Waiting-Line Models

MODULE
PowerPoint presentation to accompany
Heizer and Render
Operations Management, Eleventh Edition
Principles of Operations Management, Ninth Edition

© 2014
© 2014
Pearson
Pearson
Education,
Education,
Inc.Inc. MD - 1
 Outline
► Queuing Theory
► Characteristics of a Waiting-Line
System
► Queuing Costs
► The Variety of Queuing Models
► Other Queuing Approaches

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 2

 Learning Objectives
When you complete this chapter you
should be able to:
1. Describe the characteristics of arrivals,
waiting lines, and service systems
2. Apply the single-server queuing model
equations
3. Conduct a cost analysis for a waiting line

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 3

 Learning Objectives
When you complete this chapter you
should be able to:

4. Apply the multiple-server queuing

model formulas
5. Apply the constant-service-time
model equations
6. Perform a limited-population model
analysis

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 4

 Queuing Theory
▶ The study of waiting lines
▶ Waiting lines are common situations
▶ Useful in both
manufacturing
and service
areas

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 5

 Common Queuing Situations
TABLE D.1 Common Queuing Situations
SITUATION ARRIVALS IN QUEUE SERVICE PROCESS
Supermarket Grocery shoppers Checkout clerks at cash register
Highway toll booth Automobiles Collection of tolls at booth
Doctor’s office Patients Treatment by doctors and nurses
Computer system Programs to be run Computer processes jobs
Telephone company Callers Switching equipment to forward calls
Bank Customer Transactions handled by teller
Machine maintenance Broken machines Repair people fix machines
Harbor Ships and barges Dock workers load and unload

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 6

 Characteristics of Waiting-Line
Systems
1. Arrivals or inputs to the system
▶ Population size, behavior, statistical
distribution
2. Queue discipline, or the waiting line itself
▶ Limited or unlimited in length, discipline of
people or items in it
3. The service facility
▶ Design, statistical distribution of service times

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 7

 Parts of a Waiting Line
Population of Arrivals Queue Service Exit the system
dirty cars from the (waiting line) facility
general
population …
Dave’s
Car Wash

Enter Exit

Arrivals to the system In the system Exit the system

Arrival Characteristics Waiting-Line Service Characteristics

► Size of the population Characteristics ► Service design
► Behavior of arrivals ► Limited vs. ► Statistical distribution of
► Statistical distribution of unlimited service
arrivals ► Queue discipline
Figure D.1
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 8
 Arrival Characteristics
1. Size of the arrival population
▶ Unlimited (infinite) or limited (finite)
2. Pattern of arrivals
▶ Scheduled or random, often a Poisson
distribution
3. Behavior of arrivals
▶ Wait in the queue and do not switch lines
▶ No balking or reneging

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 9

 Poisson Distribution

e-x
P(x) = for x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …
x!

where P(x) = probability of x arrivals

x = number of arrivals per unit of time
 = average arrival rate
e = 2.7183 (which is the base of the
natural logarithms)

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 10

 Poisson Distribution
Figure D.2
e-x
Probability = P(x) =
x!

0.25 – 0.25 –

0.02 – 0.02 –
Probability

Probability
0.15 – 0.15 –

0.10 – 0.10 –

0.05 – 0.05 –

– –
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 x
Distribution for  = 2 Distribution for  = 4

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 11

 Waiting-Line Characteristics
▶ Limited or unlimited queue length
▶ Queue discipline - first-in, first-out
(FIFO) is most common
▶ Other priority rules may be used in
special circumstances

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 12

 Service Characteristics
1. Queuing system designs
▶ Single-server system, multiple-server
system
▶ Single-phase system, multiphase system
2. Service time distribution
▶ Constant service time
▶ Random service times, usually a negative
exponential distribution

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 13

 Queuing System Designs
A family dentist’s office

Queue
Service Departures
Arrivals facility after service

Single-server, single-phase system

A McDonald’s dual-window drive-through

Queue
Phase 1 Phase 2 Departures
Arrivals service service
after service
facility facility

