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Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems

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DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_6

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Chapter 6
Biodiversity of Plants and Animals
in Mountain Ecosystems

Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

Synopsis Biodiversity in NW China is discussed. Four specific issues are dealt

with in this chapter: (i) plant responses to grazing; (ii) plant invasions; (iii) the
responses to management of valued rangeland biota (plants and animals); and
(iv) vulnerability to climate change. Case studies in Gansu and in Xinjiang are
presented.

Key Points

1. Biodiversity is a multifaceted phenomenon involving the variety of organisms

present, the genetic differences among them, and the communities, ecosystems,
and landscape patterns in which they occur. Many factors affect biodiversity of
plants and animals (including birds and insects). Grazing (defoliation and tram-
pling) is a major one.
2. Although pivotal in rangeland management, plant responses to grazing are
sometimes difficult to predict. Two alternative approaches have been used. The
first analyzes long-term grazing experiments to investigate the links between
plant traits (like species composition, density, frequency, cover and biomass)
and response to various levels of grazing pressure. The second analyzes the impact
of varying periods of exclosure (protection from grazing) on the plant traits.
3. Reducing or removing grazing pressure was effective for rehabilitating
rangelands. With the increase of plant diversity, community coverage, density,
aboveground biomass, the structure of below-ground biomass of the steppe
community has been improved, the capacity of retention and storage of water has
been enhanced, and the ecosystem service function of natural grassland has been
effectively restored.

Zhao Cheng-Zhang (*)

College of Geography and Environment, North West Normal University, Lanzhou, China
e-mail: zhaocz@nwnu.edu.cn
Victor Squires
University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
e-mail: dryland1812@internode.on.net

V. Squires et al. (eds.), Towards Sustainable Use of Rangelands in North-West China, 101
DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-9622-7_6, © Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
102 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

4. Habitat loss is often characterised by vegetation fragmentation or the loss of

connectivity in landscapes. The degree of fragmentation is a key indicator. It is
noted that fragmentation of natural habitat due to overgrazing, opportunistic culti-
vation and other modifying practices disrupts ecological processes such as nutrient
and energy cycling, creates sub-populations of species and isolates those sub-
populations from one another.
5. There is a correlation between the size of remnant vegetation patches and
susceptibility of the natural environment to a variety of pressures. There is also
a correlation between the size of remnants and numbers of species and popula-
tion viability, and there are further possible impacts on pollination, seed disper-
sal, wildlife migration and breeding. Rangeland vegetation that is retained and
forms part of a ‘connected landscape’ can perform a variety of roles in allowing
species (plant and animal) to move and adapt to a changing climate.

Keywords Ecosystem services • grazing pressure • cover • density • species

composition • climate change • fragmentation • diversity index • habitat change
• plant-plant interactions • alpine areas • wetlands • birds • fish • biomass • steppe
• meadow • exclosure • grazing ban • invasive plants • rodents • voles • carbon seques-
tration • litter • mineralization • Altai Shan • Qilian Shan • Tian Shan • Hexi corridor
• Loess Plateau • grazing impacts • connected landscapes • remnant vegetation
• buffers • vulnerable species • keystone species • tissue quality • herbivory
• Relative Growth Rates • alpine plants • tannin • toxicity • soil moisture

1 Introduction

Natural, semi-natural grasslands, steppes, shrublands (rangeland ecosystems) and

artificial grasslands (sown pastures) occur around the globe. A wide range of
rangeland ecosystems are represented in NW China across a full elevation gradient
from cold alpine meadows to low-lying arid and semi-arid rangeland lands.
Together these rangeland habitats form an important network of systems which
support the existing transhumant pastoral systems, but successful management for
production and biodiversity poses several dilemmas for conservationists and land
managers.
Because of the significance of such rangeland ecosystems for biodiversity con-
servation, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) has, as one of its global program
objectives, to maintain natural rangeland ecosystems to enhance global environ-
mental benefits, including biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration and
ecosystem services such as water flow. These objectives are expected to be achieved
through encouraging sustainable resource management. This implies an ecosystem
approach to land management at a landscape scale across rangelands that are used
as a base for primary production (herding and farming). Such efforts in NW China
aim to promote sustainable land use and combat and reverse land degradation.
6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 103

At the practical (field) level this calls for participatory, integrated ecosystem
approaches to rangeland management and pastoral development in globally signifi-
cant areas for biodiversity corridors in the Tian Shan, Altai Shan and Qilian Shan
mountains that are the focus of this chapter. These mountainous areas are biodiver-
sity ‘hot spots’ because the elevation of land areas leads to compression of climatic
zones over short distances. High conservation priority is ascribed to these areas and
they have a key role to play. In undisturbed sites within humid alpine areas a sub-
stantial part of the regional flora and fauna can be found within 1 km2 (often within
10 m2) of each other, and very few additional species are added if the survey is
extended to the mountain-range or regional scale (Wang et al. 2007).
Four specific issues are dealt with in this chapter: (i) plant responses to grazing,
(ii) plant invasions; (iii) the responses to management of valued rangeland biota
(plants and animals); and (iv) vulnerability to climate change.

1.1 Plant Responses to Grazing

Although pivotal in rangeland management, plant responses to grazing are some-

times difficult to predict. Two alternative approaches have been used. The first
analyzes long-term grazing experiments to investigate the links between plant traits
(like species composition, density, frequency, cover and biomass) and response to
various levels of grazing pressure. The second analyzes the impact of varying peri-
ods of exclosure (protection from grazing) on the plant traits.

1.1.1 Effect of Grazing Intensity

Three treatments were used to evaluate the effect of grazing intensity (ca 30% and
50% herbage removal), aspect (north and south), and slope (<10% and 10–30%) on
plant community structure of mountain grasslands in Qitai county, Xinjiang. Plant
species richness was not significantly affected by grazing intensity, aspect, or slope.
Although plant species composition was similar (Sorensen’s similarity index = 0.87)
between both grazing intensities, species frequency and cover were affected by grazing
intensity. Moderate grazing intensity (50% herbage removal) plots contained a greater
number of plant species with a frequency of more than 50%. The lowest cover for
Festuca corresponded to low grazing intensity, north aspects, and steeper slopes.
The lowest cover for Agrostis was found under low grazing intensity (30% herbage
removal) and steeper slopes. Potentilla erecta, and Trifolium repens were
significantly affected by aspect and grazing intensity. Low grazing intensity on
sites with northern aspects and steep slopes favored Agrostis, a species with a low
nutritional value. A. capillaris, A. curtisii, P. erecta, and T. repens were sensitive to
soil properties and aspect. Nitrogen and K soil concentrations were significantly
higher in areas with low grazing intensity, most likely due to greater dead herbage
104 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

