INTRODUCTION TO

RESEARCH

English Department – Hanoi University

 Week 1 plan
• Introduction to the course

• Overview of research

• Different research methods

• Research questions

• Basic concepts

• Data researching skills

• Critiques of research articles

 Introduction to the course
• Introduction to the syllabus
• Course assessment
- Class attendance and participation: 10%
- Mid-unit assessment: 30%
+ Write a research critique of one or two articles
+ Individual work
+ Word limit: 500-700 words (+/-10%)
+ Submit in week 7
- Final assignment: 60%
+ Develop a research proposal
+ Pair/Group work
+ Word limit: 2000-2500 words (+/- 10%)
+ Submit 2 weeks after last lesson
What is research? Your view(s)
Activity: Please complete the following statements:

• Research is ………………….............
• Research is carried out in order to
……………………….......
• Knowledge about research might help me to...............
What is research? Definitions

“Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of

existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new
concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could include
synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that it leads to
new and creative outcomes”
(Australian Government, DET https://docs.education.gov.au/node/39431)

Function of research
What is research? Definitions
“… research is a systematic process of inquiry consisting of three
elements or components:
(1) a question, problem, or hypothesis,
(2) data,
(3) analysis and interpretation of data.”
(Nunan, 1992, p. 2).
Components of research?
What is research? Definitions

“… research in applied linguistics can be defined as an investigation,

examination or inquiry that requires planning, organizing and ethical
considerations as well as systematic and careful analysis of data, sound
interpretations and conclusion on the basis of evidence and inferences
being made.”
(Phakiti & Paltridge, 2015, p. 10).
The procedure of doing research and its qualities?
What is research? Summary
• Research is a process that
- (function) is done to create new knowledge, methods, or understandings.
- (components) includes (1) a question/problem/hypothesis; (2) data; and (3)
analysis and interpretation of data.
- (qualities) is implemented in a systematic, careful, ethical, evidence-based, and
sound manner.
- (nature) can be primary (with primary data) or secondary (review of existing
literature), conducted individually or collaboratively.
What is research? Types of research

❖ Theoretical vs. empirical research:

• Theoretical research = analyzing existing theories/findings to
develop new ideas.
• Empirical research = collecting data to develop new ideas.

❖ Primary vs. secondary research:

• Secondary research = looking at what has been said/done
about an issue using existing data.
• Primary research = collecting original data, analyzing it, and
drawing conclusions.
What is research? Approaches to research

❖ Quantitative research: experiments + other systematic methods

→ measure → connections between empirical observation &
mathematical expressions of relations → development and testing
of hypotheses → generating models and theories to explain
behavior.
❖ Qualitative research: in-depth understanding of social and human
behavior + reasons behind → understanding, exploring new ideas,
discovering patterns of behavior
❖ Mixed methods research: Combining quantitative and qualitative
research
 Research questions
• = The actual question you ask yourself about the topic. It is about some aspect of the
topic that you are interested in and want to find out more.
• = A starting point of all academic research

Topic: Women in politics

Example of research questions:
Topic: WOMEN IN POLITICS
Why do some countries have more women politicians than others?
Does having more women politicians lead to better laws for women?
Examples of research questions
Why do I need a research question?
A research question:
- helps you focused.
- gives you a specific direction to approach your topic.
- makes your reading and writing more manageable.
- underlies good research.
Why do I need a research question?
❖ Research questions are shaped by:
• Literature: Do the research questions contribute to
advancing existing research literature?
• Data: Can you collect, analyze, and interpret the data to
answer the research questions and how?
❖ Research questions connect the literature review, methodology,
data, findings and discussion.
==> Research questions can:
• fill research gaps
• be answered with data you can collect
 Steps of developing a research question

1. Pick a topic
2. Narrow the topic
3. Ask some questions
4. Pick one or two questions
5. Focus the question
Where can I find ideas for research questions?

❖ Three common sources of inspiration:

- Informal observations
- Practical problems
- Previous research
(Source: https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/chapter/generating-good-research-
questions/)
Pick a topic
Narrow the topic
 Ask some questions
• Decide whether your question will be framed as a
quantitative, a qualitative or a mixed-methods question.
• Consider what you are aiming to achieve with your question.
• Write several versions of your research questions and choose
the one that can help you attain your review goals.

Example: “Women in politics”

• Why do some countries have more women politicians than
others?
• What barriers hinder women entering politics?
• What factors influence women voters in choosing a
candidate to vote for?
 Pick one to work with
• Why do some countries have more women politicians
than others?
Focus the question

Who?
What?
Where?
When?
 Focus the question

Original question:
Why do some countries have more women
politicians than others?

More focused:
Why does Sweden have more women
politicians at the national level than Canada?
 How do I know if it’s a good question?
Discussions: Study the following research questions and see
if they are good ones or not?

