the need
broad-based authority of the for organization and the shape
constituency. From Presbyte- of church structures were a
number of pragmatic necessities publication of truth through the
which, if left unattended, would press, and (6) for many other
have apparently stunted the objectives (White 1892).
growth and development of the Despite considerable opposi-
fledgling organization. In 1907, tion to any notion of organiza-
A. G. Daniells, the General Con- tion which emerged from both
ference President, reflecting on ministers and laypersons dur-
the events of the 1860s, listed ing the latter 1850s and early
some of the problems of disorga- 1860s, Ellen White had stood
nization. These insurmountable consistently with those who
problems were persuasive argu- advocated church order. Her
ments for organization at Battle influence was not as decisive as
Creek in 1863. His list included: some have led us to believe, how-
(1) failure to keep proper church ever. It seems that her role was
membership records, (2) paucity more consultative and pastoral
of church officers, (3) no way of than directive and prescriptive.
determining who were the ac- “Order” and “organization” were
The arguments which were used to

persuade the believers to organize them-
selves into a denomination did not depend
on biblical or theological reasoning.
credited representatives of the themes which received her at-

people, (4) no regular support tention and approval; although
for the ministry, and (5) no legal at no time did she attempt to
provision for holding property delineate the structural form that
(Daniells 1907:5). such order was to take. “Apart
Even a list of reasons which from warnings against sending
Ellen White compiled in 1892 inexperienced men into the field
was oriented to the pragmatic, and condemnation of other ‘self
although she did leave room for sent’ teachers, at no time did El-
more latitude. Her reasons for len White express herself before
organizing the church in 1863 1863 on the precise form of orga-
were: (1) to provide for the sup- nization to be adopted” (Mustard
port of the ministry, (2) for car- 1987:129).
rying the work in new fields, (3) Throughout the controver-
for protecting both the churches sies surrounding the proposed
and the ministry from unworthy organization in the late 1850s
members, (4) for the holding and early 1860s, it was James
of church property, (5) for the White who appeared as the more
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vocal proponent of the need for the moment it organized itself
organization. Godfrey Anderson into a denomination. Ellen White
has stated: responded:
It was James White, with the support The agitation on the subject of
of Ellen’s testimonies and in conjunc- organization has revealed a great
tion with the other leading ministers lack of moral courage on the part
who had provided the moving force of ministers proclaiming present
in both the development of doctrinal truth. Some who were convinced
unity and church organization. . . . that organization was right failed
In part because organization had to stand up boldly and advocate
thus developed from the top down, it. . . . Was this all God required of
so to speak, Seventh-day Adventists them? No: he was displeased with
chose a system more Episcopal than their cowardly silence and lack of
congregational, one operated largely action. They feared blame and op-
by ministers rather than laypeople position. They watched the brethren
(Anderson 1986:64). generally to see how their pulse beat
before standing manfully for what
James White, as editor of the they believed to be right. . . . They
Review and Herald and the un- were afraid of losing their influence.
official leader of the sabbatarian . . . Those who shun responsibility
Adventists, was continually writ- will meet with loss in the end. The
By the turn of the century, the

church was in danger of drowning in its
own bureaucracy.
ing and speaking in support of time for ministers to stand together

