Cairo University

Faculty of nursing
1st Term Doctorate
(2022-2023)

Ethnography
Prepared by:
Rasha Sobhy
Eman Alhawasay
Ahmed Al Qurashi
Bader Alsufyani
Abdulla Alsufyani
Saud Mohammed al Zahrani
Taya Mohammed Abdalsalam
Najla Akmal Sindi

Under Supervision of:

Prof. Dr. Abeer Saad
Prof. Dr. Hanan Fahm
Prof: Safaa Abd Elmotelb

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Objectives:-
By the end of this session each candidate will be able to:-
 Define the ethnography.
 Clarify ethnography origin.
 Explain ethnography roots.
 Explain Fundamentals characteristics of ethnography.
 Selection of Ethnography as Method
 Elements and Interpretations of the Method
 Performing Data Analysis
 Application of ethnography to Practice, Education and
Administration
 Conducting ethnographic research critique.

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Outlines
 Introduction.
 Origin of ethnography.
 Definition of ethnography.
 Roots of ethnography.
 Fundamentals characteristics of ethnography.
 Types of ethnographic schools.
 Selection of ethnography as a method.
 Elements and interpretation of the method.
 Steps for conducting ethnographic research Performing
data analysis
 Ethical consideration
 Application of ethnographic method in nursing practice.
 Application of ethnographic method in nursing
education.
 Application of ethnographic method in nursing
administration
 Critique of Research articles.

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Introduction:
• Ethnography is considered to be the oldest of the qualitative research
methodologies” (Roberts, 2009,). As nursing practice has broadened
so too have the research methods used to study practice, particularly
the meanings of health and illness as lived by individuals, families,
and groups.

• Nurses have used ethnography to study a variety of topics important

to nursing, including children’s quality of life after heart transplant
(Green et al.,2007).

• Ethnography, a means of studying groups of individuals’ lifeways

or patterns.

• To fully understand why there is a demonstrated commitment to

ethnographic research, it is important to look at the foundations of
ethnography as a research method.

• Anthropology is synonymous with the term ethnography. As early

as the 1960s, references can be found regarding the value of an
ethnographic approach as a means to study nursing culture (Boyle,
1994; Leininger, 1970; Ragucci, 1972).

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ETHNOGRAPHY DEFINEATION

• According to Spradley (1980),“Ethnography is the work of

describing culture”.

• “Ethnography means learning from people”. Spradley also pointed

out that “the essential core of ethnography is this concern with the
meanings of actions and events to the people [ethnographers] seek
to understand”.

• Ethnography has and will continue to provide important information

about the meanings, organization, and interpretations of culture.

• According to Muecke (1994), the four major ethnographic schools

of thought are (1) classical; (2) systematic; (3) interpretive or
hermeneutic; and (4) critical.

• 1-Classical ethnography requires that the study “include both a

description of behavior and demonstrate why and under what
circumstances the behavior took place” (Morse & Field, 1995).

• 2-Systematic ethnography is “to define the structure of culture,

rather than to describe a people and their social interaction,
emotions, and materials” (Muecke, 1994).

• 3-interpretive or hermeneutic ethnography is to “discover the

meanings of observed social interactions” (Muecke, 1994).

• According to Wolcott (cited in Muecke, 1994), “Ethnography is

quintessentially analytic and interpretive, rather than
methodological”.

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• Interpretive ethnographers are interested in studying the culture
through analysis of inferences and implications found in behavior
(Muecke, 1994).

• 4-Critical ethnography is another type of ethnography Muecke

(1994) described. It “draws on cultural studies, neo-Marxist and
feminist theories and research on critical pedagogy” (Gordon,
Holland, & Lahelma, 2001).

• “Critical ethnography is distinguished from conventional

approaches by its focus on issues of injustice and social oppression”.

• Critical approach is the understanding that through communicative

practices and reflection, researchers and participants discern an
absolute truth of the culture” (Manias & Street, 2001).

• Leininger (1985) identifies a specific approach to ethnography she

calls ethno nursing and Auto-ethnography.

• Ethno nursing that allows nurses to “study explicit nursing

phenomena from a cross-cultural perspective”. The goal is “to
discover nursing knowledge as known, perceived and experienced
by nurses and consumers of nursing and health services”. The most
significant contribution of Leininger’s work is its focus on nursing
as the phenomenon of interest.

