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Driving Simulator for Drivers Education with Artificial Intelligence Traffic and
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Driving Simulator for Drivers Education
with Artificial Intelligence Traffic
and Virtual Reality: a Review

Yun-Quan Cheng , Sarina Mansor , Ji-Jian Chin ,

and Hezerul Abdul Karim

Abstract Simulators are games that give a sense of realism and simulate of the real
world in a virtual world, such as racing games or serious medical training games.
These have been widely documented to have positive effects on the specific techni-
cal skills training on their respective field of users. However, in the area of simula-
tors for driving education, there has been a lack of a comprehensive survey which
encompasses the various contributions in this area. In this paper, we fill that gap by
providing a review of previous work in literature that focuses on driver’s education
using simulators. In addition, we include also works on Artifical Intelligence (AI)
and Computational Intelligence (CI) in games that could be used to enhance the
project and the effects of implementation of virtual reality in such studies.

Keywords Driving education · Driving simulator · AI techniques · CI

techniques · Virtual reality

1 Introduction

Simulators have been in existence for quite awhile. These computer programs pro-
vide a platform for simulating the real world in a virtual one where mistakes can be
forgiven and learning can be encouraged. These platform have been used in appli-
cations such as racing simulators and medical training simulators to teach and train
user skills that are specific to the field. With the technology of virtual reality, these

Y.-Q. Cheng (B) · S. Mansor · H. A. Karim

Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: sarina.mansor@mmu.edu.my
H. A. Karim
e-mail: hezerul@mmu.edu.my
J.-J. Chin
Faculty of Computing and Informatics, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, Selangor, Malaysia
e-mail: jjchin@mmu.edu.my

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 483
R. Alfred and Y. Lim (eds.), Proceedings of the 8th International Conference
on Computational Science and Technology, Lecture Notes in Electrical
Engineering 835, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8515-6_38
484 Y.-Q. Cheng et al.

platforms now can be further enhanced to provide users with immersive learning
where the user is immersed in the simulated environment to enhance the learning
effectiveness.
Simulators such as racing sims and medical training serious games have been
studied and widely documented in [4]. For example, Kandhai et al.’s paper [13]
presented an analysis on Immersive Driving Simulation for Driving Education. The
authors reported positive results on favourable learning experiences by the users in
their early testing. Chan et al. [5] also argued that driving simulators can be effective
tools for evaluating novice drivers in hazard anticipation, speed management and
attention maintenance. Finally, Burkhardt et al. mentioned in his paper [4], to a lesser
extend of the simulators and itself, VR have been documented copiously for research
purpose in road safety and (to a less extend) driving education. These technologies
however have not received as much attention in the training and learning purposes
of the simulators in driving schools [4]. Also, as the publication years suggest, these
works have not received recent attention.
For these driving simulators, they will need to be simulated traffic to simulate a
realistic virtual traffic environment. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Computational
Intelligence (CI) have been linked to computer games since the first program where it
was designed to play chess [24, 29]. In modern computer games, AI and CI have been
uniquely designed for their specific purposes in their games. In this review paper, we
mainly focus on racing games, simulators and open world games that have simulated
traffic. AI and CI in racing are not just for running laps in the track mindlessly. It is
there to give challenge and immersion to the user. In some cases with modern open
world racing games and games, it could be an integral part of making the virtual
world come alive. Traffic in games like the Forza Horizon 4, Cyberpunk 2077 and
Grand Theft Auto V give the world a sense of liveliness and realism.
In the context of driving simulator, an adaptive AI traffic could provide the user
with realism and challenges as the AI technique might act randomly to interfere with
the user when he is driving. As mentioned by Aiolli et al. [2], an AI that can adapt to
the user’s behaviour and can react with more unpredictable behaviours. MacKinnon
et al. [15] also found that adaptive AI gave users a more challenging and enjoyable
experience. These factors suggest that AI in a driving simulator can be adaptive to
provide certain challenges to the user.
Virtual Reality (VR) has been in trend recently with simulators such as Microsoft’s
Flight Simulator. But according to Cipresso et al. [7], the technology has been in
existence for quite some time, formulated during the 1960s with the first commercial
VR tools appearing in the late 1980s. VR has attracted the interest of investors and the
general public after Mark Zuckerberg purchased Oculus. Now big corporations such
as Samsung, Sony, HTC, and Google are investing heavily into VR/AR technologies.
With the recent emergence of consumer focused VR technologies like HTC VIVE,
Sony PlayStation VR and the Oculus Rift, VR is attracting attention of users and
researchers alike, suggesting it may be the next stepping stone in technological
innovation [7]. Gutierrez et al. [18] mentioned in his paper that it is sound to take
advantage of these technologies to facilitate learning with the increased affordability
Driving Simulator for Drivers Education with Artificial … 485