1. “Why do some countries have more women politicians and

laws for women than others?”

2. “Are there more women politics in Sweden than in Canada?”

3. “Why do some countries have more women politicians than

others?”
“ What is the current number of women politics in Canada?

4. “How have women politicians been described by the media?”

 How do I know if it’s a good question?
• Focuses on ONE issue only
“Why do some countries have more women politicians and laws
for women than others?”

• Requires analysis, arguable

“Are there more women politics in Sweden than in Canada?”

• Not too broad, not too specific

“Why do some countries have more women politicians than
others?”
“ What is the current number of women politics in Canada?”

• No vague words
“How have women politicians been described by the media?”
 TRY IT YOURSELF!

1. Study the questions in the handout.

2. Identify the flaws in each question.
3. Try to make them better.
 Basic concepts

a. Research ethics

b. Hypotheses

c. Variables

d. Validity

e. Reliability
a. Research ethics
Sensitive aspects of research that should be taken into consideration:

• The amount of shared information with participants;

• Relationships between researchers and participants;

• Data collection methods;

• Anonymity;

• Data handling;

• Data ownership;

• Sensitive information;

• Testing.
a. Research ethics
Informed consent must be obtained from participants in their preferred language:

• Participants should be provided with sufficient information about the study (e.g., purposes and
procedure, potential risks and benefits, methodology, confidentiality and anonymity, data storage,
contact information).

• Participants agree to volunteer to participate in the study.

Sometimes, withholding some information, such as the goals of the study, may be acceptable to avoid
participants’ bias.
 b. Hypotheses
❖ A hypothesis = what the researcher expects the results of an investigation to be based on observations or
the literature.
❖ Two types of hypotheses:

• The null hypothesis (H0)= a neutral statement used as a basis for testing (e.g., there is no relationship
between X and Y; no effect; no difference) ==> the statistical task is to reject the null hypothesis and
show a relationship between X and Y.

• Research hypothesis (e.g., there is a relationship between X and Y).

❖ Hypotheses come from research questions (RQs):

• RQ: To what extent does textual input enhancement (i.e., underlining) affect incidental vocabulary
learning?

The null hypothesis: Textual input enhancement (i.e., underlining) does not have a significant
effect on incidental vocabulary learning.

•
Research hypothesis: Textual input enhancement (i.e., underlining) has a significant effect
on incidental vocabulary learning.
 c. Variables
❖ Variables = features that change (i.e., characteristics that vary from person to person, text to text, or
object to object).

❖ Example:

• Topic: Effects of modes of input on incidental collocation learning.

• The variables under investigation: modes of input, collocational gains.

❖ Two main types:

• Independent variable = variable that may cause the results (e.g., modes of input).

• Dependent variable = variable measured to see the effects of the independent variable (e.g.,
collocational gains).
 c. Variables
❖ Moderator variables = characteristics of individuals or of treatment variables that may result in an interaction between
an independent variable and other variables.

• Example: Topic: Effects of modes of input on incidental collocation learning.

Moderator variables: prior vocabulary knowledge, type of collocation

❖ Intervening variables are similar to moderator variables but not included in an original study and not controlled for
==> can complicate the interpretation of the results.

• Example: Topic: Effects of modes of input on incidental collocation learning.

Intervening variables: working memory, language aptitude

❖ Control variables = variables that can interfere with the findings and need to be controlled.

• Example: Topic: Effects of modes of input on incidental collocation learning.

Control variables: frequency of occurrence of collocations

 d. Validity
Validity = how accurately an instrument measures what it is intended to measure.

• Content validity = the representativeness of our measurement regarding the phenomenon about which
we want information (e.g., a questionnaire about vocabulary learning strategies should cover questions
about all vocabulary learning strategies and exclude irrelevant ones).

• Face validity = the familiarity of our instrument and how easy it is to convince others that there is
content validity to it (e.g., a colleague looking at the questionnaire on vocabulary learning strategies
may deem it to be valid based purely on face value) —> informal and subjective.

• Construct validity = the degree to which the research adequately captures the construct of interest
(e.g., in a study on incidental vocabulary learning learners’ attention should not be drawn to target
items in any ways).

• Criterion-related validity = the extent to which tests used in a research study are comparable to other
well-established tests of the construct in question.

• Predictive validity = the use that one might eventually want to make of a particular measure.
 d. Validity
❖ Internal validity = the extent to which the results of a study are a function of the
factor that the researcher intends.

• Factors that should be controlled for: participant characteristics like

proficiency, background, or experience; dropout rates; participant attitude;
test effects; instructions.
❖ External validity = the generalizability of our findings ==> the extent to
which the findings of the study are relevant not only to the research
population, but also to the wider population of language learners.