organization. He was appointed is when the battle goes hard (White
as one of the nine people who 1861:101, 102).
were assigned the task of draw-
ing up the proposal for church The Context of Church
organization in 1861. His wife, Reorganization: 1901-1903
Ellen, on the other hand, was In 1901 the church began
not included in the group. The a radical reorganization of its
church understood her role to be administrative structures. While
more advisory than definitive. the modifications which emerged
In August 1861 Ellen White from the process were shaped
counseled the ministers not by the organization that had
to be feeble and weak in their been put in place in 1861-63,
leadership. They were allowing significant changes were made.
themselves to be diverted by The contextual factors which
some who were claiming that the shaped those modifications may
church would become Babylon be summarized as follows:
Numerical Growth and Board in the same year; and the
the Beginnings of Diversity Seventh-day Adventist Medical
By the turn of the century the Missionary and Benevolent As-
church had 75,000 members sociation in 1893.
spread not only across the United
States, but in Europe, Australia, Loss of Coordination
and New Zealand, and increas- and Integration
ingly in the “mission fields.” As These organizations were le-
the church continued to grow gally incorporated, independent
and diversify it was evident that bodies that had their own officers
the meager organization that and executive boards or commit-
was set in place in 1863 could tees. Although they were all part
not cope with this numerical and of the Seventh-day Adventist
geographical growth. Church—officers being appoint-
ed by and reporting to the Gen-
Institutional Growth eral Conference session—they
Further, the organizational were not administered directly by
structures of 1863 did not antici- the General Conference. Because
pate the increase in departments of their independent status, co-
and institutions which began to ordination and integration were
spring up in order to care for the perennial problems during the
publishing, educational, health, 1890s. Not until the 1901 Gen-
and missionary interests of the eral Conference session and its
church. Each of these became a reorganization of the adminis-
separate entity in itself, outside trative structures of the church
the existing organizational struc- were the auxiliary organizations
ture of the church, but calling incorporated into the conference
on the services of already over- structure as departments of the
extended administrators. By the General Conference.
turn of the century, the church
was in danger of drowning in its The Role of Ellen G. White
own bureaucracy. Fortunately, the church had
The major auxiliary organiza- some far-sighted leaders who
tions that were in existence by realized the danger of disintegra-
1901 were the General Tract and tion and the need for change.
Missionary Society, established They were able to convince the
in 1874; the General Sabbath young organization that it could
School Association, established not maintain the status quo. At
in 1878; the Health and Temper- the forefront of these was none
ance Association, established in other than Ellen G. White her-
1879; the General Conference self. While, as in the 1860s, she
Association, established in 1887; did not attempt to prescribe the
the National Religious Liberty exact form that organizational re-
Association established in 1889; form was to take—she left that to
an autonomous Foreign Mission the delegates at the General Con-
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ference sessions—she called for pleted his term of office at the
urgent and innovative change. General Conference session in
The day before the commence- 1888 (White 1885; White 1888a).
ment of the session in 1901, she When, during the 1890s the same
called the leaders together and tendencies toward centralization
in no uncertain terms told them re-emerged, she warned that the
that “God wants a change . . . General Conference was not fol-
right here . . . right now” (Oliver lowing a path that was pleasing
1989:167; see also 55-57, 162- to God. But she was far away in
70, 201-16). She was ably sup- Australia, and the situation only
ported, particularly by Arthur deteriorated during that decade.
G. Daniells who was to become The centralization of authority
General Conference President at was most evident in the tendency
that session, and by her son, W. of the General Conference to de-
C. White. prive the constituent bodies of
the organization of their decision
Centralization of making authority. In the early
Administrative Control 1880s, Ellen White had begun to
One of the reasons why El- castigate General Conference ad-
len White became so adamant ministrators for taking too much
that change must take place of the responsibility for decision
had been her observation that making on themselves and fail-
the emerging global missionary ing to give others opportunity to
consciousness of the church exercise their prerogatives. In a
was accompanied by increased letter to W. C. and Mary White
centralization of administrative in 1883, Ellen White pointed out
control by the General Confer- that “every one of our leading
ence. In 1888, George Butler men” considered that “he was
said the following concerning the the very one who must bear all
General Conference: the responsibilities” and “failed
to educate others to think” and
Supervision embraces all its inter-
ests in every part of the world. There
“to act;” they gave the others “no
is not an institution among us, not a chance” (White 1883b).
periodical issued, not a Conference Implicit in her condemnation
or society, not a mission field con- of those who followed that prac-
nected with our work, that it has not tice was reproof for those who
a right to advise and counsel and in- permitted them to do it without
vestigate. It is the highest authority seeking to correct the situation.
of an earthly character among Sev- Conference leaders, for instance,
enth-day Adventists (Seventh-day
were told that they were to make
Adventist yearbook 1888:50).
their own decisions. The president
Ellen White opposed Butler of the General Conference could
and continued to oppose the not possibly “understand the
centralizing tendencies of his situation as well as you who are
administration until he com- on the ground” (White 1883a).
10 Journal of Adventist Mission Studies
As a corrective to the tendency leavened. . . . He thinks his position
to leave the prerogative for deci- gives him such power that his voice
sion making in the hands of one is infallible (White 1888b).
or two, Ellen White advocated Butler had been elected to
proper use of the committee sys- the presidency of the General
tem that had been established Conference in 1871. In response
when the General Conference to some tensions that existed
had been organized in 1863. between James White and other
She made it clear that even in church leaders, he wrote an
the operation of institutions, one essay in 1873 in which he en-
man’s mind was not to control capsulated his attitude toward
the decision making process. She leadership.
emphasized that “God would not In his essay, Butler described
have many minds the shadow of a leader as a benevolent mon-
one man’s mind,” but that “in a arch. He supported his assertion
multitude of counselors there is by references to numerous bib-
safety” (White 1886). lical examples of authoritarian
The emerging global missionary con-

sciousness of the church was accom-
panied by increased centralization of
administrative control by the General
Conference.
Authoritarian leaders. “Some men,” he insisted

Leadership Styles were “placed higher in authority
Butler’s concept of adminis- in the church than others.” He
tration grew out of his concept went so far as to claim that there
of leadership. After the General seemed “to have been a special
Conference of 1888, Ellen White precedence . . . even among the
wrote of Butler: disciples themselves” (Butler
A sick man’s mind has had a control- 1873:180).
ling power over the General Confer- James and Ellen White did
ence committee and the ministers not agree with Butler. They
have been the shadow and echo maintained that authority and
of Elder Butler about as long as it autocracy did not reside in one
is healthy and for the good of the individual.
cause. Envy, evil surmising, jealou-
Gerard Damsteegt has point-
sies have been working like leaven
until the whole lump seemed to be ed out that Butler’s essay was
an attempt to develop the idea
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that “the highest authority of reproving Butler for persistently
the church should be invested maintaining his own private
in one individual” (Damsteegt judgment of duty against “the
1977:258). That one individual, voice of the highest authority
according to Butler, was James the Lord has upon the earth”
White, the General Conference (James White 1872:43). What
President at the time. Contrary Ellen White affirmed concerning
to that position, James White the authority of the General Con-
himself maintained that “the ference should be understood in
highest authority” was not to the context of the authoritarian
reside in any individual but was attitude that Butler and some
to be found in the context of the others held. Both James and
corporate people of God. While Ellen White were describing the
conceding that it was possible for authority of the General Confer-
the General Conference to “err in ence over against a centralized
some things,” James White in- authority in one man or a few
sisted that “the only sane course men. Many years later, Ellen
for our ministers and our people White explained that the author-
is to respect the decisions of our ity of the General Conference
General Conference.” He con- was derived when “the judgment
tinued: “It shall be my pleasure, of the brethren assembled from
while I claim the sympathy and all parts of the field is exercised”
cooperation of Seventh-day Ad- (Ellen White 1949:260).
ventists, to respect our organiza-
tion, and accept the decisions of Financial Crisis
the General Conference” (James There is little doubt that one
White 1875:192). of the precipitating factors which
James White’s position was led to restructuring was the state
supported by his wife. She wrote of the finances of the church.
to Butler (who had just completed When G. A. Irwin assumed the
his first term as president of the presidency of the General Con-
General Conference in August ference in 1897, he had to face
1874, and was to be re-elected a woeful financial predicament.
in 1880) that: Within a few weeks of his ap-
pointment, the situation was so
No man’s judgment should be sur-
rendered to the judgment of any
desperate that he wrote to N. W.
one man. But when the judgment Allee that the General Confer-
of the General Conference, which ence was “living from hand to
is the highest authority that God mouth, so to speak.” He told
has upon the earth, is exercised, Allee that “some days we get in
private independence and private two or three hundred dollars,
judgment must not be maintained and other days we have noth-
but be surrendered (James White ing.” On the particular day that
1872:42, 43).
he was writing, he lamented that
Ellen White continued by the treasury was “practically
empty,” even though there were not received any wages for a full
at that time “a number of calls year (General Conference Com-
for means” (Irwin 1897a). mittee Minutes 27 July 1897).
In a circular letter to all con- Despite concerted effort by
ference presidents written the General Conference leaders,
next day, Irwin quoted a state- the situation did not improve
ment regarding the desperate substantially. While there were
situation of the General Con- some periods when the predica-
ference from I. H. Evans, who ment was not as desperate as it
was at the time president of the was at other times, at all times
General Conference Association the situation was out of control.
and was later to be the treasurer The financial statement for 1899
of the General Conference. The showed that at the beginning of
statement read: that year the General Conference
had only $55.33 cash on hand.
Our finances are in a very embar-
rassing state. . . . On our audit of last
The same report showed that
year we have overdrawn on the Re- by 1 October of the same year
view and Herald $12,500. We have on there was an operating deficit of
our list of audits unpaid over $5,000, $9,529.74 (General Conference
The General Conference was “living