• Auto-ethnography

• Grbich (1999) also offers auto-ethnography as a type of ethnography

• It is a form of self-reflection and writing that explores the

researcher’s personal experience and connected this
autobiographical history to a wider cultural, political, and social
meanings and understanding. It focuses on writer’s subjective

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 experience rather than the interaction with the beliefs and practices
of others.

ETHNOGRAPHY ROOTS

• There is much debate about the historical beginnings of

ethnography.

• Sanday (1983) proposed that ethnography began with Herodotus.

• Atkinson and Hammersley (1994) offer that the contemporary

beginning of ethnography occurred late in the 19th century as
individuals began to acknowledge cultural differences or “deviations
from norms” and became interested in studying these deviations.

• Atkinson and Hammersley (1994) identified two key phases in the

development of ethnography in the 20th century: “the work of the
founders of modern anthropology and that of the Chicago school of
sociology”.

• Boas, Malinowski, and Radcliffe-Brown, the founders of modern

anthropology (Atkinson & Hammersley, 1994), were committed to
anthropology as a science.

• These ethnographers focused on chronicling their descriptions of

primitive cultures. “The prime motivation on the part of all three
founders was the rejection of speculation in favor of empirical
investigation, a theme that has always been a central characteristic
of empiricism, but not exclusive to it”(Atkinson & Hammersley,
1994).

• The Chicago School’s most striking feature was its limited

“questioning of the relevance of natural science as a methodological
model for social research”(Atkinson & Hammersley, 1994).

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 • The University of Chicago was “the matrix in which there developed
a rich tradition of urban sociology, heavily dependent on the detailed
investigation of local social settings and cultures” (Atkinson et al.,
2001).

Fundamental characteristics of ethnography

• (1) Researcher as instrument.

• (2) Fieldwork

• (3) The cyclic nature of data collection and analysis.

• (4) The focus on culture.

• (5) Cultural immersion.

• (6) Reflexivity

(1) Researcher as instrument

• The primary ways that researchers become the instruments are

through interviewing, observing, recording of cultural data, and
examining cultural artifacts.

• Researchers often become participants in the cultural scene

• Ethnographic researchers, despite becoming part of the cultural

scene, will never fully have the insider’s (emic) view

• The strength of participant observation is the opportunity to access

information from the outsider’s (etic) view.

(2) Fieldwork

• All ethnographic research occurs in the field. Researchers go to the

location of the culture of interest.

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 • Researcher was interested in studying the experience of children
suffering with long-term illness. Specifically who were experiencing
end-stage renal disease

(3) The cyclic nature of data collection and analysis

• In ethnographic research, a question about the differences in human

experience found in a culture usually different from one’s own leads
researchers to investigate those differences.

(4) The focus on culture.

• “Ethnography focuses on a group of people who have something in

common”

• The culture of any society is made up of the concepts, beliefs, and

principles of action and organization that an ethnographer has found
could be attributed successfully to the members of the society in
context of his dealings with them (Wolcott, 2003).

• The Wolcott state culture statement because:

1) The value of ethnography is found in the adequacy of the explanation

rather than in the method.

2) Culture is not seen, it is inferred.

3) The attention that ethnographers give culture is a job they have given
themselves

(5) Cultural immersion.

• It requires that researchers live among the people being studied.

• For example: the nurse researcher who is interested in studying the

culture of families coping with human immunodeficiency virus in a

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 family member, she would need to immerse him or herself in the
lives of the families studied.

(6) Reflexivity

• It is a process of induction of meaning that arises from

ethnographers’ analysis of data while simultaneously
acknowledging their own influences from their insider role on that
data.

Selection of the ethnography as a method

Goals of the ethnographic:

• To get at the implicit or latent (backstage) culture in addition to the

explicit, public, or manifested (front-stage) aspects of culture

Reasons for using ethnography to study culture

• 1. To document the existence of alternative realities and to describe

these realities

• 2- To discover grounded theories

• 3- To better understand complex societies

• 4- To understand human behavior.

Type of the ethnographic studies

• A micro- or mini-ethnography: is generally of a smaller scale and

is narrow or specific in its focus.

• A macro- or maxi-ethnography: is a study that examines the

culture in a broader context, extends over a longer period, and is
most often reported in book form.