and accessibility of VR/AR technologies. This suggests that more fields of education
could be experimented with VR/AR.
In this article, we set out to achieve two objectives: first we review existing work in
literature that focuses on driver’s education using simulators, AI and CI in games that
could be used in the projects. Secondly we discuss the effects of VR towards filling
the gap that we found to be available for further studies. It also serve as a call for
using available technology to improve user learning engagement and effectiveness,
while improving the safety, controllability and repeatability of driver education. We
note that prior to this work, to the best of our knowledge no such work has been done
to consolidate existing studies done in these three main areas of driving simulation,
AI and CI as well as VR. This article is also intended to provide a rough guideline
on designing the requirements of a driving simulator for driving education studies.
The major contributions are summarised as below.
1. We reviewed papers that analysed the effects of simulators for training and edu-
cation and found a gap in their use in driving education studies.
2. We surveyed AI and CI techniques used in racing games that can help create an
environment with simulated traffic that can mimic real world randomness and
provide the user with an immersive experience.
3. We also examined papers that study VR and their effects on improving skill
training, hazard perception and learning effectiveness. In these VR-related papers,
we found that there is also a gap in driving education studies, while exploring the
possible use to improve learning effectiveness in driving education.
This article explored ten papers related to driving simulators used for driving edu-
cation: five papers regarding AI and CI techniques in games to enhance experiences
and five papers regarding VR and its effect in educational and training uses. All of
the papers are published between 2005 and 2021.
The organisation of this article is as follows. Section 2 presents the literature
review of driving simulators use for driving education and serious games. Section 3
discusses about the AI and CI techniques used in games, including its methods used
and how would it help with our upcoming project. Effects of virtual reality used in
education will be subsequently discussed in Sect. 4. Section 5 will be the conclusion
of the article.

2 Driving Simulators

We arrange our review in accordance to chronology, with one exception of the final
article which focuses on drivers’ education for the Malaysian road system. In this
section, we reviewed papers regarding driving simulators and serious games on their
effects on education. Exploring the papers to see if there is really a gap in drivers
education in relation to driving simulators.
A study did by Wade et al. [19] in 2005 highlighting the effects of Driving Simula-
tor Fidelity on over 500 novice drivers accompanied by driver education instructors
486 Y.-Q. Cheng et al.