accumulation. Significant (P < 0.05) correlations between plant species and soil
pH or P concentration were found in areas with low grazing intensity. Reduction in
grazing intensity together with the effect of slope and northern aspect has resulted
in changes in plant community structure, leading to increases in forages with lower
nutritional value.
A comprehensive study reports on changes in plant functional group composition,
litter quality, and soil C and N mineralization dynamics from a 9-year sheep
grazing study in Inner Mongolia (Barger et al. 2004). Three main questions were
addressed:
1. How does increasing grazing intensity affect plant community composition?
2. How does increasing grazing intensity alter soil C and N mineralization
dynamics?
3. Do changes in soil C and N mineralization dynamics relate to changes in plant
community composition via inputs of the quality or quantity of litter?
Grazing plots were set up near the Inner Mongolia Grassland Ecosystem Research
Station near Xilinhot, with five grazing intensities: 1.3, 2.7, 4.0, 5.3, and 6.7 sheep
ha−1·year−1. Plant cover was lower with increasing grazing intensity, which was
primarily due to a dramatic decline in grasses, Carex duriuscula, and Artemisia
frigida. Changes in litter mass and percentage organic C resulted in lower total C
in the litter layer at 4.0 and 5.3 sheep ha−1·year−1 compared with 2.7 sheep
ha−1·year−1. Total litter N was lower at 5.3 sheep ha−1·year−1 compared with 2.7
sheep ha−1·year−1. Litter C:N ratios, an index of litter quality, were significantly
lower at 4.0 sheep ha−1·year−1 relative to 1.3 and 5.3 sheep ha−1·year−1. Cumulative
C mineralized after 16 days decreased with increasing grazing intensity. In contrast,
net N mineralization (NH4+ + NO3−) after a 12-day incubation increased with
increasing grazing intensity. Changes in C and N mineralization resulted in a narrow-
ing of CO2-C:net Nmin ratios with increasing grazing intensity. Grazing explained
31% of the variability in the ratio of CO2-C:net Nmin. The ratio of CO2-C:net Nmin
was positively correlated with litter mass. Furthermore, there was a positive corre-
lation between litter mass and A. frigida cover. Results suggest that as grazing
intensity increases, microbes become more C limited resulting in decreased microbial
growth and demand for nitrogen (N).

2 Evaluation of Ecosystem Service’s Value for Participative

Ecological Restoration in Hilly Region Loess Plateau
Region of Gansu

Dingxi county (Lat. 35°30¢N, 104°33¢E) located in the middle reaches of the
Yellow River in central Gansu province, is a typical hilly region on the western
edge of the Loess plateau. Around 87% of area is slope land at an altitude between
1,750 and 2,580 m. The climate is classified as semi-arid temperate, with an annual
6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 105

rainfall of 400 mm while annual evaporation reaches 1,536 mm. In the late twentieth
century, the ecological environment deteriorated seriously as evidenced by serious soil
and water loss, lowering of groundwater, soil fertility decline and productivity loss.
Grazing bans were put in place in Quanwan village. The degraded rangelands
(including shrub and forest uplands were fenced, abandoned croplands were
planted to perennial forage plants, e.g. sanfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia) and greater
care was taken to match fertilizer requirements of the croplands to the soil nutrient
status. Monitoring of various attributes such as changes in soil organic matter, litter
accumulation, foliage cover of rangelands, plant density and species diversity and
run off were conducted with a view to assessing the speed and extent of recovery.
An assessment was made of the environmental services provided by the rangelands
using the market-value method, opportunity cost method, shadow project method
and restoration cost method. A brief summary of the results is presented here.

2.1 Plant Diversity of Enclosed Steppe

The number of plant species increased from 43 to 63 after 4 years of fencing.

Figure 1 shows that the community diversity index and evenness index all gradually
increase, and dominance index gradually decreases, which indicates that commu-
nity structure is unstable and rangeland community is in the early stage of restoration.
The proportion of climax dominance species is still small and a further period
of grazing ban will be required before a major shift in botanical composition can
be expected.
The trends of vegetation coverage, density, height and biomass of grassland
community have increased year by year after 4 years of grazing ban. Foliage
coverage, in particular, has reached a high level in the absence of grazing and
trampling and plant density has increased steadily every year inside the fenced
area and in recent years also under grazing (Fig. 2) but the absolute density is
higher in the exclosure and the number of valuable species is higher in the fenced
area (Fig. 1).

1.8 0.6 0.9

Shannon-Wiener index

Ecological dominance

1.5 0.5 0.8

E-Pielow index

0.7
1.2 0.4
0.6
0.9 0.3
0.5

0.6 0.2 0.4

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year Year Year

Fig. 1 Changes to plant community diversity over the period 2004–2008 as assessed by several
indices (Zhao et al. unpublished)
106 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

a 98 Coverage 300 b 90 190

Coverage
96 Density
250 Density 180

Density (per 0.25m2)

Density (per 0.25m2)
94 89

Coverage (%)
Coverage (%)

200
92 170
90 150 88
160
88
100
86 87
150
50
84
82 0 86 140
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year Year

a 14
Height
120 b 7.1 Height
68
12 Biomass 100 7 Biomass 66
Biomass (g/0.25m2)

Biomass (g/0.25m )
2
10 64
80 6.9
Height(cm)

Height (cm)

8 62
60 6.8
6 60
40 6.7
4 58
2 20 6.6 56
0 0 6.5 54
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year Year

Fig. 2 The changes in the main biological attributes of steppe community after exclosure. (a) inside
fences, (b) outside fences (Zhao et al. unpublished)

2.2 Changes in Soil Organic Matter

Soil structure of the sloping land has been improved after adopting ecological
restoration measures which mainly include planting perennial pasture such as sanfoin
and fertilizer applications based on soil testing. The soil of croplands, abandoned
cropland (now sown to perennial forage), forest land and shrub land showed a
marked improvement in soil organic matter (Fig. 3).
The accumulation of a litter layer increased year by year with obvious
benefit to runoff interception, effectively reducing the soil erosion and sediment
deposition downstream thereby mitigating the losses caused by floods. After
3–4 years restoration, the annual runoff modulus of small watershed was
reduced from 2.23 × 104 to 1.193 × 104 m3/km2. From 2001 to 2008, the soil
erosion modulus of sloping land had been reduced from 5,845 to 2,100.8 t/km2
year, the efficiency of storing water in situ and reducing soil loss respectively
reached to 45.9% and 64.1%.
6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 107