Elements and Interpretation of the Method

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 • Paradigmatic ethnography consists of the range of activities
completed by a trained ethnographer, including:

- Observing

- Recording

- Participating

- Analyzing

- Reporting

- Publishing experiences with a particular cultural group.

There is three traditions within paradigmatic ethnography:

- 1- Holistic

- 2- Semiotic

- 3- Behavioristic.

(1) Holistic

- Is the study of the culture as an integrated whole

- Is the oldest tradition

(2) Semiotic

• Is focus on gaining access to the native’s viewpoint?

• The major anthropologists in this tradition did not share

epistemologies.

(2) Behaviorist

- is to uncover covering patterns in observed behavior.

- This approach is deductive

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 • Is a nurse anthropologist, developed her own interpretation of
ethnography: ethno nursing.

• Ethno nursing, is “the study and analysis of the local or indigenous

people’s viewpoints, beliefs, and practices about nursing care
behavior and processes of designated cultures” (Leininger, 1978).

• The goal of ethno nursing is to “discover nursing knowledge as

known, perceived and experienced by nurses and consumers of
nursing and health services” (Leininger, 1985).

• The primary function of her approach to ethnography is to focus on

nursing and related health phenomena.

Selecting Ethnography

• When nurses choose to conduct ethnographic research studies,

usually they have decided there is some shared cultural knowledge
to which they would like access

• The way individuals’ access cultural knowledge is by making

cultural inferences, which are the observer’s (researcher’s)
conclusions based on what the researcher has seen or heard while
studying another culture.

• Three types of information to generate cultural inferences.

1- Cultural behavior (what people do).

2- Cultural artifacts (the things people make and use).

3- Speech messages (what people say).

Understanding the Researcher’s Role

- Participate in the culture

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 - Observe the participants

- Document observations

- Collect artifacts

- Interview members of the cultural group

- Analyze

- Report the findings.

- It requires that researchers regularly reflect on the impact their

participation in the culture has on the data and analysis.

Gaining Access

• Once the researcher decide the aim of inquiry, and the scope of the
project.

• The researcher will gain access to the culture.

• This may be the difficult part of the study due to the researcher is
not usually member of the group studied.

Steps for Conducting Ethnographic Research

1. Do participant observation.

2. Make an ethnographic record.

3. Make descriptive observations.

4. Make a domain analysis.

5. Make a focused observation.

6. Make a taxonomic analysis.

7. Make selected observations.

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 8. Make a componential analysis.

9. Discover cultural themes.

10. Take a cultural inventory.

11. Write an ethnography.

(1)Making participant observation

• The Ethnographer will start ask broad questions of the setting.

• Researchers look, listen, ask question, collect artifacts, and analyze

data collection in cyclic manner

• There is THREE types of observation

• 1- Descriptive observation: start when the researcher enters the

social. The ethnographer will begin by describing the social
situation, getting an overview of the situation, and determining what
is going on.

• 2- Focused observations: is required to look specifically. These

observations are generated from questions the researcher asked
during the initial descriptive phase.

• 3-Selective observation: Based on the focused observation, the

researcher conducts a more selected observations.

(2)Making the Ethnographic Record

- On completion of each observation, ethnographers are responsible for

documenting the experience. Documents generated from the observations
are called field notes.

- Field notes are generally made during or immediately after an

observation or interview.

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 - Field notes may be managed by handwriting and storing them
manually or by using computer programs to store and categorize
data.

(3) 3- Making Descriptive Observations

- Every time ethnographers are in a social situation, they generally will

make descriptive observations without having specific questions in mind

- There are nine major dimensions to any social situation

Nine dimensions for social situations

1- Space refer to the physical place or places where the culture of interest
carries out social interactions.

2- Actors refer to people who are a part of the culture under investigation.

3- Activities refer to the actions by members of the culture.

4- Objects refers to artifacts such as pamphlets read by clients and staff

records.

5-Any single actions carried out by group members is an act.

6-An Event is a set of related activities carried out by members of the

culture.

7-Time documented time when activities occur.

8-Goals refers to what group members hope to achieve.

9-Feeling of each social citations should recorded.