from hand to mouth, so to speak.”
so that we owe on last year’s work Committee Minutes 10 October

nearly $18,000 (Irwin 1897b). 1899). At the beginning of 1901
the General Conference was
Evans added further: $41,589.11 in deficit. In August
We have paid as little to our workers the deficit was still $39,600. It
this year—since January—as pos- comprised a debt to the Gen-
sible. Many have not enough to live eral Conference Association
on and are in most embarrassing ($14.000), an unspecified loan
circumstances. . . . We must have ($3,000), debts to depositors
at least $44,000.00 per annum more ($6,600), wages due to laborers
than we have been receiving, as we
for 1900 ($6,000), and wages due
have nearly $15,000.00 interest on
notes we owe the brethren (Irwin 6
to laborers from 1 January to 30
May 1897). June 1901 ($10,000) (Daniells
1901).
In July it was recorded in the Because of the chronic short-
minutes of the General Confer- age of operating capital, nothing
ence executive committee that a was being done to repay debts
minister by the name of Goodrich that had been incurred in order
working in Quebec had actually to establish various institutions.
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Percy Magan, who realized that reported the following:
part of the problem lay in the
During the last two years we have
ease with which institutions bor- opened up no new work in any part
rowed money and the ease with of the world. It has been an impos-
which church members lent it sibility. There have been demands
to them, charged that “all our for opening the work in China. That
institutions” had been in “the work ought to have been opened a
borrowing business.” He advo- year ago, yet we have been utterly
cated that it was time for them unable to do anything toward open-
“to quit” borrowing. But not only ing it (General Conference Bulletin
were institutions to cease bor- 1899:73).
rowing: church members were The financial and administra-
to cease dabbling in “the lending tive crises at home were having
business.” Had the members not an effect on the church’s abil-
been “in the lending business,” ity to commence work in new
then it was certain that the areas and were preventing the
institutions “would never have placement of new missionaries
been in the borrowing business” in the field. Between 1895 and
The missionary program was being

stifled because decisions which should
have been made by “those on the ground”
had to be referred to Battle Creek.
(Magan 1899:235, 236). Desper- 1900 the number of missionar-