3.2 Before Repairing

2.8

Soil organic matter

After Repairing

2.4
2.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
Slope wasteland Regressed Forest grassland Shrub grassland
grassland

Fig. 3 The changes of soil organic matter content of different land-use types after 4 years of a
restoration program (Zhao et al. unpublished)

180
2004
160
140 2008
120
¥ (1×104)

100
80
60
40
20
0
Organic matter Regulating Water Soil
production atmospheric conservation conservation

Fig. 4 The value of ecosystem service function of grassland in Dingxi county after imposition of
grazing bans in 2004 and restructuring cropping patterns (Zhao et al. unpublished)

2.3 Analysis of Service Functions of Steppe Ecosystem

With the increase of plant diversity, community coverage, density, aboveground

biomass, the structure of below-ground biomass of the steppe community has been
improved, the capacity of retention and storage of water has been enhanced, and
the ecosystem service function of natural grassland has been effectively restored
in Quanwan village (Fig. 4). The overall value of ecosystem services (Chen et al.
2007) increased from 2,160,000 Yuan in 2004 to 3,870,000 Yuan in 2008, among
which the value of producing organic material increased by 1,005,000 Yuan, the
value of conditioning the atmosphere rose by 920,000 Yuan, the value of storing
water increased by 601,000 Yuan, and the value of soil conservation rose by
16,000 Yuan.
108 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

3 A Study of Diversity in the Farming-Pastoral Transition

Zone in the North Slope of Qilian Shan

In the 1980s, during the planned economy period, Ma Yinggou village (Lat.
38°60¢N, Long 102°07¢E°) was one of the main pasture lands of Yong Chang
county. There was strict management of the rangeland and clearly defined respon-
sibilities about livestock numbers and entry and exit dates. Rangeland and livestock
were in balance. This balance was upset after the transfer of responsibilities under
HCRS. Conversion of rangeland to increase the area under fodder and forage pro-
duction and increased numbers of livestock was encouraged by the government The
villagers ignored the research findings and the previous arrangements gave way to
free and disordered herding of the rangelands under a system of common use graz-
ing. It has been difficult to implement the HCRS on the grazing land, because of free
herding, and unclear grazing user rights of grassland use and the difficulty of how to
cope with the massive overgrazing. Over the past 20 years rangeland productivity
has fallen rapidly, run off and soil erosion have increase alarmingly, and rangeland
is seriously degraded with about 90% classified as “moderate” degradation.
In August 2007, we surveyed the Ma Yinggou’s mountain meadow (2,600–2,900 m)
in order to research the impact of unrestricted grazing on rangeland diversity.
According to the slope, and it begin with villages. A 2,400 m long transect was
sampled about every 800 m. At every survey site a set six quadrats (1 ×1 m) were
taken. We recorded foliage cover, plant density, mean plant height in each sample.
We selected three contrasting study area for the monitoring of above-ground bio-
mass (dry weight basis) (i) severely over grazed (OG), (ii) heavily grazed (HG) and
moderately grazed (MG). The Control (Ck) was a site that was ungrazed.

3.1 The Effect of Grazing on the Plant Community Characters

The plant community structure and plant species composition changed in response
to the gradient of grazing pressure (Fig. 5). The number of species decreased from
seven in moderately grazed (MG) area to four in the over grazed (OG) site, but

14 100 20
12
80
Coverage (%)

10 16
Height (cm)

60
Species

8
40
6 12
4 20

2 0 8
MG HG OG NG MG HG OG NG MG HG OG NG

Fig. 5 Changes in species attributes under different grazing intensities from Medium (MG) to
Overgrazed (OG). NG was the ungrazed Control (Zhao et al. unpublished)
6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 109

overall the number of species in the Control (fenced area) was significantly greater
than the over grazed (OG) area. The coverage and height fell sharply with the
increase of the grazing intensity, foliage cover was down by 9% in the OG site,
and the height was 15.8 cm lower than either the MG or the Control (NG). Cover
and height in the MG and Control showed no significant difference, Moderate graz-
ing had no obvious effect on rangeland, but heavy grazing and over grazing accelerated
the rate of degradation.

3.2 The Effect of Grazing on Functional Group Composition

With increasing grazing intensity, invasion by inedible and/or poisonous plants

occurred and the structure of the functional group changed dramatically. Inedible
plants, such as Stellera chamaejasme, Leontopodium leontopodioides, were dominant
in the OG sites (Fig. 6).

3.3 The Effect of Grazing on the Diversity

Grazing pressure had a significant effect on diversity, evenness and ecological

dominance (Fig. 7). Species diversity index was higher in MG and the Control.
Ecological dominance was generally low, diversity index and evenness were higher
in MG, HG and NG than in OG. The Simpson index of ecological dominance was
highest in OG because of the dominance of one or two inedible plants to the exclusion
of all other species.
Even in the moderately grazed area, defoliation by livestock and trampling had an
effect on the growth of dominant species, which left vacant an ecological niche for the
subdominant species and invasive adventitious species; so species composition was rich.
The Shannon – Wiener diversity index continued to be reduced as grazing intensity

Edible grass Inedible grass Edible grass Inedible grass

100%
95
80%
Biomass (g·m-2)

75
Dominance

60%
55
40%

20% 35

0% 15
MG HG OG NG MG HG OG NG

Fig. 6 The ratio of palatable to inedible plants under different grazing intensities as reflected in
dominance and in biomass (Zhao et al. unpublished)
110 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

Shannon-Wiener index 2.5 1.0 0.5

2.0 0.9 0.4

Simpson index
Pielou index
1.5 0.8 0.3

1.0 0.7 0.2

0.5 0.6 0.1

0.0 0.5 0.0

MG HG OG NG MG HG OG NG MG HG OG NG

Fig. 7 The biodiversity change under different grazing intensities in mountain meadow in Gansu
where moderate grazing (MG) Heavy (HG) and overgrazing (OG) were compared with an
ungrazed Control (NG) (Zhao et al. unpublished)

increased, but the Simpson ecological dominance showed a reverse tend, so there
was strong community stability in the moderately grazed area. Compared with
grazing grass, The plant diversity was high in the ungrazed Control (NG), the
Simpson Index was low, but because there was no disturbance, dominant species
occupied the ecological niche space, so subdominant species found it hard to
expand. Therefore, moderate stocking benefits the maintenance of the diversity that
can strengthen the rangeland’s resilience to the grazing.