• Factors that can affect external validity: sampling, representativeness, biodata

information (gender, age, race…), setting.
 e. Reliability
❖Reliability = consistencies of data, scores, or observations obtained
s

using elicitation instruments, which can include a range of tools

from standardized tests administered in educational settings to tasks
completed by participants in a research study.

• Rater reliability: scores by two or more raters or between one rater at Time X
and that same rater at Time Y are consistent.

Interrater reliability: a measure of whether two or more raters judge the

same set of data in the same way.

Intrarrater reliability: a measure of how consistent an individual is at

measuring a constant phenomenon.
 e. Reliability

Instrument reliability: three types of reliability testing:

• Test-retest: the same test is given to the same group of individuals at two points in time
==> determine the correlation coefficient (i.e., strength of relationship) between the two test
administrations.

• Equivalence of forms: two versions of a test are administered to the same individuals and a
correlation coefficient is calculated.

• Internal consistency:

Split-half procedure: comparing the performance on half of a test with

performance on the other half and obtaining correlation coefficient.

Cronbach’s alpha: a statistic based on the variances of two or more scores.

 Database searching skill

What sources might you use to research a topic for your

assignment?
 Sources of academic knowledge

WHAT?
• Scholarly books
• Text books
• Dictionaries
• Academic journals
• Official reports (Government, NGOs, world
bodies)
• Company reports
• (Some) websites (NOT facebook posts, blogs,
wikipedia entries)
 Sources of academic knowledge

WHERE?

- Library: using the library catalogue

But the number of sources are sometimes too
limited!

- The Internet: Using searching engines (e.g.

Google.com)
But there are too many sources!
 Searching for reference materials using
academic databases

• Academic Database: a collection of

information that is written or used for
academic purposes, including access
to academic journals.

• Examples: Google Scholar, ERIC

 Searching for reference materials using
databases

List of free academic databases:

- Google Scholar:
https://scholar.google.com.vn/
- Education Resource Information Centre (ERIC):
https://eric.ed.gov/
- Directory of Open Access Journal (DOAJs):
https://doaj.org/
- Wiley Online Library:
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
 Assessing the reliability of sources

Reliability of a source can be judged via five tests:

1. The AUTHORITY test

2. The AUDIENCE test

3. The TRANSPARENCY test

4. The OBJECTIVITY test

5. The CURRENCY test

(Brick, 2012)
 The AUTHORITY test
Where does the information come from?
Questions you should ask:
1. Who wrote the text?
2. What are the author’s qualifications?
3. Who are the publishers?
4. Is the source peer-reviewed?
5. Is the author associated with a reputable institution
(university, organization)?
6. Is the information from
✔ An official website (e.g. The United Nations Statistics Divisions –
UNSD)
 The AUDIENCE test
Who is the text written for?
▪ Academic audience?

▪ Professional audience?

OR

▪ General public?
 The AUDIENCE test
Who is the text written for?
▪ Consider the:
- Use of terminology and disciplinary language
- Discussion of theories and principles
- Use of referencing
- Type of evidence used:
+ statistics, case studies, research
OR
+ anecdotes, everyday examples
- Genre (structure and style of writing)
 The TRANSPARENCY test

• What evidence is given to support claims?

• Can the information given as evidence be checked?

• Has the data been collected and analysed in ways that

are transparent (you can see)?

 The TRANSPARENCY test

• All evidence should be accompanied by an in-text

citation
• Evidence includes facts and opinions
• The full reference for every citation should appear in a
final reference list
• When primary data is used, the data collection
procedure is clearly described.
 The OBJECTIVITY test

• What is the purpose of the text: is it to inform or to

advertise?
• If the research was funded, what is the source of that
funding?
• If the author(s) have a financial interest in the research,
is that acknowledged?
The OBJECTIVITY test
 The CURRENCY test
• Checks whether the text and content is up to date
• Questions to ask:
1. When was the text published?
2. What are the dates of references used in the text?

• Appropriate currency varies from discipline to

discipline. In IT, a 3-year-old source is likely to be out-
of-date; in philosophy, a 300-year-old source may still
be appropriate!
 PRACTICE!
• Each finds 1 article from the listed websites about a
specific topic
• In groups, take turn to present and discuss about the
reliability of each article, check with 5 listed tests.
 Critiques of research articles

• In group, study the check list.

• Choose a research article and present your critiques for it.

 Classwork
• 1. Identify big names in your area(s) of research interest.
• 2. Select their five most recent publications (journal articles, books,
book chapters, conference papers - either single-authored or co-
authored)
• 3. Read those selected publications and identify research gaps.
 References
• Cohen, L.; Manion, L.& Morrison K., (2017). Research methods in
Education. Routledge.
• Gass, S. M., & Mackey, A. (2015). Second language research:
Methodology and design. Routledge.
• https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/chapter/generating-good-
research-questions/
• https://sscc.libguides.com/c.php?g=18253&p=102734
• https://www.jstor.org/stable/1176359