(4) 4-Making a Domain Analysis

- To begin to understand cultural meaning, ethnographers must analyze

social situations they observe. A social situation is not the same as the

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concept of culture but, rather, “refers to the stream of behavior (activities)
carried out by people (actors) in a particular location (place)”.

- Analysis of the social situation will lead to discovery of the cultural scene.

- Cultural scene, an ethnographic term, refers to the culture under

study.

- The first step in analysis is to do a domain analysis. Ethnographers

doing a domain analysis focus on a particular situation.

(5) Making Focused Observations

- Based on the completed domain analysis, ethnographers will need to

make new observations and collect additional material.

- The domain analysis should be the impetus for the next round of
observations.

- Researchers identify the domain categories that need development

and then return to the research site.

(6)Making a taxonomic analysis

- Is a more in-depth analysis of the domains researchers have

previously selected?

- Researchers are searching for larger categories to which the domain

may belong.

- One completion of analysis ethnographers will look for relationships

among the parts or relationships to the whole.

- Based on these new categories, researchers will make additional

observations and ask more questions.

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 - Is a more in-depth analysis of the domains researchers have
previously selected?

- Researchers are searching for larger categories to which the domain

may belong.

- One completion of analysis ethnographers will look for relationships

among the parts or relationships to the whole.

- Based on these new categories, researchers will make additional

observations and ask more questions.

(7) Making Selective Observations

- Through selective observations, researchers will further refine the

data they have collected. Selective observations will help to identify
the “dimensions of contrast”.

- Spradley offers several types of questions that will help researchers

discern the differences in the dimensions of contrast.

- 1-The dyadic question 2-Triadic contrast questions 3- Card-

sorting contrast questions

1-The dyadic question

- Seeks to identify the differences between two domains.

-In what way are these two things different?

-In the clinic example, one of the questions the researcher should ask is, in
what ways are NPs and CNSs different?

2-Triadic contrast questions

- Seek to identify how three categories are related.

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- The researcher in the clinic example might ask, of the three—NPs, CNSs,
and RNs—which two are more alike than the third?

3-Card-sorting contrast questions

-Allow ethnographers to place the domains on cards and sort them into
piles based on their similarities. This also can be managed by specific
computer software applications. By identifying the similarities, the
contrasts become easily recognizable.

(8) Making a Componential Analysis

- Componential analysis is the systematic search for attributes associated

with cultural categories and searching for missing data” (Spradley, 1980).

- Boyle (1994) indicates that componential analysis has two objectives:

1. To specify the conditions under which participants name something.

2. To understand under what conditions the participants give something

a specific name.

- Componential analysis is language driven.

- The purpose of making a componential analysis:-

- To search for contrasts, sort them out, and then group them based on
similarities and differences.

- This activity provides ethnographers with important information

regarding the culture under study.

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Domain Licensed Supervised Health care provider
personel

Doctors Yes No Yes

Nurses Yes Yes Yes

Receptonist No Yes No

Maintenance staff No Yes No

Secretaries No Yes No

Example that illustrates dimensions of contrast based on the sorting of

people who work in the outpatient clinic.

The eight steps of the procedure are as follows:

1- Select a domain for analysis (people who work in the clinic)

2- Inventory previously discovered contrasts (some members are licensed,

have supervisors to whom they report, and provide health care).

3- Prepare the worksheet (this is called a paradigm).

4- Classify dimensions of contrast that have binary values (licensed, yes or

no).

5- Combine related dimensions of contrast into ones that have multiple

values (doctors and nurses are licensed personnel who provide health care)

6- Prepare contrast questions for missing attributes (Are doctors the owners
of the clinic because they appear not to have a reporting relationship?).

7- Conduct selective observations and interviews to discover missing data

and confirm or discard hypotheses.

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8- Prepare a complete paradigm.

(9) Performing Data Analysis

Data analysis occurs throughout data collection:

1) Discovering cultural themes.

2) Taking a cultural inventory.

(1)Discovering Cultural Themes

The discovery of cultural themes requires ethnographers to:

 Carefully examine the data collected.

 Identify recurrent patterns. Whether tacit or explicit.

To complete the theme analysis, researchers must become:

 Immersed in the data, which requires focused concentration over an

extended period, to identify patterns that have not become apparent
at the particular point in the study.

 To explore patterns that may have been generated previously to

ensure their soundness.