who have no prior experience in running human subject experiments. Three types of
setups with different fidelity, from least to highest, was used to run against training
groups that did Literature Training and among themselves [19]. In their results, we
focused solely on the results of different fidelity of the simulators used and discover
that greater fidelity produce better results in driving training.
The issue here is that this paper was published in 2005. Computer graphics fidelity
and the commercialisation of VR technology is getting better and more common in
2021 compared to 2005. Hence, with the technology now, we can improve further
on the fidelity of the driving simulator and in turn, improve the results of our project.
Fisher et al. designed a program that is pc-based to train novice drivers’ hazard
detection. The authors’ method was a pc training session where it has 3 sections, a
pre-test, training and post-test [10]. The program will ask their users to manually
click on and identify the hazard or where to be aware in the situation. The users are
supposed to look at the scenario photo and drag circles indicating where they should
monitor [10] and where potential hazards can be [10]. After the pre-test the users
were required to go to a simulator to be trained for risk awareness. Then they will take
another post-test to evaluate their learnings [10]. We have decided to take inspiration
from their methods of designing pre-programmed scenarios to train our user’s risk
awareness but will incorporate the scenarios in the simulator itself including the
evaluation. Their result shows reduced likelihood of crashes proving novice drivers
can be trained to gain information and reducing their likelihood to crash. It also
indicates possible improvement if driving simulators were used for training.
Wang et al. [28] paper concludes that driving simulator is slowly becoming an
important approach for driving safety studies due to its repeatability and controlla-
bility of experiments. It is also safer and have lower cost [28]. The authors signify
that the masses can benefit from the widespread consumer use of mid-level and
entry-level sims as computer technology progresses [28]. In modern times (2021),
the Covid-19 Pandemic had pushed entry-level sims in trend as cost to own is low.
Signifying that the use of low-cost simulators for driving education is viable.
Backlund et al.’s paper [3] concluded that there is a positive link between specific
skill-oriented aspects of driving and gaming. The authors did this by constructing a
simulator with off-the-shelf hardware running on an open-source software [3]. Data
was collected from 70 participants and analysed to study the possible individual
learning effects and it came out positive [3]. They showed a simulation based on
game is viable to be employed as a catalyst to enhance various aspects of learning in
traffic safety context and driving education [3]. Kandhai et al. [13] did their analysis
on immersive driving simulation for driver’s education by putting the users into a
predefined starting point in the simulator they built and asking the users to follow
the voice instructions en route. The faults were recorded and compared with users’
simulation experience report. The results showed that users commit more faults
than they perceive, suggesting users can improve using the simulator [13] while
reinforcing Backlund et al.’s statement [3].
Underwood et al. [27] assessed the comparability between driving on the road and
in a simulator and chose to evaluate [13] simulator. The authors compared the sim-
ulators hazard detection while watching recorded short clips from a vehicle moving
Driving Simulator for Drivers Education with Artificial … 487

through traffic and “driving” in a simulated city in a fully instrumented fixed-base

simulator [27]. The conclusion was only relative validity as the authors are not able to
replicate similar hazardous situations in the simulator. However, individuals showed
similar behaviour in both cases, and the authors mentioned that this comparability
could encourage simulators being in use for driver training and testing [27].
Nieto et al. [11] agreed that in order to create a great learning experience in
serious games, it will require a balanced mix of entertainment, perceived educational
value and specific instructional content. The authors also suggested that educational
computer games in high school CS can create a motivational and effective learning
environment regardless the gender of the students [11]. Hence, gender bias will not be
an issue if the driving simulator can create a learning environment with this qualities.
Erhel et al. [9] concluded from their experiments, serious games environment are
able to promote learning and helps with learning motivation if it is equipped with
features that prompt the learners to process the educational content actively. Also
noting that learning instructions are able to enhance the learning and the entertainment
biased instructions with feedback are beneficial [9].
Mazer et al. [17] examined the effectiveness on the retraining of clients with neu-
rological impairment using driving simulators and factors associated with treatment
effectiveness. The results of their experiment showed the preliminary potential clin-
ical usefulness of driving simulator training and the authors suggested that moderate
impairment clients had the potential to benefit [17]. Mazer et al.’s paper indicates
that driving simulator for driving education may prove to be multi-purposed and have
the potential to benefit many students.
Uhr et al. [26] did an experiment with 50 experienced truck drivers to perform
a specific driving manoeuvre using both an advanced driving simulator and a real
system. Then the authors evaluated the results to find any transfer of training from
driving simulator into the real system [26]. The results showed positive [26], indi-
cating that driving training could be transferred from simulator to the real system.
To the best of our knowledge, only one prior work that focuses on drivers’ educa-
tion for the Malaysian system that exists. Ismail et al. [12] did a preliminary study on
drivers’ readiness for using a driving simulator as a tool to improve driving skills. The
study was a survey conducted on 122 driving candidates and 35 driving instructors
at several driving institutes around Selangor and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Three
issues were focused in the survey which are: (i) the respondents’ perception towards
the advantages of using such simulator, (ii) the purpose of the simulator as an educa-
tional tool and (iii) their readiness to accept and use such a tool. The survey results
show that majority of candidates agree that simulators are necessary for early driving
exposure and would use a simulator if it was available. It shows that Malaysians are
ready to accept the driving simulator as a tool for driving education.
In summary, there is a positive link in using simulators to improve learning effec-
tiveness, but there is still a gap to fill with more studies in relation to drivers’ education
especially in Malaysia where the authors reside. A common difficulty found was the
lack of an unified software that can give a full driver learning experience and have
the ability to evaluate the users. We also found a gap to be filled in with studies in
relation to physically or neurologically impaired patients using driving simulators
488 Y.-Q. Cheng et al.