Single-server, multiphase system

Figure D.3
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 14
 Queuing System Designs
Most bank and post office service windows

Service
facility
Channel 1
Queue
Service Departures
Arrivals facility
after service
Channel 2

Service
facility
Channel 3

Multi-server, single-phase system

Figure D.3
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 15
 Queuing System Designs
Some college registrations

Phase 1 Phase 2
service service
Queue facility facility
Channel 1 Channel 1
Departures
Arrivals after service
Phase 1 Phase 2
service service
facility facility
Channel 2 Channel 2

Multi-server, multiphase system

Figure D.3
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 16
 Negative Exponential
Figure D.4
Distribution
Probability that service time is greater than t = e-µt for t ≥ 1
µ = Average service rate
1.0 – e = 2.7183
Probability that service time ≥ 1

0.9 –
0.8 –
Average service rate (µ) = 3 customers per hour
 Average service time = 20 minutes (or 1/3 hour)
0.7 – per customer
0.6 –
0.5 –
0.4 –
Average service rate (µ) =
0.3 – 1 customer per hour
0.2 –
0.1 –
0.0 |– | | | | | | | | | | | |
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00
Time t (hours)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 17
 Measuring Queue Performance
1. Average time that each customer or object spends
in the queue
2. Average queue length
3. Average time each customer spends in the system
4. Average number of customers in the system
5. Probability that the service facility will be idle
6. Utilization factor for the system
7. Probability of a specific number of customers in the
system

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 18

 Queuing Costs
Cost Figure D.5

Minimum
Total Total expected cost
cost
Cost of providing service

Cost of waiting time

Low level Optimal High level

of service service level of service

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 19

 Queuing Models

The four queuing models here all assume:

1. Poisson distribution arrivals

2. FIFO discipline
3. A single-service phase

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 20

 Queuing Models

TABLE D.2 Queuing Models Described in This Chapter

MODEL NAME EXAMPLE
A Single-server Information counter at
system (M/M/1) department store

NUMBER OF NUMBER ARRIVAL SERVICE POPULATION QUEUE

SERVERS OF RATE TIME SIZE DISCIPLINE
(CHANNELS) PHASES PATTERN PATTERN
Single Single Poisson Exponential Unlimited FIFO

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 21

 Queuing Models

TABLE D.2 Queuing Models Described in This Chapter

MODEL NAME EXAMPLE
B Multiple-server Airline ticket counter
(M/M/S)

NUMBER OF NUMBER ARRIVAL SERVICE POPULATION QUEUE

SERVERS OF RATE TIME SIZE DISCIPLINE
(CHANNELS) PHASES PATTERN PATTERN
Multi-server Single Poisson Exponential Unlimited FIFO

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 22

 Queuing Models

TABLE D.2 Queuing Models Described in This Chapter

MODEL NAME EXAMPLE
C Constant-service Automated car wash
(M/D/1)

NUMBER OF NUMBER ARRIVAL SERVICE POPULATION QUEUE

SERVERS OF RATE TIME SIZE DISCIPLINE
(CHANNELS) PHASES PATTERN PATTERN
Single Single Poisson Constant Unlimited FIFO

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 23

 Queuing Models

TABLE D.2 Queuing Models Described in This Chapter

MODEL NAME EXAMPLE
D Limited population Shop with only a dozen
(finite population) machines that might break

NUMBER OF NUMBER ARRIVAL SERVICE POPULATION QUEUE

SERVERS OF RATE TIME SIZE DISCIPLINE
(CHANNELS) PHASES PATTERN PATTERN
Single Single Poisson Exponential Limited FIFO

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 24

 Model A – Single-Server
1. Arrivals are served on a FIFO basis and
every arrival waits to be served regardless
of the length of the queue
2. Arrivals are independent of preceding
arrivals but the average number of arrivals
does not change over time
3. Arrivals are described by a Poisson
probability distribution and come from an
infinite population