Six Universal Themes

Spradley (1980) identified six universal themes that may be helpful during
this stage of data analysis.

1. Social conflict.

2. Cultural contradiction (What types of conflicts are occurring

between people in social situations?).

3. Informal techniques of social control (Is there information derived

from the cultural group that appears contradictory?).

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 4. Management of interpersonal relationships (Are there informal
patterns of behavior that result in social control?).

5. Acquisition and maintenance of status (How do group members

conduct their interpersonal relationships?).

6. Problem solving. Researchers then write an overview summary of

the cultural scene to help identify themes they have not yet
discovered.

2) Taking a Cultural Inventory

• Completing a cultural inventory is the first stage in writing an

ethnography. The inventory provides the opportunity to organize
collected data.

A cultural inventory involves:

 Listing cultural domains.

 Listing analyzed domains.

 collecting sketch maps, which are drawings of places or activities;

listing themes; completing an inventory of examples; identifying
organizing domains; completing an index or table of contents;
completing an inventory of miscellaneous data; and suggesting areas
for future study. (Spradley, 1980)

(10) Interpreting the Findings

 The purpose of an ethnographic study is to describe the culture.

 It is important to remember that no two researchers would likely

describe a culture in the same way, because of the unique attributes
and values of researchers’ cultures, the period in which the study was
conducted, and the information gathered by the researchers.

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  As ethnographers begin to write the study findings, they must
remember that, if they used appropriate rigorous methods to collect
and analyze data, then the product is one view of a truth.

 “In the course of the final analysis, comparisons with existing

ethnographies and other midrange theories are made.

 Existing theories may be supported or refuted and new midrange

theories, in addition to the descriptive and explanatory theory of
culture (the ethnography) may be induced”. (Germain, 2001)

 Once researchers have completed the inventory, interpreted the

findings, and compared their work to the literature, they are ready to
write the ethnography.

(11) Writing the Ethnography

The purpose of writing an ethnography is to share with people what the

researcher has learned and to attempt to make sense out of the cultural
patterns that present themselves.

To be done an ethnographer must ask, for whom am I writing?

Based on the answer to this question, the document will look different.

 If writing for a scholarly community, details will be important.

 If writing for the popular press, insights with exemplars will be most
useful.

 If writing for an organization in the form of a formal report, the

researcher must pay attention to those details that reflect the
concerns that directed the inquiry.

 One of the best ways to know what to write is to look for examples
of what has been written.

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  Ethnographers may choose to report natural history organized
chronologically or spatially, or they may choose to organize
information based on significant themes (Omery, 1988).

 A review of published texts that chronicles macro-ethnographies or

scholarly journals that have published focused or micro-
ethnographies will provide good examples of how to organize the
final ethnographic report.

 Researchers may write several drafts until the document accurately

reflects the culture.

 They may recruit researcher colleagues to critique their work.

 Colleagues can help neophyte researchers discover whether they

have appropriately covered the topic.

Ethical Considerations

 The protection of study participants is important regardless of the

research paradigm, whether it is a qualitative or quantitative
approach, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, action, or
historic.

 When conducting ethnographic research, researchers by virtue of

their roles as participant-observers are in a unique position to fit in.

 Researchers live among the people and therefore have the ability to
be invisible at times in the researcher capacity.

 The invisible nature of researchers has significant value in data

collection but can present potential dilemmas from an ethical
standpoint.

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The important elements in conducting any type of research study are:

 Inform participants fully about the matter to which they are

consenting.

 Inform participants that they can withdraw from the study at any
time for any reason.

 Reduce all unnecessary risks, ensure that the benefits of the study
outweigh the risks.

Ensure that the researchers who will be conducting the study have
appropriate qualifications. (Lipson, 1994).

A. Informed consent.

B. Privacy.

C. Risk.

D. Research qualification.

Informed consent is an ethical principle that requires researchers to obtain

voluntary consent, including description of the potential risks and benefits
of participation.

Munhall (1988) recommends using “process consent” rather than the

traditional consent signed in the beginning of most studies and not
revisited unless participants question their obligations related to the study.

• Process consent or “consensual decision- making”: means that

researchers renegotiate the consent as unforeseen events or
consequences arise. (Munhall, 1988; Ramos, 1989).