for their drivers’ education. Another factor in exploiting the potential of driving sim-
ulators for drivers’ education, the driving simulator need to have a balanced mix of
entertainment and specific educational content to get users actively engaged in the
simulator.

3 AI and CI Techniques in Games

We arrange our review in accordance to chronology. In this section we will mainly

focus on how AI and CI techniques are used to improve game experiences. As
mentioned in the previous section, driving simulators with a balanced mix of enter-
tainment and educational value encourage the users to be actively engaged in the
simulators. In addition, users would be able to enjoy the simulated environment that
has natural driving AI that simulates traffic, and behave randomly like the real world
situation. In this section, we review papers on AI and CI techniques used in games
that can provide the entertainment aspect of the simulator.
With natural driving AI and real world randomness in mind, the paper from
Aiolli et al. about Enhancing AI in Games by Learning the Opponent’s Playing Style
provide the entertainment aspect. AI sometimes can get too predictable and obvious
to players that are good at the game [2]. Machine learning techniques could be used to
identify the player’s behaviour and consequently adapt to it [2], making it react to the
player with more unpredictable behaviours. This technique could be implemented
into the driving simulators to give the traffic more depth and randomness. It may also
improve the players hazard perception as random events or scenarios might play out
unbeknownst to the player nor the instructor. Giving a true sense of hazard.
MacKinnon et al.’s paper [15] also proves that using adaptive AI, majority of the
users found the races “challenging”, 50% of the users find it “enjoyable”, 30% says
its “thrilling” and the rest finds it “fun”. Although the AI technique was used in a
racing simulator, a different use case from driving simulators for driving education,
using adaptive AI could give the users a more enjoyable experience. In MacKinnon
et al.’s case [15], the adaptive AI adapts to the human driver and adjusts itself to the
human driver to provide a tighter/challenging racing. There is a pseudo code that
determine the AIs speed depending on where the AI is at in accordance to the player
and track section.
Another pseudo code in the adaptive AI that we can take reference from is for
more varied speed limits [15]. As the AI is closer or further away from the player,
it will adjust its maximum speed to catch or let the user catch it, a technique known
as rubber-banding [21]. Its motive is to keep the AIs in close proximity of the user,
creating a sense of “similarity of skill”, in a racing game, this might cost some loss
of realism if done badly [21]. In our case, cars on the highway have to adhere to a
constant speed limit, the AIs then can provide a sense of “fullness” on the highway
instead of a lone user driving.
Chan et al. [6] developed a car racing simulator game using AI techniques on
its AI racers. The purpose of developing the AI was not to overpower or defeat the
Driving Simulator for Drivers Education with Artificial … 489