4 Species Diversity of Ecosystem Evolution Process in Wetland

Resource of Liufen Village of Suzhou District

The total area of wetland in Liufen Village, Suzhou county (Lat. 39° 38 N and
Long. 98.58°E) is 867 hm2, and it is a combination of pond wetland, lake wetland
and meadow wetland. It also is the main fish reserve in Jiuquan oasis. It has two
main categories of vegetation, one is a meadow grassland, and another is a saline
area dominated by halophytes. Until the middle-1980s, the wetland was a broad water
surface with lush aquatic plants. There were 13 species of birds and 14 species of
fish. Under pressure from economic development and rising human population
especially since the middle-1990s, agricultural development expanded and about
400 ha of wetland was drained and converted to cropland in Renjiatan, Zhangjiahaizi
and Sunjiahu. Water use was not regulated. Because water recharge of upstream
was reduced, groundwater was over-exploited and more and more wetland was
converted to cropland, the ecological flows cannot be maintained. At the same time
livestock numbers rose rapidly. Long-term over-grazing led to reduced vegetation
cover and the ecological environment is further deteriorated.
GEF project team fenced the remaining wetland of Liufen villige in 2004 after
consultation with community’s manager and local residents. Livestock were
removed and the wetland was subjected to a total grazing ban. We monitored
the biological diversity in the wetland in April-November in 2007 to determine
the process of biological diversity’s succession. We were assisted by reference to the
local literature and long-term observations of a community resident.
6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 111

4.1 Diversity of Fish and Birds in Wetland Resource

of Liufen Village

Due to environmental changes, land reclamation, over grazing and other anthropo-
genic interference, the wetland area of Liufen Village was reduced, water quality
was worsening, and species diversity was reduced gradually since the 1980s.
Fish and birds species number were 14 and 13 species respectively in 1983, but
fish and birds species number reduced to five and four respectively in 2003. The
Shannon-Wiener index for fish was 2.32, and for birds it was 2.13. But diversity
of fish and birds was reduced gradually from 1983 to 2003, and was much lower
in 2003. Pielou evenness index has the same tendency of fish and birds, but fish
Pielou evenness index has a larger fluctuation (Fig. 8).
The aquatic organisms and the some bird species increased gradually after the
imposition of the grazing ban, and the fish and the birds species increased by two
and three respectively. Compared with 2003, Simpson dominance index was lower
in 2007, but was still higher than the 1980s and 1990s. This indicates that the ani-
mals diversity was increased in the short term after the grazing ban, but there was
no dominant species. The structure of the fish and the bird communities are not yet
stable (Fig. 9).

2.5 1.0 0.5

Shannon-Wiener index

0.9 0.4
Simpson index

2.0
Pielou index

0.8 0.3
1.5
0.7 0.2
1.0 0.6 0.1
0.5 0.5 0.0
83

98
03

98
03

83

98
03
88
93

07

88
93

07

88
93

07
8
19

19
20

19

19
20

19

19
20
19
19

20

19
19

20

19
19

20

Fig. 8 Changes in fish diversity from 1983 to 2007 in a wetland community in Suzhou, Gansu
(Zhao et al. unpublished)

2.5 1.0 0.5

Shannon-Wiener index

0.9 0.4
Simpson index

2.0
Pielou index

0.8 0.3
1.5
0.7 0.2
1.0 0.6 0.1

0.5 0.5 0.0

83

98

03

83

98

03

83

98

03
88

93

07

88

93

07

88

93

07
19

19

20

19

19

20

19

19

20
19

19

20

19

19

20

19

19

20

Fig. 9 The birds diversity change from 1983 to 2007 in a wetland community in Suzhou, Gansu
(Zhao et al. unpublished)
112 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

4.2 The Decrease of Grass Species Diversity

1. Meadow grassland: There were 27 species in the 1980s, but only seven in 2004
because of climate change, land conversion, over grazing, and so on.
2. Saline/alkaic meadow: There were six species in the 1980s, but only one in the
early twentieth century because of the continuous decline in groundwater level
and over grazing.

4.2.1 Evaluation of Restoration Effect on Plant Diversity in Grassland

1. Meadow grassland: The number of species in the grazing ban area increased
from 5 to 11 species by 2006 (Fig. 10). Along with the increasing richness in the
wetland community, the plant diversity increased significantly. Simpson species
diversity reached to 0.834 in 2007, much higher than in any grazed area (Fig. 11).
After 1 year of the grazing ban, the foliage cover improved from 62% to 69%,
and the above-ground biomass improved from 1,416 to 2,046 kg/hm2. The
Jaccard similarity index of the banned grazing area and the control group (CK1)
was 0.45 in 2007, but this index was only 0.14 in the grassland in 1983.

14 A CK1 0.9 A CK1

Simpson diversity index

12
10 0.8
Species

8
0.7
6
4 0.6
2
0 0.5
2004 2005 2006 2007 2004 2005 2006 2007

Fig. 10 The species array and Simpson diversity index of grazed meadow grassland (A) and the
ungrazed control (CK1) (Zhao et al. unpublished)

8 B CK2 1.0 B CK2

Simpson diversity index

0.8
6
0.6
Species

4
0.4
2
0.2

0 0.0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2004 2005 2006 2007

Fig. 11 The species and Simpson diversity index of saline/alkaic grassland (B) and the ungrazed
control (CK2) (Zhao et al. unpublished)
6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 113

a 100 6 b 100 6
Coverage Coverage
Biomass 5 Biomass 5

Biomass (103 kg·hm-2)

Biomass (103 kg·hm-2)

80 80
Coverage (%)

Coverage (%)
4 4
60 60
3 3
40 40
2 2
20 20
1 1

0 0 0 0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2004 2005 2006 2007

Fig. 12 The change of coverage and above-ground biomass on grassland. (a) meadow grassland,
(b) saline/alkaic grassland (Zhao et al. unpublished)

2. Saline/alkaic meadow: After 4 years of grazing ban, species increased to four

kinds, the plant diversity increased significantly. The Simpson index of species
diversity has increased to 0.5811, however, but it was still very low (Fig. 12).
Compared with free grazing in 2003, the community coverage improved from
14% to 26%, the dominant species such as Leymus secalinus, increased in height
from 9 to 24 cm., above-ground biomass improved from 440 to 1,560 kg/hm2
(Fig. 13). The Jaccard similarity index after 4 years of grazing ban was 0.532
compared with control grassland, and quite different (0.212) from the meadow
in 1983.
Consequently, grazing bans not only increased the species diversity in grassland
but also improved grassland productivity. The functional group structure of salted
and meadow grassland changed significantly after 1 year under grazing ban, but it
still needs a long time to restore the natural situation. Although the species diversity
and productivity in salted and meadow grassland improved significantly after 4 years
under the grazing ban, there are still some problems, such as the plant functional
groups structure has much difference compared with natural meadow, and the effect
of restoring is not ideal, so there is necessary to take some comprehensive measures
to improve the recovery speed.