ate times called for desperate ies being sent from the shores
measures. of North America decreased
markedly in comparison to the
Commitment to Mission increasing number during the
The inability of the denomi- first half of the decade. In 1895,
nation to financially support its one hundred missionaries were
growth was having an effect on sent from the United States to
its whole missionary enterprise. twenty-nine countries. In each
It has not been often realized succeeding year, the number
that in the last five years of the was reduced until, at the General
nineteenth century there was Conference session in 1901, the
the slackening of missionary president of the Foreign Mission
activity by the denomination. Board reported that “during the
At the 1899 General Conference present board’s administration”
session, Allen Moon, president [two years], only sixty-eight
of the Foreign Mission Board new workers had been sent to
foreign fields. He added that Change was needed not only
twenty-three had been returned to accommodate the growth of
for “various reasons” (General the past but to facilitate growth
Conference Bulletin 1901:96). in the future.
The failure to commence any
new work between 1897 and The Contemporary
1899 and the decrease in the Context and the Need for
number of missionaries being Organizational Adjustment
sent abroad between 1895 and Circumstances in the last
1900 does not appear to have decade of the nineteenth century
been the result of any marked led to a major reappraisal of the
decrease in the church’s escha- organizational structures of the
tological or missiological vision. Seventh-day Adventist Church.
A more likely explanation for Many Seventh-day Adventists
the problems is that the central- are convinced that there are
ized organization as it existed even more urgent contextual
was just not able to cope finan- factors in the first decade of the
cially and administratively with twenty-first century which call
its missionary enterprise. The for organizational reform. Calls
missionary program was being for reorganization appear to be
stifled because decisions which forthcoming particularly from
should have been made by “those the professional, well-educated
on the ground” had to be referred constituency of the church. In
to Battle Creek (Spicer 1893). addition, anecdotal evidence
Daniells realized that such a suggests that many church em-
situation confronted the church ployees are ill at ease with some
as he visited Africa and Europe aspects of the present system.
on his way to the 1901 General In this situation, it is of par-
Conference session. In August ticular importance that wise
1900, while in Europe, he wrote church administrators separate
to W. C. White: fact from perception. Many per-
ceptions about church organi-
My heart is filled with interest that
I can not express in behalf of these
zation and administration arise
foreign fields, and I sincerely hope where there is incomplete or
that the next session of the General inaccurate information. In these
Conference will rise to the high and circumstances communication
important position it should take in channels need to be opened up
behalf of these countries. . . . I see and information shared. A pas-
much to encourage us, and some toral approach to the problem is
things that need careful management called for.
in the way of reorganization. . . . In
However, it is the contention
all these places I have secured all
the details I can regarding the work,
of this article that not all of the
the same as I did in Africa, and shall problems are problems of percep-
arrange these data for future use if tion. There is a substantive basis
needed (Daniells 1900). for organizational re-assessment.
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There are a number of significant and linguistic diversity is pres-
contextual factors which call the ent in the Seventh-day Adventist
church to reconsider the effec- Church as in few other orga-
tiveness of the current system of nizations. At the present time,
organization. Those that are con- approximately 93 percent of
sidered in this article are listed the members of the church are
under two headings: contextual indigenous to countries other
factors within the church and than North America. That figure
contextual factors outside the should be compared to approxi-
church. mately 17 percent at the end of
1900. In addition, 87 percent of
Contextual Factors within church members are indigenous
the Church Which Call for to socio-cultural communities
Organizational Reassessment very different from the Euro-
American socio-cultural com-
The Size of the Church munity. That is to be compared
With regard to the size of the to only 4 percent at the beginning
church, the question we have to of 1901. The proportion of Sev-
ask is if a basic structure which enth-day Adventists indigenous
It is highly unlikely that an organiza-

tional system which worked efficiently
for 15,000 members can be just as ef-
ficient for 13 million members.
served the needs of seventy-five to communities which are not

thousand members in 1901 is Euro-American was well over
adequate to serve the needs of 90 percent by the turn of the
approximately 11 million mem- century.
bers in 1998, or 13 million in Not only should the church
2000? It is highly unlikely that continuously evaluate the ad-
an organizational system which equacy of its structures to fulfill
worked efficiently for 15,000 its missionary mandate in the
members can be just as efficient context of this diversity, but that
for 13 million members. it must do so is even more obvi-
ous when it is realized that those
The Diversity in the Church who put the present structures
Diversity is an even more in place were primarily from one
challenging demographic than specific cultural group—Anglo-
the size of the church. Cultural, American. The church should
social, geographic, economic, ask itself whether the best in-
terests of an international Sev- cultural, racial group which has a
enth-day Adventist Church can hard time giving up the grip of control
be adequately served and its (Baumgartner 1987:68, 69).
mission facilitated, by structures Not only was the uni-cultural
which were conceived largely delegate composition a potential
by persons from one particular source of distortion when it came
socio-cultural community, re- to the applicability of a structure
gardless of which specific com- for a world-wide organization
munity that was. There were but such distortion was most
only three delegates at the 1901 likely emphasized even more by
General Conference session who strongly ethnocentric viewpoints
did not consider themselves on the part of the delegates, the
North Americans. Those three colonial context, and their belief
were from northern Europe—a in the manifest destiny of the
culturally similar environment to United States. Some experienced
North America. Further, all del- missionaries did recognize the
egates were church employees. problem. At the 1901 General
There was no lay representation Conference session, W. A. Spicer
whatsoever. said:
Erich Baumgartner has sug-
gested that there are two imme- The thought of Americanism, of na-
diate implications which arise tionalism, is something to reckon
from these facts. First, with with. I am an American. I am not
ashamed of it; but I am not proud of
reference to the employment of
it; and that makes all the difference
the delegates, Baumgartner has in the world in being able to help
said that “the 1901 reorganiza- people outside of America; for you
tion was heavily oriented towards take any man who is proud of the fact
the ordained minister and those that he is an American, and he has
responsible to lead the work.” erected a barrier between himself and
He contended, in contrast, that every soul who is not an American.
“our time has seen new moves to Anybody who has been in a foreign
recognize the ministry and mis- field has known this fact. . . . You
will find this spirit of nationalism in
sion of the laity;” his implication
all lands (General Conference Bulletin
being that structures should now 1901:154, 155).
reflect that change. Second, with
reference to the socio-cultural While Spicer is to be com-
background of the delegates, mended for recognizing the exis-
Baumgartner asked: tence of nationalism and attempt-
ing to do something to alleviate
I wonder what wider representa-
the problems it created, it should
tion would mean today in a church
that has become a predominantly be recognized that neither he
international church. Maybe it is nor anyone else in the denomi-
time again to listen to the prophetic nation addressed the reality of
voices who call for the end of kingly the impact of cultural difference
power encapsulated this time in a on administrative structures.
DOI:1/2007
Difference was not understood The issue is not whether unity
as a positive value which, if ad- is vital to the nature and mission
dressed carefully, could enhance of the Seventh-day Adventist
the suitability of structures in Church. Unity is indispensable
diverse situations. in the life of the church. The
A unique quality which should body of Christ is one. The wit-
set the church apart from the ness of the New Testament is
world is its ability to hold in unity unequivocal regarding the need
the very diversity that gives it for unity in the church. Rather,
life within itself. It should have the issue for the Seventh-day
the capacity to recognize the Adventist Church is whether or
value and the contribution of not unity is to be regarded as
each part. It was not Christ’s that organizing principle whose
intention that the church should importance eclipses that of all
have unity but no diversity. It other principles which may also
is the maintenance of diversity be determinative of the struc-
which makes the nature of the tures of organization.
Seventh-day Adventists should con-