• The ethnographers afford participants the chance to withdraw or

modify that to which they initially agreed, By providing the

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 opportunity to renegotiate the consent and be part of the decision
making as the study develops

B. Privacy:

• Covert participation in all research is regarded as a violation of

individuals’ rights. Therefore, ethnographers should always be
forthright with their intentions.

• Lipson (1994) suggests that consent in the field becomes somewhat

more difficult.

• For example, the researcher secures consent before formal

fieldwork begins. Some time passes, and the researcher is in the field
at the time an unexpected event occurs, such as the birth of a child.

• C. Risk: Researchers should never put a participant group in danger

for data collection purposes. The important principle is that the
researcher should not engage in data collection to achieve his or her
own goals when significant risk to research participants is involved.

• For example, the researcher in the field may discover that some
young men are staging a gang fight in which they plan to use
weapons.
• Believing that it would be important to learn more about conflict and
how the group handles it, the researcher plans to go as an observer.

• In this situation, the risk to the people involved far outweighs the
goal to observe how the group handles conflict. Intervention is
necessary. How the researcher intervenes should be determined by a
number of factors. A research mentor is invaluable in helping the
novice researcher sort out when and how to intervene.

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• D. Researcher’s Qualifications: Usually, institutional review
boards will assess the researcher’s qualifications based on review of
the submitted research proposal.

• A un- qualified researcher can do substantial damage to a culture.

• It is essential that, even as a neophyte ethnographer, one clearly

understands what it is he or she is doing and the potential risks in
conducting a study without adequate sensitivity and knowledge.

• It is important that ethnographers be aware of and knowledgeable

about their responsibilities to research participants. Specifically,
because of the intimate nature of the relationships that develop when
ethnographers live among study participants, these researchers have
a duty to inform and protect informants.

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 Ethnography in Practice, Education, and Administration

Introduction

• Ethnography is an important way of studying nursing and the

cultural practices imbedded within it. The study of patterns within a
culture provides an excellent opportunity to describe the practices of
the people for whom nurses care, to understand the health-related
phenomena of people within various cultures, and to examine
nursing’s own unique culture. Ethnography provides a chance to
explore both the clinical aspects of nursing and its administrative
and educative patterns and lifeways.

Ethnography Applied to Practice

Using ethnographic methods to study the culture found in professional

caring environments is appropriate. Whether the interest is in studying
humor in critical care (Dean & Major, 2008), postoperative pain
assessment decisions (Harper, Ersser, & Gobbi, 2007) or the culture of a
Taiwanese nursing home (Chuang & Abbey, 2009), ethnographic research
provides the framework for exploring the richness of nursing and nursing-
related phenomena.

Example of Ethnographic studies in clinical setting:

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Culture of a Taiwanese Nursing Home (Chuang and Abbey, 2009)
- result of the ethnographic study using Critique Guidelines.

Focus

- Culture of Taiwanese nursing home

- Study is important due to admission of nursing home is very recent

in Taiwan

- Nursing home located in southern Taiwan run by government

Method

- studying the culture of nursing home implies that the study is about
ethnography.

- Report indicates that the study will be conducted onsite

- Informants will be nursing personnel, orderlies, clerk, and residents

of the facilities.

- Consent - authors did not state the method of taking but gain
approval from human subjects review board.

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Sampling

- Purposive sample was used.

- sample includes 16 residents, 8 nurses, 6 nursing assistants (1

private), 1 physician’s assistant, 1 orderly and 4 family members.

Data Collection

- Interview, participant observation and examination of important

documents to inform the study

Note: multiple methods of data collection adds credibility to the

study findings

- Researchers conducted observations on different days of the week

including weekends and three shifts.

- Both participant-as-observer and observer-as-participants

strategies are used in the study.

- Interviews and analyses of documents are used to gain richer

understanding of the setting.

- Researchers also use reflexive practices to maintain self- awareness

and to gain better understanding during data collection phase.

Data Analysis

- Findings of the study used table to define the process used to

analyze data.

- Table illustrating themes and categories data to support the themes

were also utilized.

- Result section provides informant statements to help support the

findings.

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Rigor

- Use of multiple methods of data collection supports the rigor of the

study.

- Compare and contrast method used during data analyses further

support the findings as well as the decision trail and the thick description
of the informants.