5 Biodiversity in the Tian Shan, Xinjiang

A study by researchers from Xinjiang Agricultural University in a mountain

meadow sought to characterize the site, in the Tian Shan foot slopes, on the
basis of three main functional groups (i) vegetation (vascular plants) diversity;
(ii) soil animal diversity; and (iii) soil microbe diversity with a view to develop-
ing a biodiversity baseline data bank. Figure 13 shows the broad framework for
the study.
114 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

Review RS Imagery, historical data, field visit

Selection of sampling sites in typical vegetation

Biodiversity investigation

Soil microblal diversity

Vegetation diversity

Animal diversity

Establishment of
biodiversity database

Validation of monitoring approach and methodology

Model building

Fig. 13 A flow chart showing the various steps followed in Xinjiang to study biodiversity in
mountain rangeland communities in the lower elevation pastures of the Tian Shan

After erection of fences to control grazing there was an opportunity to evaluate

the impact on biodiversity. Four treatments were compared: (i) ungrazed areas
within the enclosure; (ii) mown areas within the enclosure; (iii) rotational grazing
within fenced areas; and (iv) grazed areas outside the fence.
A summary of the conclusions follows: The plant biodiversity in the ungrazed
(fenced) areas was lower than outside (grazed) area but the Atatalo evenness index
was much lower outside. For the microbial community the biggest difference was
found between the ratio of actinomyctes to bacteria. In the absence of grazing it was
61.0:39.0 but much lower under grazed conditions. Fungi was uniformally low
across all treatments. The diversity index of soil animals went from highest to low-
est in this sequence: (1) Mown areas within the enclosure; (2) Rotational grazing; (3)
Ungrazed; and (4) Grazed.
6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 115

5.1 Plant Invasions

Linked often crucially with grazing, but also driven sometimes by extrinsic factors,
invasions are often a cause for concern in rangeland management. The invasions of
rangelands by woody plants or toxic plants like monk’s hood (Aconitum spp.) or
Stellera chamaejasme, Oxytropis glabra, Aconitum pendulum, Achnatherum ine-
brians threatens rangeland habitats while the invasions of sown pastures by alien
weeds reduces pasture productivity. The discussion in this section highlights how a
complementary suite of management activities can reduce the abundance of invad-
ers but also highlights how global environmental change is presenting new circum-
stances in which rangeland invasion can occur.
In order to persist, individuals that comprise populations and species must (i)
reproduce, and to achieve this must (ii) acquire resources to maintain themselves and
produce biomass. In the process, they create conditions that may be essential or det-
rimental to the existence of other species. Regardless of the impact of these interac-
tions, the ultimate result is to select for traits that promote the persistence of certain
genotypes in space and time, and not maximization of production or rates of biogeo-
chemical cycling per se. In some circumstances high productivity may promote
persistence. For instance, following disturbance, rapidly growing species quickly
monopolize the available light and nutrients. Other species may occupy niches where
slow growth and space occupancy lead to long term persistence and reproductive
output. In other words, high biotic diversity is not necessarily coupled to a particular
rate of production or biogeochemical cycling, but may depend on the maintenance of
an environmental matrix in which different strategies are favoured at different times
or places. In contrast to canopy height which can be an important factor in shrub inva-
sion, specialization in rooting depth can enable deep-rooted species to tap resources
that would otherwise be unavailable to the rest of the community
For ecosystems to persist there is need to avoid habitat loss. Habitat change and
loss can be extremely varied, ranging from logging of native forest and conversion
of rangelands to croplands, to physical modification of rivers, drying up of wetlands
due to reduced water flows, pollution or direct damage from infrastructure develop-
ment. Any or all of these changes may be significant in terms of loss of biodiversity.
Habitat threats depend on scale and context. Relatively small losses in those range-
land ecosystems which are already significantly depleted are of immediate concern.
Habitat threats are lessened where loss occurs in vegetation types that are well-
reserved and relatively abundant. Other agents of habitat change, such as pests
(both plant and animal) and climate change (see above) can have significant conse-
quences even in well-preserved vegetation communities.
Habitat loss is often characterised by vegetation fragmentation or the loss of
connectivity in landscapes (See Fig. 14). There is a correlation between the size
of remnant vegetation patches and susceptibility of the natural environment to a
variety of pressures. There is also a correlation between the size of remnants and
numbers of species and population viability, and there are further possible impacts
on pollination, seed dispersal, wildlife migration and breeding. Rangeland vegetation
116 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

Fig. 14 Fragmentation of habitat is a major cause of loss of biodiversity

that is retained and forms part of a ‘connected landscape’ can perform a variety of
roles in allowing species (plant and animal) to move and adapt to a changing cli-
mate. Fragmentation is a key indicator. It is noted that fragmentation of natural
habitat due to overgrazing, opportunistic cultivation and other modifying practices
disrupts ecological processes such as nutrient and energy cycling, creates sub-populations
of species and isolates those sub-populations from one another. There is a correla-
tion between size of remnants and susceptibility to a variety of pressures. For
example, there is a correlation between the size of remnants and numbers of species
and population viability; and possible impacts on pollination, seed dispersal, wild-
life migration and breeding. Fragmented landscapes are more susceptible to exotic
species invasions (see above).
Changes in catchment vegetation cover – especially from deep-rooted to shallow-
rooted types (or vice-versa) – can change hydrological processes including the
water runoff/infiltration balance which is central to maintaining water quantity,
quality and flow regimes in both groundwater and surface water. Fluvial geomor-
phic processes are therefore also affected by catchment land cover disturbances.
Habitat change in the alpine habitat may occur through a variety of physical,
chemical, or biological processes. However, there is limited monitoring and, conse-
quently, few indicators to describe trends and changes in these habitats. Because
some changes are unseen and typically unmonitored, they may occur without adequate
government scrutiny and considerable change may have already occurred before
any remedial action is planned.
Incremental changes to habitat may involve change processes such as inappro-
priate grazing regimes particularly overgrazing. These incremental changes can
result in degradation or loss of habitat over time. Firewood collection and removal
is also a significant source of habitat change, including the loss of nest sites for
birds and bees.
The relative significance of different habitat threats will change and new interac-
tions between threats will occur as a consequence of climate change. On the land, the
legacy of past and continued land use change will interact with a changing climate in
ways that will make it harder for some species and ecosystems to adapt. Fragmented
or disconnected habitats are less resilient to change and more vulnerable to climate
change or to invasion by toxic or otherwise undesirable plants.
6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 117