tinually ask themselves whether the pri-
mary goal toward which they are moving
is the maintenance of unity, or whether
their priority is task accomplishment—
the evangelization of the world.
church’s unity in Christ unique Organizing principles can be

and indispensable. evaluated in terms of the goals
If diversity is neglected, the of the church. Seventh-day Ad-
church will be unable to perform ventists should continually ask
its task. It will neglect that very themselves whether the primary
element which enables it to evan- goal toward which they are mov-
gelize a multiplex world—its own ing is the maintenance of unity,
diversity. Diversity facilitates the or whether their priority is task
growth of the church and the real- accomplishment—the evange-
ization of its mission. The church lization of the world. If it is the
which subordinates the need to latter, then the structures of the
recognize diversity to a demand for church should be understood
unity is denying the very means and evaluated in terms which
by which it is best equipped to express the primacy of that goal.
accomplish the task. Subordinate goals have their
place, but the church needs to task, or remnants of ethnocentric
be focused, and its structures and nationalistic thinking should
should be oriented to that which not be permitted to prevent it
is primary. from seeking structures which
In the context of the theologi- institutionalize its commitment to
cal, financial, and organizational maintaining equilibrium between
turmoil that characterized the unity and diversity.
Seventh-day Adventist Church Although it is exceedingly dif-
in the 1980s, it appears that ficult to maintain commitment
emphasis on unity was used to to diversity in the face of the
define the structure, or, rather, to pressures which are brought to
perpetuate the structure that has bear on the administration of the
existed with modifications since church, the shape of the church
1903. Although commitment to and the needs of the world make
the evangelization of the world re- such commitment even more
mains, it appears that structures urgent in the twenty-first century
are not being related so much than they did a century ago. Di-
to the facilitation of that task as versity is today a fact. The church
to the preservation of worldwide can not repress it. It would do
unity. Unity is expressed as the better to celebrate it. Structures
prerequisite of mission. and administrative methods
But if unity becomes the prin- can be continuously monitored
ciple of first importance on the and modified where necessary
agenda of Seventh-day Adventist in such a way as to promote the
administrators and church mem- self-support, self-propagation,
bers, then they may fail to achieve and self-discipline of all the di-
their goal just as surely as if the verse parts of the church without
celebration of diversity were to compromising the unity of the
become the primary agenda item. church. While each part of the
Unity or diversity cannot be goals church may be fully the church,
in themselves. Rather they are no part should be conceived of or
principles of organization that conceive of itself, as totally the
together, in balance, facilitate church. Unity is dependent on
goal accomplishment. the recognition of diversity.
The Seventh-day Adventist
Church today should carefully The Priority of Mission
seek to maintain a balance be- over Structure
tween expression of the principles If the reorganization of the
of unity and diversity in its ad- administrative structure of the
ministrative structures. Tensions church was motivated by con-
which may arise because of theo- cern for the facilitation of mis-
logical controversy, debate over sion, and if the purpose of orga-
structural and administrative nization is still the same today,
issues, financial embarrassment then the church should take a
or concern, a narrow view of the long look at its priorities and give
DOI:1/2007
attention to the place that mis- in the Seventh-day Adventist
sion holds in the church and its Church (see Mustard 1978 and
implications for structure. Some Oliver 1989).
have been making a remarkable Even if the Seventh-day Ad-
effort to help the church become ventist Church was able to
aware of the centrality of its mis- produce some well-researched
sion to the world. They have been ecclesiological thought, and
far too few, however. Their voices some of its emphases in eccle-
have too often been drowned out siology attain to a more even
in the clamor of theological and balance between ontological and
organizational debate. functional categories, it is doubt-
Why maintain a structure ful that the church would ever
which is based on a commit- give up the primacy of mission
ment to mission when it seems as its fundamental reason for
more important to maintain that organization. Too much of Sev-
structure than to demonstrate enth-day Adventist history and
Seventh-day Adventists for too long

assumed that the greatest barriers to
mission were theological, but some now
recognize that the greatest barriers to
mission are cultural.
the commitment to mission by theology finds its raison d’etre in