Findings

- The study reported 3 major themes: collective life, care rituals, and
embedded beliefs

- The researchers offers examples of similar data collected by other

researchers at the end of the study

Conclusion

- The researchers did not overstate the conclusion

- The study have clearly stated the situation in Taiwanese nursing home

- The study illustrated the informants perspective on what is it like to live

in nursing home.

- Researchers concluded that a change in nursing home to a more

appropriate resident-centered form of care and enhance the provision of
individualized care.

The study have clearly stated the situation in Taiwanese nursing home

- This illustrated the informants perspective on what is it like to live

in nursing home.

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 - Researchers concluded in their study that “a change in nursing
home to a more appropriate resident-centered form of care and enhance the
provision of individualized care”.

- the study had added to the body of nursing knowledge about the
care of the elderly particularly those in the nursing homes thus, providing
groundwork for future studies.

Ethnography Applied to Education

- Teaching and learning environment creates its own culture.

- happens when ethnography is integrated to nursing education.

Learning How We Learn: An Ethnographic Study in Neonatal

Intensive Care Unit (Hunter et al, 2008)
- result of the ethnographic study using Critique Guidelines

Focus

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 - identify how the nurse clinician learn with and from each other in
the setting

- Culture is that on Australian neonatal intensive care unit

- Focus is the 20 bed NICU in Australia

Method

- Conducting interviews and observations in three shifts

- Informants participation was voluntary in this study.

- Ethics committee at both university and hospital reviewed and

approved the study.

- Two consent forms were used: one for participant and the other one
for recording.

- Process consent was used in the site when there is long time of
engagement.

Sampling

- the study included 32 nurse clinicians, 14 medical registrars, 5

allied health worker, 1 nurse educator, 1 clinical nurse consultant, 1 nurse
manager, 5 senior medical specialist and 1 administrative worker.

- 57% working in the unit had participated in the study.

- Reporters did not discussed who the key informants and how they
were selected in the study.

Data Collection

- In-depth interviews and observation were conducted during the

study.

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 - Researchers did not make reference on how the two methods
supported the credibility of the findings.

Data Analyses

- Used the ETHNOGRAPH 5 in analyzing the study.

- Qualitative data analysis package was used to organize, retrieve

and identify key themes.

Rigor

- No description of rigor reported in the study.

- Researchers used time spent and cross checking of data to assure

credibility of the findings.

Findings

- Research findings offer 4 major dimensions: orientation of nurses,

orientation of medical registrars, preceptoring and decision-making.

- The 4 dimensions speak on what is required to be learned to be an

effective nursing clinician.

- Informants’ words illustrate the dimensions identified.

Conclusion

- Study offered insights into bedside clinical teaching which is

advantageous because it is reality-based.

- The study provided framework for future planning of unit level

education.

- This is an example of focus ethnographic study.

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Ethnography Applied to Administration

- Focus of the research study is in the area of nursing administration.

Continuation…

Beyond Profession: Nursing Leadership in Contemporary

Healthcare (Sorensen, Iedema, Severinsson 2008)
result of ethnographic study using Critique Guidelines
Focus
- Study focuses on nursing leadership in the unit
- 3-year study focused as well as end of life care
- No explanation why ethnography was the method of choice
for the study.
Method
- Research takes place in the field
- No report as to how subjects were protected and how consent
were obtained.

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Sample
- The study is a part of a larger study
Data Collection
- Focus groups and interviews were conducted to collect the
data from nurse included in the study.
- included also is the amount of time spent by researchers in
the area of study are two important ways to assure credibility of the
findings.
Data Analyses
- Constant comparative method was used to analyzed the data
gathered
Rigor
- No explicit description of rigor noted in the study however,
time spent and triangulation of data collection are 2 ways to exploit
the findings.
Findings
- 3 major dimensions emerged in the study: nursing care at the
end of life, barriers to enacting nursing’s professional role,
opportunities for nursing leadership in the organization.
- the sub-units were illustrated by informants’ description on what
it is like to manage intensive care unit specifically related to end of
life care.
Conclusion
- The study implicates the nurses’ role in organizational strategy and
patient advocacy.
- Researchers believed that nurses need to be equal partner in
healthcare.
Words to Ponder…

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36
 Reference
• Helen J. Streubert, Rinaldi Carpenter,(2011), Qualitative Research
in Nursing, 5th edition. Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins.

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