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 25

 Model A – Single-Server
4. Service times vary from one customer to
the next and are independent of one
another, but their average rate is known
5. Service times occur according to the
negative exponential distribution
6. The service rate is faster than the arrival
rate

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 26

 Model A – Single-Server
Queuing Formulas for Model A: Single-Server System,
TABLE D.3
also Called M/M/1
λ = mean number of arrivals per time period
μ = mean number of people or items served per time period (average
service rate)
Ls = average number of units (customers) in the system (waiting and
being served)
λ
=
μ–λ
Ws = average time a unit spends in the system (waiting time plus
service time)
1
=
μ–λ

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 27

 Model A – Single-Server
Queuing Formulas for Model A: Single-Server System,
TABLE D.3
also Called M/M/1
Lq = mean number of units waiting in the queue
λ2
=
μ(μ – λ)
Wq = average time a unit spends waiting in the queue
λ Lq
= =
μ(μ – λ) λ
ρ = utilization factor for the system
λ
=
μ

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 28

 Model A – Single-Server
Queuing Formulas for Model A: Single-Server System,
TABLE D.3
also Called M/M/1
P0 = Probability of 0 units in the system (that is, the service unit is
idle)
λ
=1–
μ
Pn>k = probability of more than k units in the system, where n is the
number of units in the system
k+1

= [ ] λ
μ

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 29

 Single-Server Example
 = 2 cars arriving/hour µ = 3 cars serviced/hour

l 2
Ls = = = 2 cars in the system on average
m-l 3-2

1 1
Ws = = = 1 hour average waiting time in the system
m - l 3-2

l2 22
Lq = = = 1.33 cars waiting in line
m (m - l ) 3(3 - 2)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 30
 Single-Server Example
 = 2 cars arriving/hour µ = 3 cars serviced/hour

 2
Wq = = = 2/3 hour = 40 minute
µ(µ – ) 3(3 – 2)
average waiting time
2 
 = = = 66.6% of time mechanic is busy
µ 3

P0 = 1 – = .33 probability there are 0 cars in the
µ system

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 31

 Single-Server Example
Probability of more than k Cars in the System

K Pn > k = (2/3)k + 1
0 .667 Note that this is equal to 1 – P0 = 1 – .33
1 .444
2 .296
3 .198 Implies that there is a 19.8% chance that more
than 3 cars are in the system
4 .132
5 .088
6 .058
7 .039

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 32

 Single-Channel Economics
Customer dissatisfaction
and lost goodwill = $15 per hour
Wq = 2/3 hour
Total arrivals = 16 per day
Mechanic’s salary = $88 per day

Total hours customers 2 2

spend waiting per day = 3 (16) = 10 3 hours

2
Customer waiting-time cost = $15 10 = $160 per day
3

Total expected costs = $160 + $88 = $248 per day

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 33

 Multiple-Server Model
Queuing Formulas for Model B: Multiple-Server System,
TABLE D.4
also Called M/M/S
M = number of servers (channels) open
 = average arrival rate
µ = average service rate at each server (channel)
The probability that there are zero people or units in the system is:

1
P0 = for M m > l
é M -1 æ ön ù ælö
M
êå ç ÷ ú +
1 l 1 Mm
ç ÷
êë n=0 n! è m ø úû M ! è m ø M m - l

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 34

 Multiple-Server Model
Queuing Formulas for Model B: Multiple-Server System,
TABLE D.4
also Called M/M/S
The number of people or units in the system is:

lm ( l / m )
M
l
LS = P0 +
( M -1)!( M m - l ) m
2

The average time a unit spends in the waiting line and being serviced
(namely, in the system) is:

m (l / m)
M
1 LS
WS = P0 + =
( )( ) m l
2
M -1 ! M m - l

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 35

 Multiple-Server Model
Queuing Formulas for Model B: Multiple-Server System,
TABLE D.4
also Called M/M/S
The average number of people or units in line waiting for service is:

l
Lq = LS -
m
The average time a person or unit spends in the queue waiting for service
is:
1 Lq
Wq = WS - =
m l