thorough theoretical and prac- the primacy of the church’s mis-
tical restatement and innova- sion. The church has been called
tion? Do message, mission, and into existence for “missionary
structure still go hand in hand, purposes,” and it is organized
or has there been a discontinu- “for mission service” (Oosterwal
ity somewhere which should be 1971:13 and Seventh-day Adven-
reflected in the structure of the tists believe 1988:144).
church? Alternatively, has the Seventh-day Adventists for
perpetuation of structure taken too long assumed that the great-
priority over the message and est barriers to mission were
mission of the denomination? Is theological, but some now rec-
mission being delimited, and its ognize that the greatest barriers
methods determined by the need to mission are cultural (Winter
to perpetuate the structure? 1988:4, 5). Uniformity in the
Research has shown that there name of unity has been the
is no historical or theological methodological presupposition
rationale for such a situation for mission. While Seventh-day
Adventists have become one extent in most organizations,
of the most ethnically diverse but all organizations have to
Christian denominations in the continually reduce the energy
world, they remain, not only absorbed in maintenance and
in danger of failing to respond maximize the energy input into
adequately to the changes that communication, empowerment,
their missionary success has and growth.
brought, but they are even in Especially is the empower-
peril of refusing to acknowledge ment of the constituency vital in
that diversity necessitates struc- a church which has a universal
tural adaptation. To remain vi- system of governance. Because
able, change should not only be congregational systems usually
respected, it must be anticipated do much better in communica-
(Rosado 1987:11). tion and empowerment, there
are some who are calling for
The Nature of the Organization congregational governance in
as a Volunteer/Professional this church. To respond in that
Organization manner would be a terrible mis-
When an organization’s goal take. To fail to respond at all
accomplishment is largely de- and allow too many resources
pendent on volunteers, as is to be absorbed by the structure
the case with the church, the would be an equally disastrous
professionals in the organiza- mistake.
tion must invest a great deal of
energy in making sure that those The Strength of the Local
volunteers own the goals and Church
the processes which accomplish Present organizational struc-
those goals. At the present time tures are reducing the effective-
the volunteers appear to assume ness of the local church to a
that church goals and processes critical extent. The advantages of
are set by organizational ma- a universal organizational struc-
chinery which is far removed ture can be disadvantages to
from them. They feel powerless. the local church. At the present
They sense that they can make time, the organizational system
no impact on what happens in of the Seventh-day Adventist
the church. The church is not Church is taking too much from
“their” church. the local church. Local churches
At the same time, so much need a greater share of the finan-
energy and so many personnel cial, personnel, and expertise
are directed towards mainte- resources. Imagine, for exam-
nance functions that there are ple, what could happen if each
comparatively few resources church had an enthusiastic,
available which can be deployed trained pastor, or if tent-mak-
to empower the volunteers. This ing ministries were supported in
may be characteristic to some some way. What may be possible
DOI:1/2007
if organizational overheads were The Preponderance of
reduced appropriately? We have Institutional and Administrative
not given enough thought to the Employees over Pastoral and
possibilities. Some other organi- Evangelistic Employees
zations have done much more. There is no need to dwell on
Decision making prerogative this statistic. Perusal of any of
resides at the various levels of the statistical reports produced
church organization. Naturally, annually by the General Confer-
people who make decisions at ence will reveal that the church
those levels will tend to make is investing a huge share of its
decisions which meet the needs personnel resources in functions
of their immediate fields of vi- which are maintenance oriented
sion. The greater the number of rather than mission and growth
levels of organization, the greater oriented. Of course some of this
the tendency to deploy resources is necessary. But the church
in necessary functions at those cannot survive unless present
levels, and the less likely the ten- proportions are radically altered.
dency towards self-deprivation The church has been making
of resources. This is a perfectly some moves in the right direc-
natural rule of business (and hu- tion, but without constant moni-
man nature) that cannot change toring it will be easy to lose that
unless the macro structures initiative. The best way to make
within which these tendencies an impact is to reduce a level of
operate are changed. administration.
Until they are changed, the
local church will remain the Contextual Factors
most powerless unit in the struc- in Society Which Call
ture. Yet the local church is sup- for Organizational
posed to be where the “action” Reassessment
is. But in too many churches It is impossible in the con-
there is no “action.” Something text of this short article to do
is wrong with a structure, or its justice to the discussion of the
administration, when the needs external factors which call for
of the local church are of least reassessment of organizational
priority, even if those needs are structures. Passing reference
supposed to come first in theory. can only be made. Experts in
This is not to suggest that or- each field need to address the
ganizational dynamics alone specifics of application to an
dictate success or failure of the efficient system of organization
local church congregation. There which meets the theological and
are many factors, too numer- missiological perspectives of the
ous to describe in this article, Seventh-day Adventist Church.
which will be determinative to a
greater or lesser extent of that
situation.
Development of on bureaucratic, hierarchical
Organizational Emphasis structures and increase its flex-
from Bureaucratic to Person ibility, and ability to integrate
Centered to Systems Focus all its parts within a focused
As long ago as the 1930s a understanding of its mission.
development occurred which has Mission statements have become
had a telling impact on organi- standard in organizations of all
zations and their function. That shapes and sizes.
development was the movement
away from bureaucracy as the The Development of
dominant organizational form. Flatter Organizations
Since that time a number of The most obvious outcome
significant paradigm shifts have of this has been the appearance
taken place that have radically of more streamlined, “flatter”
altered the way in which suc- organizations. Multinational
cessful organizations of all types companies are endeavoring to
Something is wrong with a structure,

or its administration, when the needs
of the local church are of least prior-
ity, even if those needs are supposed
to come first in theory.
are structured. The first was the operate with three major levels
emphasis on people rather than of organization. More resources
task as the determinative fac- are being deployed in mission
tor in organizational structure than in maintenance. The people
and function. This was followed in the company are being looked
by the arrival of systems think- after and an attempt is made
ing which recognized the task, to ensure that personal goals
the people, and the context as and organizational goals are
each having a vital impact on congruent. Ownership of goal
the shape and function of the setting processes is sought and
organization. achieved.
Since the 1970s a number of This organizational focus
studies have been conducted and has changed our understanding
books written which have given from a mechanical model to an
varied answers to organizational organic model of organization,
dilemmas. All have one thing flexibility being the key operative
in common. The organization dynamic. Whereas previously
must decrease its dependence it was assumed that for things
DOI:1/2007
to remain the same, nothing put in place when it took four
must change, it is now assumed months to send a communica-
that for things to remain the tion from the United States to
same, something must happen. Australia. Decentralization was
Whereas previously it could be achieved by adding another level
assumed that efficiency could to the organizational hierarchy.
be best achieved by determin- The answer to the problem in
ing the best way of doing the job 1901-03 is not the answer to the
and repeating it, it must now be problem in 2007.
recognized that efficiency is best
achieved by continually engaging Societal Evolution
the process of self assessment, Jon Paulien has briefly sum-
mission modification, goal set- marized the impact that change
ting, implementation, and evalu- in the society around us should
ation. Process, rather than event make on the way we organize and
is the basic unit of organizational administer our church. Paulien
function. correctly observes:
In an age of such advanced communi-

cations and technology, do we still need
so many levels of administration?
In the Industrial Age, power resided

