BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (21BE45)

Module 5

TRENDS IN BIOENGINEERING
Syllabus:
Bioprinting techniques and materials, 3D printing of ear, bone and skin. 3D printed foods. Electrical tongue
and electrical nose in food science.DNA origami and Biocomputing, Bioimaging and artificial Intelligence for
disease diagnosis. Self-healing Bioconcrete (based on bacillus spores, calcium lactate nutrients and
biomineralization processes) and Bioremediation and Biomining via microbial surface adsorption (removal of
heavy metals like Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Arsenic).

BIO PRINTING TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS

Bioprinting is an advanced technique that involves using 3D printing technology to create three-
dimensional structures using biocompatible materials and living cells. This process has great potential in tissue
engineering, regenerative medicine, drug testing, and personalized medicine.

Some common bioprinting techniques and materials used in the field are

Extrusion-Based Bioprinting:

This technique involves extruding bioink through a nozzle onto a substrate in a layer-by-layer fashion.
The bioink contains cells and biomaterials, which can include hydrogels, polymers, or decellularized
extracellular matrix (ECM) materials. Extrusion-based bioprinting offers versatility in terms of cell types and
materials but may have limitations in terms of cell viability due to shear stress during extrusion.

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Inkjet Bioprinting:

Similar to traditional inkjet printing, inkjet bioprinters deposit droplets of bioink containing cells
and biomaterials onto a substrate. The precision of inkjet printing allows for high-resolution structures, but it's
more suitable for creating thin tissues or patterns due to the limited viscosity of the bioink.

Stereolithography (SLA) Bioprinting:

SLA involves solidifying liquid bioinks layer by layer using UV light. This technique can achieve
high-resolution and intricate structures, making it suitable for creating fine features. SLA is often used for
creating scaffolds or structures that require high accuracy.

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) Bioprinting:

SLS uses lasers to selectively fuse powdered biomaterials layer by layer. It's versatile and can be
used with various biomaterials. SLS is used less frequently in bioprinting due to the potential heat damage to
cells and biomolecules caused by the laser.

BIOPRINTING MATERIALS

Hydrogels: Hydrogels are water-swollen polymer networks that closely resemble the natural extracellular
matrix. They provide a supportive environment for cell growth and can be used as a scaffold material. Examples
of hydrogels include alginate, gelatin, collagen, hyaluronic acid, and fibrin.

Decellularized Extracellular Matrix (dECM): These are natural tissues having ECM. dECM can be used as a
scaffold material to provide a native-like environment for cells to thrive and differentiate

Synthetic Polymers: Biocompatible synthetic polymers such as polycaprolactone (PCL), poly(lactic-co-

glycolic acid) (PLGA), and polyethylene glycol (PEG) can be used as scaffold materials. These materials offer
mechanical support and degradation profiles that can be tailored for specific applications.

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Composite Materials: Composite materials combine different biomaterials to achieve specific properties, such
as mechanical strength, bioactivity, and controlled degradation. For example, ceramics like hydroxyapatite can
be combined with polymers to mimic the composition of natural bone tissue.

Cellular Components: Living cells are a crucial component of bioinks. These cells can include stem cells,
differentiated cells, or even patient-specific cells. Osteogenic cells, chondrocytes, and endothelial cells are
examples of cells used in bioprinting bone, cartilage, and vascular tissues, respectively.

Growth Factors and Bioactive Molecules: Bioinks can also include growth factors, cytokines, and other
bioactive molecules that influence cell behavior and tissue regeneration.

Thus, bioprinting techniques and materials are continuously evolving, with researchers working to improve cell
viability, mechanical properties, and overall functionality of the bioprinted tissues.

3D PRINTING OF EARS

This technology allows for the creation of customized ear structures for various purposes, including prosthetics,
tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine.

Technique Involves:

Image Acquisition: The digital model serves as the basis for creating the 3D-printed ear.

Ex: 3D scanning, MRI, CT scans, or photogrammetry.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD): Using this software, the 3D design includes all the details of the ear's shape,
contours, and structures are developed.

Material Selection: For external ear prosthetics, materials that mimic the appearance of human skin and
cartilage might be used.

3D Printing Techniques: Several 3D printing techniques can be used to create 3D-printed ears, including
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Stereolithography (SLA),Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) etc.

Integration of Electronics: For certain applications, such as creating bionic ears or hearing aids, the 3D-
printed ear might need to incorporate electronics like speakers or sensors.

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3D PRINTING OF BONE

The 3D printing of bone, also known as bioprinting or additive manufacturing of bone tissue, involves creating
three-dimensional bone structures using specialized 3D printers and bioinks that contain a combination of cells,
biomaterials, and growth factors.

The process involves:

Image Acquisition and Design: The process typically begins with obtaining medical imaging data, such as CT
scans or MRI scans, of the patient's bone structure. This data is then converted into a digital 3D model using
specialized software.