player, instead it was to give the player an enjoyable and challenging experience.
The AI is incorporated with AI techniques that enables the cars to be controlled in
a manner that mimics natural driving [6]. The AI is designed with the combination
of Waypoint systems with Vector Calculation, Conditional Monitoring System and
Artificial Environment Perception [6]. These methods enable the AI to find where
they should go, traverse the track with natural steering and throttle/brake inputs and
be able to determine their surroundings and avoid obstacles such as walls. With the
AI techniques, we believe that it will provide the player with a sense of realism
in the driving simulator. The authors mentioned Unity has native support for the
development effort and reduces the implementation effort of the simulator game. It
is good news, as Unity is our platform of choice for our project.
Tomlinson et al. discussed about the AI architecture for racing games, touching on
racing behaviours. In this section, the authors mentioned that most realistic games,
AI can make occasional mistakes and recover from their mistakes [25]. As driving
simulators are not focused on racing, but the mistake and recovery design can help
make the experience of driving simulator more engaging and realistic in regards to
natural driving AI.
In our project, we wanted the AIs to know how to maneuver out of obstacles
and to prevent them crashing into obstacles all the time. We can refer Muhammad
Salman paper’s [23] look ahead, and overtaking methods. In his paper, his look
ahead method was used for path finding and obstacle avoidance. In his use case, the
lookahead points position on the track were determined by a general formula. The
AI will use the lookahead points to “lookahead” for obstacles and track scanning to
manoeuvre itself. As for his overtaking method, he uses a few inputs of information
to determine the overtake. The AI would first determine which opponent to overtake,
when the AI got close, a negative potential field indicating a crash was given. The
AI then made adjustments to the steer value and speed while adhering to the track
and cornering limits to make an overtake move. His paper concluded by stating that
his implementation has achieved the task of collision detection and overtaking while
driving in a car racing game.
In summary, driving simulators should be engaging and entertaining to get users
motivated and actively engaged in learning. AI and CI techniques discussed here can
provide the users with a simulated environment that is entertaining, challenging and
lively. The difficulty here is the implementations as all papers here have different
systems with different implementations, developing from scratch would require a
significant amount of time. We also believe that we may found a gap in using adaptive
AI techniques in driving simulators for driving education that could be filled with
more experimentation in terms of giving a real world randomness in driving behaviour
of the simulated traffic.
490 Y.-Q. Cheng et al.

4 Virtual Reality

We arrange our review in accordance to chronology. In this section, we will focus on

the effects on learning with VR. Virtual Reality has been in trend in many fields of
training recently. In this section, we explore the effects of using VR in educational or
training settings to evaluate the feasibility in implementing VR in driving simulators
for driving education.
Agrawal et al. [1] did an experiment by using Virtual Reality Headset as a training
device to improve young drivers’ mitigation skills and latent hazard anticipation. 3
training groups which all use different training namely, VRH based-Risk Awareness
Training (V-RAPT), PC based RAPT program (RAPT), and PC-based placebo train-
ing program. Experiment results concluded that drivers that are trained on V-RAPT
anticipated a significantly greater proportion (86.25%) of latent hazards than the
RAPT at 62.36% and placebo at 30.97%[1]. The V-RAPT group were also better at
mitigating potential threats, showing promise in VR to help improve drivers’ ability
to anticipate and mitigate latent threats, and thus reducing accidents [1].
Queiroz et al. [20] gave an overview of how learning assessments have been used
in studies using Immersive Virtual Environment and its applications in education.
They reviewed 46 studies and categorised into 6 categories, technological immersion,
type of knowledge, skills learnt, techniques, context, process, techniques, and method
of assessment. Only technological immersion, process, technique, and methods of
assessment will be discussed here.
They found that all studies used some type visual of immersion [20]. Auditory
immersion was used in 69% of the studies and only 2% of the studies use 3D auditory
immersion. Haptics immersion is only used in 20% of all studies. 67% of the studies
use metrics as their assessment technique, followed by pattern-based at 30 and 3%
used AIs. Most assessment processes are automated at 45% where 40% are manual
and 15% is partially automated. It is also found that 85% of studies uses quantitative
assessments while only 2% uses qualitative, 13% uses both [20]. The authors encour-
aged studies of immersive learning target high school students as research targets
as there are many abstract concepts in high school curriculum that students need to
assimilate and master [14, 20].
A meta-analysis done by Zhao et al. [30] on the effectiveness of virtual reality-
based technology on anatomy teaching. The meta-analysis was done on randomised
controlled studies of the performance of VR anatomy education. The authors 15 ran-
domised controlled trials with outcome measure analysis. By applying Standardised
mean difference to assess the systematic results, while heterogeneity is determined
by I2̂ statistics, later was then investigated by meta-regression and subgroup analyses.
The results showed that VR did improve the test scores moderately when compared
with other approaches (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 0.53; 95% Confidence
Interval [CI] 0.09–0.97, p < 0.05; I2 = 87.8%). The high homogeneity indicated that
the studies were distinct. With this reason, the authors executed a meta-regression
and subgroup analyses with these seven variables (learners, course, country, year,
intervention, duration, comparator) [30]. Conclusion, VR improves post-intervention
test score of anatomy compared with other types of teaching methods.
Driving Simulator for Drivers Education with Artificial … 491