Communication and
in the ownership and utilization of
Technology Revolution energy sources, by which human
In an age of such advanced time and energy could be multiplied
communications and technology, in the mass production of goods. . . .
do we still need so many levels In the Information Age, on the other
of administration? One of the hand, power resides in the ownership
reasons why the church put so of information, and the ability to pro-
many levels of administration in cess and distribute that information.
place was to facilitate decision . . . The Industrial Age called for an
authoritarian style of administration.
making through adequate com-
The ideal workers in a mass-produc-
munication. The church fathers tion environment were those who
could not possibly have foreseen didn’t think for themselves, but were
what we have available today. We like interchangeable parts, offering
are in a situation today where a minimum of conflict and disagree-
those same levels of organization ment. . . . But the information society
which aided communication and thrives when control is decentralized.
decision-making in the past may The most valuable employee is no lon-
well be hampering it now. ger the “yes man” of the Industrial Age,
but is a person willing to question and
The present structures were
challenge. Employee initiative, creativ- prehensive organizational sys-
ity, diversity, knowledge, and educa- tem. A group of believers with a
tion are at a premium, and the ability universal message need a univer-
to work with people is often far more sal organization which promotes
valuable than skill at manipulating
unity in diverse contexts and
things. . . . We are seeing, therefore, a
trend from a representative democracy among diverse peoples. There
to participatory democracy (Paulien should be no desire to return to
1993:228, 229). anarchy (a direction that Jones
and Waggoner would have taken
New contexts call for new the church had it adopted their
structures. Even Jesus said that organizational principles at the
old wine cannot be put into new turn of the century.
wine skins. 5. The structures of the church
are not based on a system-
“We Have No Fear for atic biblical or theological base.
the Future Except . . .” They are a response to largely
There is much in this brief his- pragmatic needs based on some
torical study that should instruct broad theological themes—e.g.,
and challenge the church as it stewardship, mission.
considers the form of organiza- 6. Ellen White was a loyal
tion that is going to carry it into supporter of the organization,
the future. With little comment, but was never prescriptive of its
some conclusions which may well organizational form. She was
be significant for the church at willing to change. Hers was an
the present time can be derived advisory rather than a definitive
from the preceding discussion. role. She allowed the representa-
1. The church is justified in tives of the church to shape the
continuously looking at the ef- structures, both in 1863 and in
ficiency of its structures. Ellen 1901-1903.
White encouraged the leaders to 7. The need to consider re-
be discerning and reproved those organization grew more urgent
who were too timid to take up the as the church increased in size
challenging task of promoting numerically.
sound organization. 8. Reorganization grew out of
2. It is okay to borrow from oth- innovations that were necessary
ers and learn from their strengths in the context of diversity—the
and weaknesses. The church did mission field.
that at the beginning and can 9. Organization was necessary
continue to learn from others. to coordinate the effectiveness of
3. There will always be those the institutions. Independent
who are not aware of the need ministries must come under the
for change. There were such in umbrella of a coordinating and
the 1860s and at the time of re- unifying structure.
organization. 10. Strong, innovative lead-
4. The church needs a com- ership can make a radical dif-
DOI:1/2007
ference (for example, Ellen G. 18. Change is needed con-
White, Willy C. White, and A. G. tinuously. The church cannot
Daniells). afford to be stifled by those who
11. Tendencies towards ad- do not see the need for continu-
ministrative centralization must ous re-evaluation. At the same
be guarded against. Decentral- time, the church must not make
ization of decision making pre- changes without taking the ma-
rogative was the major thrust of jority of its constituency with it.
reorganization. The “people on Change is inevitable, but it must
the ground” must be given as be managed with wisdom.
much support by higher levels of 19. There are contemporary
organization as possible. models of flatter, efficient orga-
12. Autocratic leadership as nizations which can be investi-
a general leadership style is not gated and appropriately adapted
acceptable. by the church.
A healthy organization is able to

learn from its own history. . . . Our
structures must facilitate our mission.
. . . To stagnate is to die.
13. Authority in the church, 20. The revolutions in commu-