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 36

 Multiple-Server Example
 = 2 µ = 3 M = 2

1
P0 =
é 1 æ ön ù æ ö
2
êå 1 ç 2 ÷ ú + 1 ç 2 ÷ 2(3)
êë n=0 n! è 3 ø úû 2! è 3 ø 2(3) - 2
1 1 1
= = =
2 1 æ 4 öæ 6 ö 2 1 2
1+ + ç ÷ç ÷ 1+ +
3 2 è 9 øè 6 - 2 ø 3 3
= .5 probability of zero cars in the system

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 37

 Multiple-Server Example
( )
2
(2)(3) 2 / 3 æ 1ö 2 8 / 3 æ 1ö 2 3
LS = 2ç ÷
+ = ç ÷+ =
(1)!(2(3) - 2) è 2 ø 3 16 è 2 ø 3 4

= .75 average number of cars in the system

LS 3/4 3
WS = = = hour
l 2 8
= 22.5 minutes average time a car spends in the system
l 3 2 9 8 1
Lq = LS - = - = - =
m 4 3 12 12 12
= .083 average numner of cars in the queue (waiting)
Lq .083
Wq = = = .0415 hour
l 2
= 2.5 minutes average time a car spends in the queue (waiting)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 38
 Multiple-Server Example

SINGLE SERVER TWO SERVERS (CHANNELS)

P0 .33 .5
Ls 2 cars .75 cars
Ws 60 minutes 22.5 minutes
Lq 1.33 cars .083 cars
Wq 40 minutes 2.5 minutes

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 39

 Waiting Line Tables
TABLE D.5 Values of Lq for M = 1-5 Servers (channels) and Selected Values of λ/μ
POISSON ARRIVALS, EXPONENTIAL SERVICE TIMES
NUMBER OF SERVICE CHANNELS, M
λ/μ 1 2 3 4 5
.10 .0111
.25 .0833 .0039
.50 .5000 .0333 .0030
.75 2.2500 .1227 .0147
.90 8.1000 .2285 .0300 .0041
1.0 .3333 .0454 .0067
1.6 2.8444 .3128 .0604 .0121
2.0 .8888 .1739 .0398
2.6 4.9322 .6581 .1609
3.0 1.5282 .3541
4.0 2.2164

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 40

 Waiting-Line Table Example
Bank tellers and customers
 = 18, µ = 20 Lq
Ratio /µ = .90 Wq = 

From Table D.5

NUMBER OF NUMBER IN
SERVERS M QUEUE TIME IN QUEUE
1 window 1 8.1 .45 hrs, 27 minutes
2 windows 2 .2285 .0127 hrs, ¾ minute
3 windows 3 .03 .0017 hrs, 6 seconds
4 windows 4 .0041 .0003 hrs, 1 second

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 41

 Constant-Service-Time Model
Queuing Formulas for Model C: Constant Service, also
TABLE D.6
Called M/D/1
l2
Average length of queue: Lq =
2m ( m - l )
l
Average waiting time in queue: Wq =
2m ( m - l )
l
Average number of customers in the system: Ls = Lq +
m
1
Average time in the system: Ws = Wq +
m

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 42

 Constant-Service-Time Example
Trucks currently wait 15 minutes on average
Truck and driver cost $60 per hour
Automated compactor service rate (µ) = 12 trucks per hour
Arrival rate () = 8 per hour
Compactor costs $3 per truck

Current waiting cost per trip = (1/4 hr)($60) = $15 /trip

8 1
Wq = = hour
2(12)(12 – 8) 12

Waiting cost/trip
with compactor = (1/12 hr wait)($60/hr cost) = $ 5 /trip
Savings with = $15 (current) – $5(new) = $10 /trip
new equipment
Cost of new equipment amortized = $ 3 /trip
Net savings = $ 7 /trip
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 43
 Little’s Law
► A queuing system in steady state