Habitat Change index

significance of pressure trends in pressure spatial scale of pressure information and knowledge
minor variable severe declining stable increasing localised widespread good variable poor

Fig. 15 A graphical habitat change index to illustrate the status of various aspects of habitat change

A graphical index is included as a visual method to allow a comparison of priority

issues. The positioning of the dials for habitat change reflects the increasing signifi-
cance of pressures on a variety of habitats. It reflects the increasing spatial scale of
emerging pressures such as changes to grazing regimes and changes in season of use.
Information and knowledge is generally significantly poor (Fig. 15).
Also associated with drying trends and increasing demands for water is the
degradation of wetlands, which has occurred in many parts of the Qilian Shan
and Tian Shan uplands with major impacts on aquatic and waterbird communi-
ties. Many wetlands have become dry in the past few decades, with significant
ecological and biological effect. There has been a shift in the timing of rainfall
and increases in evaporation, which has resulted in the drying out of ‘permanent’
wetlands. Wetlands are unable to refill because of dry winters with resulting
decimation of aquatic ecosystems and declines in waterbird breeding.
A little recognized impact of grazing is on biodiversity in riparian areas. Such
riparian areas receive 20–30% more grazing animals and cattle, in particular, can
also influence the water quality (increased nitrates and phosphates), as well as plant
and animal biodiversity of land and aquatic systems.
Biodiversity provides an agro-ecosystem with the ability to adapt to changes in
the environment. A healthy rangeland maintains a high biodiversity not only of the
plant species but also of the whole food chain.
Three factors are considered to be the major causes of lost plant biodiversity
on rangelands: overgrazing, collection of woody species for fuel, and conversion
to cropland. With overgrazing, the more palatable plant species disappear, and
the less palatable or unpalatable species remain filling in the gaps and empty
niches (West 1993). Uprooting or cutting of woody species for fuel destroys the
micro­environment in which other species flourish. Invader plants dominate
overgrazed rangelands and fill in the voids left by the suppressed palatable plants,
replacing the diverse biotic-rich native plant communities. Resulting monocul-
tures create their own self-sustaining environment. It is nearly impossible to
replace the once rich biodiversity by re-seeding or restoration with currently
available technology; the rich native biodiversity is permanently lost once
rangeland is cultivated.
Biodiversity is affected indirectly through fodder requirements that may mean
converting species-rich rangeland to cropland planted to monocultures. There has
been a new wave of rangeland conversion (often the best rangeland) to cropland to
grow the fodder and forage crops required to pen feed livestock.
118 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

5.2 The Responses to Management of Valued Rangeland Biota

(Plants and Animals)

A species does not have to be the most abundant in an ecosystem to have a key role
in the long-term preservation of ecosystem functioning. Rare, endangered or vulner-
able species may act as buffers for ecosystem processes in the face of changes in
the physical and biological environment. Some species are referred to as ‘keystone’
because they interact with many other species in a community. The loss of these
species could cause a greater than average change in the populations of other
species or in ecosystem processes. Some understanding of the importance of the
interaction between the plant and the grazing animal is helpful to management of
the rangeland ecosystem (West 1993).
Tissue quality, which governs rates of both herbivory and decomposition corre-
lates closely with the Relative Growth Rate (RGR). Differences between species,
in the quality of their tissues, acts as a positive feedback to amplify ecosystem
differences in soil resources. Alpine plants at a given growth rate have higher tissue
concentrations of N than plants found in warmer areas (Chapin 1987) but variations
exist across sites within alpine rangelands. Species from sites of low resource avail-
ability generally have low annual production and high concentrations of tannins,
lignin, and waxes that are toxic or indigestible to herbivores resulting in low feeding
rates in infertile rangeland sites. By contrast, in high-resource sites plants produce
leaves with high nutrient contents and low levels of secondary metabolites. These
leaves can be eaten in large quantities with a high digestive efficiency. As a result
of species and site differences in tissue quality, animals prefer to concentrate on
more fertile sites. Because animals preferentially feed on high quality tissues within
these sites and respire away much of the assimilated C (>98%) livestock accelerate
nutrient turnover in fertile sites (Chapin 1991).
Species differences in tissue quality are critical in determining rates of litter
decomposition. Litter from poor-resource sites decomposes slowly because of the
effect of lignin, tannins, wax and other recalcitrant or toxic compounds on soil
microbes, reinforcing the low nutrient availability of the site. By contrast plants
from high-resource sites produce litter with more N and P and fewer recalcitrant
compounds. Therefore, this litter decomposes rapidly – accelerating nutrient turn-
over (Pastor and Cohen 1997; Pastor et al. 1997).
Plant–plant interactions may increase or reduce the impact of abiotic stress on
species’ distributions, depending on the balance between competition and facilita-
tion. A mosaic of soil moisture variation often dictates spatial patterns of seed
germination and seedling survival. Seed germination, seedling survival, and net
establishment success increased markedly with soil water supply. The impact of
desiccation stress brought about by soil compaction (hoof impact), is changing
botanical composition and leading to either increased density of unpalatable shrubs
or toxic plant invasion in alpine grassland communities. Localised mortality from
attack by insects, and rodents is on the increase (Fig. 16). It is thought that drought
stress is triggering these outbreaks prompting concern of an increasing future issue
particularly on low rainfall sites.
6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 119

Fig. 16 Rodents like voles, can often be present in plague proportions and they are thought
to consume large quantities of forage (Photo Victor Squires)

5.3 Vulnerability to Climate Change

Climate change may act directly or indirectly on species and ecosystems. Ecological
changes altering the ecosystem structure and function in the Earth’s biomes and the
loss of biotic diversity have been sources of concern by ecologists in recent years.
These two processes have received a lot of attention but by different groups of
researchers and with little attention by either group on the environmental causes
and ecosystem consequences of changes in biodiversity. The two processes are
clearly interrelated. Changes in ecological systems cause changes in diversity but
what are the processes and circumstances under which this occurs?
Alpine ecosystems such as those found in the Tian Shan, Altai Shan and Qilian
Shan are ideal subjects when considering these questions because:
• Cold regions are the areas where global warming would have the greatest eco-
logical consequences.
• High altitudes, due to reduced pressure, are regions where CO2 should be
particularly limiting and where rising CO2 concentration might strongly stimulate
plant growth.
• Owing to their relative simplicity, these ecosystems may show clear effects of
species-change on ecosystem processes and may, therefore, be strongly affected
by the loss or gain of species.
In cold-dominated ecosystems the balance between the formation of a soil
organic mat and disturbance results in an inverse relationship between soil carbon
and species diversity. For example relatively arctic ecosystems have three times
more soil carbon (55 Pg)1 than similarly undisturbed alpine ecosystems (20 Pg) but