resides in the corporate will of nication and technology can be
the people of God, not in any one utilized by the church to facilitate
individual or group of people. organizational streamlining.
14. All are free to speak and A healthy organization is able
contribute their perspectives in to learn from its own history.
the context of loyalty to Christ While the church is unique in its
and His church. sacred dimension, it still partakes
15. The church must have in the common lot of humanity—it
strong financial policies which is a human organization and as
ensure the continued operation such is subject to many of the
of the church. same organizational dynamics
16. Financial crisis can be a that are characteristic of large
powerful catalyst for change. organizational systems. Our his-
17. Mission is at the very cen- tory can be of great benefit to us
ter of Seventh-day Adventist self- if we are prepared to approach it
identity and structure. Mission with a spirit of humility and the
must determine structure. Struc- attitude of a learner. There is little
ture cannot inhibit mission. point in diluting that history to the
point where we fail to learn from the structures which best serve
our weaknesses as well as our that mission must also be open to
strengths. Ellen White herself af- change. To stagnate is to die.
firmed that we have nothing to fear
for the future except we forget. Works Cited
Anderson, Godfrey T. 1986. Sectari-
Conclusion anism and Organization: 1846-
1864. In Adventism in America,
The Seventh-day Adventist
ed. Gary Land, 64-65. Grand
Church has been well administered Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
over the years. Its organizational Baumgartner, Erich W. 1987.
structures and institutions have Church Growth and Church
served the church adequately. It is Structure: 1901 Reorgani-
in the best interests of the church zation in the Light of the
that a strong global organizational Expanding Missionary Enter-
structure continue to facilitate the prise of the Seventh-day Ad-
ministry and mission of the church ventist Church. Term Paper,
Andrews University, Berrien
in the world as the church takes
Springs, MI.
seriously the commission of Christ Butler, George I. 1873. Leader-
which challenges the church to ship. Review and Herald, 18
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But having affirmed the Damsteegt, P. Gerard. 1977. Foun-
strengths of the church we need dations of Seventh-day Ad-
to recognize that viability in the ventist message and mission.
future demands that we continu- Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
ally assess our structures in order Daniells, A. G. 1900. Letter to W.
C. White, 23 August. Incom-
to ensure that they best serve the
ing Files, Ellen G. White
church. While this article has Estate Office, General Confer-
not set out to describe in detail ence of Seventh-day Adven-
specific changes that should be tists, Silver Spring, MD.
made, it has argued: (1) that ________. 1901. Letter to members
there should be a reduction in the of the General Conference
number of organizational levels, Committee, 2 August. Record
(2) that the local church needs to Group 11, Letter Book 24.
be given higher profile and prior- General Conference Archives,
Silver Spring, MD.
ity, (3) that authoritarian and
________. 1907. Organization: A
bureaucratic models of leadership Brief Account of Its History in
should not predominate, and (4) the Development of the Cause
that appropriate flexibility and di- of the Third Angel’s Message.
versity needs to be built into orga- Review and Herald, 14 Febru-
nizational systems and policies in ary, 5.
order to promote genuine respect General Conference Bulletin. 1899.
and unity for each other. General Conference Bulletin. 1901.
Our structures must facilitate General Conference Committee
Minutes. 27 July 1897. Record
our mission. Because the context
Group 1. General Conference
of that mission is always changing, Archives, Silver Spring, MD.
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General Conference Committee Min- White, Ellen G. 1861. Communica-
utes. 10 October 1899. Record tion from Mrs. White. Review
Group 1. General Conference and Herald, 27 August, 101-
Archives, Silver Spring, MD. 102.
Irwin, G. A. 1897a. Letter to N. W. ________. 1883a. Genuine Faith
Allee, 5 May, Record Group and Holiness. MS 3. Ellen G.
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Conference Archives, Silver dale College.
Spring, MD. ________. 1883b. Letter to W. C.
________. 1897b. Letter to W. M. White and Mary White, 23 Au-
Healey, 6 May, Record Group gust, Letter 23. Ellen G. White
11, Letter Book 18. General Research Centre, Avondale
Conference Archives, Silver College.
Spring, MD. ________. 1885. Letter to G. I.
Magan, Percy T. 1899. Denomi- Butler, 1 November, Letter 5.
national Debts. Review and Ellen G. White Estate, Gener-
Herald, 11 April, 235-36. al Conference of Seventh-day
Mustard, Andrew B. 1987. James Adventists, Silver Spring, MD.
White and organization. Ber- ________. 1886. Letter to John
rien Springs, MI: Andrews Harvey Kellogg, 26 April, Let-
University Press. ter 7. Ellen G. White Research
Oliver, Barry D. 1989. SDA or- Centre, Avondale College.
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Springs, MI: Andrews Univer- Ellen G. White Estate Office,
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Summer,13. ________. 1888b. Letter to Mary
Paulien, Jon. 1993. Present truth White, 4 November, Letter 82.
in the real world. Boise, ID: Ellen G. White Research Cen-
Pacific Press. tre, Avondale College.
Rosado, Caleb. 1987. The Decep- ________. 1892. Letter to the Breth-
tive Theology of Institutional- ren at the General Confer-
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Seventh-day Adventists believe: 127. Ellen G. White Research
A biblical exposition of 27 Centre, Avondale College.
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Washington, DC: Ministerial church, vol. 9. Mountain View
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1888. 1889. Battle Creek, MI: Creek, MI: Steam Press of the
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Spicer, W. A. 1893. Letter to A. G. lishing Association, 192.
Daniells, 5 October. Record Winter, Ralph D. 1988. Unreached
Group 9, A. G. Daniells Folder Peoples Update: Where Are
2. General Conference Ar- We Now. World Evangelization
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The Development of Organizational and Leadership Paradigms

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The Development of Organizational and Leadership Paradigms

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Oliver: The Development of Organizational and Leadership Paradigms in the

This article is written as a construc-

The arguments which were used to

credited representatives of the themes which received her at-

By the turn of the century, the

ing and speaking in support of time for ministers to stand together

The emerging global missionary con-

Authoritarian leaders. “Some men,” he insisted

The General Conference was “living

so that we owe on last year’s work Committee Minutes 10 October

The missionary program was being

(Magan 1899:235, 236). Desper- 1900 the number of missionar-

It is highly unlikely that an organiza-

served the needs of seventy-five to communities which are not

Seventh-day Adventists should con-

church’s unity in Christ unique Organizing principles can be

Seventh-day Adventists for too long

the commitment to mission by theology finds its raison d’etre in

Something is wrong with a structure,

In an age of such advanced communi-

In the Industrial Age, power resided

A healthy organization is able to

13. Authority in the church, 20. The revolutions in commu-

Published by Digital Commons @ Andrews University, 2007 25

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