L = W (which is the same as W = L/

Lq = Wq (which is the same as Wq = Lq/

► Once one of these parameters is known, the

other can be easily found
► It makes no assumptions about the probability
distribution of arrival and service times
► Applies to all queuing models except the limited
population model

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 44

 Limited-Population Model

Queuing Formulas and Notation for Model D: Limited-Population

TABLE D.7
Formulas
T Average number
Service factor: X= J = NF(1 - X)
T+U of units running:

Average number Average number

Lq = N(1 - F) being serviced: H = FNX
waiting:

Average Lq (T + U) T(1 - F) Number in

W = = N = J + Lq + H
waiting time: q N - Lq XF population:

Average time 1
in the system:
Ws
= Wq
+
m

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 45

 Notation
D= probability that a unit will have to wait in N= number of potential customers
queue
F=
H=
Limited-Population Model
efficiency factor
average number of units being served
T=
U=
average service time
average time between unit service
requirements
J= average number of units in working order Wq = average time a unit waits in line
Lq = average number of units waiting for service X= service factor
Queuing Formulas and Notation for Model D: Limited-Population
TABLE D.7 of servers (channels)
M = number
Formulas
T Average number
Service factor: X= J = NF(1 - X)
T+U of units running:

Average number Average number

Lq = N(1 - F) being serviced: H = FNX
waiting:

Average Lq (T + U) T(1 - F) Number in

W = = N = J + Lq + H
waiting time: q N - Lq XF population:

Average time 1
in the system:
Ws
= Wq
+
m

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 46

 Finite Queuing Table
1. Compute X (the service factor), where
X = T / (T + U)
2. Find the value of X in the table and then find
the line for M (where M is the number of
servers)
3. Note the corresponding values for D and F
4. Compute Lq, Wq, J, H, or whichever are
needed to measure the service system’s
performance

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 47

 Finite Queuing Table
TABLE D.8 Finite Queuing Tables for a Population of N = 5
X M D F
.012 1 .048 .999
.025 1 .100 .997
.050 1 .198 .989
.060 2 .020 .999
1 .237 .983
.070 2 .027 .999
1 .275 .977
.080 2 .035 .998
1 .313 .969
.090 2 .044 .998
1 .350 .960
.100 2 .054 .997
1 .386 .950

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 48

 Limited-Population Example
Each of 5 printers requires repair after 20 hours (U) of use
One technician can service a printer in 2 hours (T)
Printer downtime costs $120/hour
Technician costs $25/hour
2
Service factor: X = = .091 (close to .090)
2 + 20
For M = 1, D = .350 and F = .960
For M = 2, D = .044 and F = .998
Average number of printers working:
For M = 1, J = (5)(.960)(1 - .091) = 4.36
For M = 2, J = (5)(.998)(1 - .091) = 4.54
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 49
 Limited-Population Example
AVERAGE AVERAGE
NUMBER COST/HR FOR COST/HR FOR
Each of 5OF
NUMBER printers requires repair
PRINTERS after 20TECHNICIANS
DOWNTIME hours (U) of TOTAL
use
DOWN (N – J) (N – J)($120/HR)
One technician can service a printer in 2 hours (T) COST/HR
TECHNICIANS ($25/HR)
1 .64 $76.80 $25.00 $101.80
Printer downtime costs $120/hour
2 .46 $55.20 $50.00 $105.20
Technician costs $25/hour
2
Service factor: X = = .091 (close to .090)
2 + 20
For M = 1, D = .350 and F = .960
For M = 2, D = .044 and F = .998
Average number of printers working:
For M = 1, J = (5)(.960)(1 - .091) = 4.36
For M = 2, J = (5)(.998)(1 - .091) = 4.54
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 50
 Other Queuing Approaches
▶ The single-phase models cover many
queuing situations
▶ Variations of the four single-phase
systems are possible
▶ Multiphase models
exist for more
complex situations

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 51

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Printed in the United States of America.

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. MD - 52