1 Pg = 1015 g
1
120 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

only 13% of the number of plant species. This pattern reflects the active accumulation
of soil organic matter and a low degree of disturbance in the low-arctic compared
to high-altitude ecosystems. In alpine ecosystems, gravity does a number of things:
(i) prevents water retention that would reduce rate of decomposition and cause soil
organic accumulation and (ii) disrupts the soil organic mat as freeze-thaw action
displaces the soil surface down-slope opening space for many colonizing species.
Such slope effects are found in many alpine areas of NW China so that within each
region the greatest diversity is found on slopes steep enough to minimize soil accu-
mulation. Mountain slopes above 20° slope that are relatively undisturbed are
hotspots of diversity. In alpine regions, where relative relief is even more pro-
nounced, many areas have a very high diversity within each square meter. Of course
disturbance from overgrazing and the associated hoof action of foraging livestock
has created a whole new set of circumstances with major impacts on biodiversity
and on carbon sequestration as the soil organic matter is lost (Chapter 7, Long et al.
2010) and invasion by colonizing species occurs.
Alpine plant species are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Climate change
will also affect threats that cause changes in the health of species and ecosystems.
Therefore, estimating the adaptive potential of alpine species is of vital importance for
determining their future viability. In alpine plants, adaptive potential depends on:
• Altitudinal genetic differentiation among populations, combined with gene flow
along an altitudinal gradient
• Phenotypic plasticity for the traits under selection
• Co-gradient variation between genetic and environmental influences on these traits,
although we cannot exclude an influence of habitat loss due to human impact
Climatic warming during the past century (0.7–1.0°C) has already caused upward
migration of alpine species. If climatic warming continues, taxa restricted to narrow
alpine zones at the summits of mountains may disappear. However, this migration is
at half the rate that would be expected if species had maintained an equilibrium rela-
tionship with temperature. Thus, both the rate of individual migration and the move-
ment of ecosystems are slower than would be predicted from change in temperature.
This is consistent with findings that altitudinal ecotones of forest species move slowly
in response to climatic shifts, since their position is strongly determined by species
interactions, particularly in the understory (Korner et al. 1995). Apparently, CO2
enrichment has little effect on plant growth in high alpine regions in the short term
perhaps because other factors more strongly restrict growth (Korner et al. 1995).
There is evidence that global climate change is already affecting and will continue
to affect many species and ecosystems in the mountain rangelands of NW China.
We might conclude that natural systems have limited adaptive capacity and that
projected rates of climate change are very likely to exceed rates of evolutionary
adaptation in many species. Habitat loss and fragmentation (Fig. 14) are very likely
to limit species migration in response to shifting climatic zones.
Direct and indirect impacts of climate changes on biodiversity include physiologi-
cal effects on species (such as a failure of alpine species to cope with increased sum-
mer temperatures, a failure of native plants to cope with changed water availability),
altered interactions within communities and ecosystems (such as increased or
6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 121

decreased competitive ability of native versus introduced plants as increased tempera-

tures and elevated carbon dioxide levels encourage increased growth rates, changes
in food availability and predator-prey relationships, changes in the structure of habitat
and cover, and the movement of species to new areas), altered stream flows, and
changes in the severity and frequency of natural events such as severe snow events.
One immediate implication of climate change is the need to revise conservation
objectives. There is a need to ‘manage the change to minimize the loss’. Decisions
will be required on threatened plant and wildlife species that may no longer have
viable populations in the wild and may only be maintained through ex-situ conser-
vation programs. In many cases, ex-situ conservation options-trans-location in the
wild or captive breeding and wildlife parks-may not always be available.
The trend towards a warmer climate may adversely affect certain species. A
number of other alpine species have been affected by drought that may be related
to climate change. An increase in severe drought events is expected to augment
decline or cause local extinctions. Warming is likely to threaten the survival of spe-
cies in some natural ecosystems, notably in alpine regions.

6 The Importance of Threatened Species and Threatened

Ecological Communities

Threatened species and threatened ecological communities are those that are at risk
of extinction in the wild. They are important for a number of reasons: their intrinsic
value irrespective of how the community uses them; their contribution to the local
community’s sense of identity; and the variety of ecosystem services they provide
for people. Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. (see
Table 2, Chapter 1, Squires and Hua 2010) These services include provisioning
services, such as food and water; regulating services, such as flood and disease
control; cultural services, such as spiritual, recreational and cultural benefits; and
supporting services, such as nutrient cycling.
Threatened species are flora or fauna that are listed in the Redbook as extinct,
endangered, vulnerable or rare. Threatened species can also be defined as an envi-
ronmental problem. The United Nations Global Environmental Outlook developed
a consistent way to map environmental problems according to management and
reversibility (Fig. 17). The classification shows the irreversible problem of species
extinctions while identifying management actions to tackle the key threatening
processes that lead to extinction.
Losses of biodiversity may also reduce the capacity of ecosystems for adjust-
ment to changing environments (that is, ecosystem stability or resilience). Local
extinctions are the loss of a species from a local area and functional extinctions are
the reduction of a species such that it no longer plays a significant role in ecosystem
function. A global extinction is the loss of all individuals of a species from its entire
geographic range. The loss of multiple components of biodiversity, especially func-
tional and ecosystem diversity at the landscape level, will lead to lowered ecosys-
tem stability. Species and genetic diversity helps to increase the capability of an
122 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

Habitat Climate Invasive over Pollution

change change species exploitation (nitrogen,
phosphorous)

Temperate forest

Dryland (temperate) grassland

Inland water

Coastal

Marine

Island

Mountain

Driver’s impact on biodiversity Driver’s current trends

over the last century

Low Decreasing impact

Moderate Continuing impact
High Increasing impact
Very high Very rapid increase of the impact

Fig. 17 Mapping of environmental problems by land type. Note that drylands often respond in
a way that is quite different to other land types (Adapted from UN Millennium assessment 2005)

ecosystem to be resilient in the face of a changing environment and helps to

increase resistance to invasions by non-native species.
The UN Millennium Assessment identified five indirect drivers of changes in
biodiversity and ecosystem services: demographic, economic, socio-political, cul-
tural and religious, and scientific and technological. These indirect drivers create the
circumstances for many of the more direct drivers of biodiversity loss. The respon-
sibility to act on direct drivers is usually at the local, state and national level.
The direct drivers vary in their importance among ecosystems and regions but
they generally include the following: land use and habitat change, climate change,
invasive species, overexploitation and pollution. Globally the drivers of loss of
biodiversity and the drivers of changes in ecosystem services are either steady,
show no evidence of declining over time, or are increasing in intensity.