The findings of the authors proves that VR can be an efficient way in improving
the learners’ level of anatomy knowledge [30]. In accordance with [19] the fidelity
of a driving simulator will produce a better result, VR can provide the users with
better fidelity than screens. VR has been confirmed to have an impact and would be
beneficial to include it in our project.
Masoumzadeh et al. [16] did a pilot study on improving spatial cognition in older
adults. The pilot study was done on older patients with varying degrees of dementia.
The experiment uses an in house designed virtual reality driving simulator and a
sample size of 10 participants. The author’s result shows that with repeated practice
with their designed virtual reality driving simulator, it has positive effects on older
adults’ spatial cognition and giving the patients an uplifting experience even on those
with different degrees of dementia. This gave the project a motivation to incorporate
VR into the project as it has been shown to help with older adults, it could benefit
the younger adults as well.
Dobrowolski et al. [8] done an experiment on learning transfer effects of complex
skill after training in younger and older adults with Immersive VR. The methods were
splitting 118 participants into 2 training groups: the non-interactive training group,
which uses a manual and training videos and the IVR training group which uses a
virtual simulation of the real-world task. The authors concluded that IVR training
of a complex skill can be transferred into a real-world analog, and is vastly more
effective than text-based and video methods. It is also equally beneficial to both age
ranges of adults [8].
A systemic review done by Renganayagalu et al. [22] recently concluded that VR
is considered as a technology with the potential to enhance learning processes with
trainees due to the ability of being able to provide experiential learning with elevated
levels of interaction and encourage active learner engagement. The review identified
training in these fields with VR is highly valuable to are such as aerospace, defence,
industrial, health care, safety and emergency preparedness training, indicating there
is a gap in drivers education. The authors mentioned that more rigorous research
are needed to examine the most promising uses of VR-Head Mounted Displays (VR
HMDs) in authentic training context [22] which gave motivation to our project.
Summarising this section, the VR papers we reviewed here are all quite recent,
indicating a boom of studies in recent years. There is still a gap in studies related
to drivers’ education despite the boom. The difficulty that we can possibly see is
motion sickness in using the VR HMDs. In general, we found a positive outlook on
the effects of using VR to boost learning effectiveness regardless of age as in [16]
paper was done with older adults and in [1] is done with younger adults. Hence we
came with the conclusion that including an immersive experience with VR or VR
headsets can positively affect the learning effectiveness of the driving simulator.
492 Y.-Q. Cheng et al.

5 Conclusion

In conclusion, we reviewed various papers and affirm that there is an area for appli-
cation in drivers’ education with driving simulators, and the use of Virtual Reality in
drivers’ education. To design a driving simulator for driving education, we found that
the entertainment factor is as important as the educational, and by using AI and CI
techniques used in racing games, a challenging and unpredictable simulated traffic
can be designed. In relation to all the sections, we conclude that driving simulators
that uses AI simulated traffic with VR fidelity for driving education can and should
further developed as the potential of using these technologies to improve learning
effectiveness seems promising. Future works’ direction should include attempts in
developing a driving simulator that has the mentioned qualities to be tested on human
subjects.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Education of Malaysia
in providing financial support for this work through the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(FRGS/1/2020/SS0/MMU/02/1)

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