7 Conclusions

The functioning of ecosystems involves the movement and transformation by the

biota of millions of tons of material per year between organic and inorganic pools
through the processes of decomposition, nutrient mineralization, assimilation and
6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 123

production. There is growing concern that changes in the number and spatial distribution
of species can have an important effect on ecosystems functioning, whereby species
poor ecosystems may perform differently or less efficiently than the more species-
rich systems from which they are derived. Rather, the potentially critical conse-
quence of species losses is that their disappearance can lead to the loss of the
individual traits that are essential for the production of organic matter and functioning
of biogeographical cycles. There is experimental evidence to suggest that small,
critical changes in biodiversity may have an adverse effect on the average rates of
ecosystem processes such as primary production, and nutrient retention in some
rangeland ecosystems (Vitousek 1982).
Plant biodiversity is affected by a range of pressures including: weeds, pests and
diseases, altered hydrology and changes to grazing regimes. There remains consid-
erable uncertainty about how species, ecosystems, threats to biodiversity, and society
will respond to these changes due to the complex interactions and feedbacks between
ecosystems and climate. Species whose loss is thought to have large functional
consequences are those that modify the availability of limiting resources, that affect
the disturbance regime, or alter the trophic structure of the impacted ecosystem.
In the face of climate change and growing demands for agricultural productivity,
future pressures on rangeland ecosystems will intensify. In this system in which
productivity and conservation are so closely bound, there is a need both to raise the
profile of the issues involved, and to improve our understanding of the applied ecol-
ogy required for successful management.
Scenarios of changes in biodiversity for the year 2100 have been developed
based on scenarios of changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide, climate, vegetation,
and land use and the known sensitivity of biodiversity to these changes. Research
(Sala et al. 2000) has identified a ranking of the importance of drivers of change, a
ranking of the biomes with respect to expected changes, and the major sources of
uncertainties. For terrestrial ecosystems, land-use change probably will have the
largest effect, followed by climate change, nitrogen deposition, biotic exchange,
and elevated carbon dioxide concentration. For freshwater ecosystems, biotic
exchange is much more important. Mediterranean climate and grassland ecosystems
likely will experience the greatest proportional change in biodiversity because of
the substantial influence of all drivers of biodiversity change. Northern temperate
ecosystems are estimated to experience the least biodiversity change because major
land-use change has already occurred. Plausible changes in biodiversity in other
biomes depend on interactions among the causes of biodiversity change. These
interactions represent one of the largest uncertainties in projections of future biodi-
versity change (Sala et al. 2000)
In alpine regions, human impact will be the greatest source of environmental
change in the coming decades. Altered grazing regimes and unprecedented grazing
pressures have great impact on alpine biodiversity and ecosystem processes. Human
impacts depend strongly on economic and social forces outside the alpine areas, and
therefore feedback loops involving people are relatively insensitive to changes
within these ecosystems. People directly influence biodiversity by harvesting
targeted species of plants and animals, either directly as with food and medicinal
124 Zhao Cheng-Zhang and Victor Squires

plants or indirectly via their livestock. In some areas this harvest threatens species
because of changes in local social institutions and exogenous forces such as demand
for animal products such as meat, milk or fiber. Human actions are fundamentally,
and to a significant extent irreversibly, changing the diversity of life on Earth.
Carbon sequestration is an increasingly key ecosystem service provided by bio-
diversity (Chapter 7, Long et al. 2010). Biodiversity affects carbon sequestration
through how much carbon is taken up from the atmosphere (assimilation) and how
much is released into it (decomposition, combustion). Recent work has shown the
importance also of soil carbon – taking soil carbon into consideration wetlands and
grasslands together may exceed the carbon storage of some forests.
It has become apparent that although changes in biodiversity(as measured by the
number of species) may not necessarily be the main driver of ecosystems processes,
they can importantly modify the effects of such changes in land use, atmospheric
composition and climate have on ecosystem functioning. The effects of these fast and
drastic changes in the chemical composition of the atmosphere, the geographic distri-
bution of biomes and climate will be controlled or altered by the effect of biota on the
global biogeochemical cycles. Biodiversity can no longer be considered only the
“passive” result of composing static abiotic constraints with the dynamics of biotic
interactions.
Biodiversity is a multifaceted phenomenon involving the variety of organisms
present, the genetic differences among them, and the communities, ecosystems, and
landscape patterns in which they occur. Society will increasingly value biodiver-
sity and influence the passage of laws and writing of regulations involving biodiversity
which rangeland managers will have to abide by over the coming decades. While
taxonomic knowledge of vertebrates and vascular plants and their abundance, rarity,
and distribution is generally inadequate. Furthermore, adequate knowledge of
invertebrates, nonvascular plants, and microbes is deficient everywhere. Although the
basis of variation at all higher levels, genetic variation within rangeland species,
even the major ones, has barely been assessed. Obtaining statistically adequate data
on populations of rare species that are small and secretive is well nigh impossible.
We have many means of measuring community diversity, but all of them are value
laden. That is, choice of variables to measure and how they are indexed betrays
what we consider are important. We should be more forthright in stating to the users
the biases of these methods. There are many other, more useful ways to describe
community-level diversity besides the traditional focus on species. Ungulate graz-
ing is an important process in many ecosystems. Thus, removal of grazing destabi-
lizes some systems. Livestock grazing will actually increase the chances of survival
of some species. Moderate livestock grazing can also enhance community and
landscape-level diversity in many instances.
Attention is now shifting from “charismatic” species to defensively managing
larger tracts of land with habitat or ecosystems holding suites of sensitive species.
Since some accelerated extinction of isolated populations and species is inevitable,
we need to know which species and ecotypes are most valuable. Understanding of
modular, guild, and functional group structure would also help us identify keystone
or critical link species and better focus our attention on truly important tracts of
 6 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals in Mountain Ecosystems 125

land where they live. It is probably more important to sustain soils and ecosystem
processes than any randomly selected species, especially if functionally redundant
species can be identified. Similarly, not all introduced, alien, or exotic species are
equal threats; it depends on how they fit into ecosystems. Sustainable development
will depend on finding balance between use and protection, from range sites to
landscapes, and even on a global basis.

Acknowledgements The authors thank Sheng Yaping), Dong Xiaogang, Ren Heng for vegeta-
tion sampling, materials collection and data processing of the Gansu data and Jiang Ping and Jia
Hongtao for the summary of data from their work in Xinjiang.

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