Material Selection: The common biomaterials used for 3D printing of bone include biocompatible polymers,
ceramics, and composite materials.

Bioink Development: Bioinks are specialized materials that typically contain a combination of living cells,
biomaterials, and growth factors.

Ex: Osteogenic cells, which have the potential to differentiate into bone cells, are often used.

Layer-by-Layer Printing: The various 3D printing techniques can be used, including extrusion-based
printing, inkjet printing, and laser-assisted printing.

Post-Processing: After printing, the 3D-printed bone structure might undergo post-processing steps such as
cleaning, sterilization, and surface treatments to improve biocompatibility and mechanical properties.

Implantation or Tissue Engineering: It can be directly implanted into a patient's body to replace damaged or
missing bone segments. In more advanced applications, researchers are exploring tissue engineering
approaches, where the 3D-printed bone acts as a scaffold for the patient's cells to grow and regenerate new bone
tissue.

3D printing of bone has the potential to revolutionize orthopedics and reconstructive surgery by offering
personalized, patient-specific solutions for bone defects, fractures, and other conditions.

3D PRINTING OF SKIN

3D printing of skin refers to the process of creating three-dimensional human skin tissue using a 3D
printer. The goal of 3D printing skin is to create functional, living tissue that can be used for a variety of
purposes, such as cosmetic testing, wound healing, and drug development. The process involves the use of bio
printing technology, where a bio ink made from living cells and growth factors is printed in a specific pattern to
create the desired tissue structure.

Process involves

Preparation of the bioink: A bioink is made by mixing human skin cells, such as fibroblasts and keratinocytes,
with a hydrogel matrix that provides a supportive environment for cell growth.

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Design of the tissue structure: The tissue structure to be printed is designed using computer-aided design
(CAD) software, which is then used to control the dispensing of the bioink.

Printing: The bioink is printed layer by layer using a 3D printer to create the desired tissue structure.

Incubation: After printing, the tissue is incubated in a controlled environment, such as a cell culture incubator,
to promote cell growth and tissue formation.

Assessment: The printed tissue is assessed for its functional properties, such as cell viability, tissue structure,
and tissue function.

3D Printed Foods

3D printed food refers to food items that are created using 3D printing technology. This technology allows for
the creation of food items with intricate shapes and designs, which can be customized based on individual
preferences and dietary needs. The process of 3D printing food involves the use of edible materials, such as
pastes, gels, and powders, which are combined and printed layer by layer to create the final product. 3D
printing technology can be used to create unique and customized food items that would be difficult to achieve
using traditional cooking methods.

3D printing has gained significant importance in the food industry due to its potential to revolutionize various
aspects of food production, customization, and innovation such as,

• Customization and Personalization

• Novelty and Creativity
• Enhanced Food Safety
• Supply Chain Efficiency
• Sustainable Food Production
• Food Innovation and Research

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ELECTRICAL TONGUE IN FOOD SCIENCE

An "electric tongue" refers to an electronic sensory system designed to mimic the human sense of taste. It's a
technology that uses various sensors and signal processing techniques to analyze the flavor and taste profile of
liquids and certain types of foods.
Electrical tongue consists,
Sensors: An electric tongue system consists of different types of sensors that can detect various chemical
components in a liquid or food sample. These sensors are designed to be sensitive to different taste attributes,
such as sweetness, bitterness, sourness, saltiness, and umami.
Sample Analysis: When a liquid or food sample is introduced to the system, the sensors detect and measure the
response to different chemical compounds present in the sample.
Signal Processing: The data collected from the sensors are processed using advanced signal processing
techniques. These techniques can involve pattern recognition, machine learning algorithms, and statistical
analysis.
Taste Profile: By analyzing the sensor data and applying appropriate algorithms, the system can generate a
"taste profile" or "flavor fingerprint" that represents the taste characteristics of the sample.

ELECTRICAL NOSE IN FOOD SCIENCE

An "electronic nose," also known as an "e-nose" or "electronic olfactory system," is a device designed to mimic
the sense of smell by using sensors to detect and analyze odors or volatile compounds in the same way that the
human nose does. In the context of food science, electronic noses have found applications in various areas,
including quality control, freshness assessment, flavor profiling, and even safety monitoring.

Working Principle:

• An electronic nose typically consists of an array of sensors that respond to various odor molecules or
volatile compounds present in the air.

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• These sensors generate unique patterns of responses based on the interactions between the sensors and
the odor molecules.

• The pattern of responses is then processed and analyzed using pattern recognition algorithms to identify
and characterize the odors or compounds present.

Applications in Food Science:

Quality Control: Electronic noses are used to assess the quality of food products, such as meat, fish, fruits, and
vegetables.

Flavor Profiling: Different food products have unique aroma profiles that contribute to their flavor.

Food Safety: E-noses can be employed to detect the presence of contaminants, spoilage, or pathogens in food
products.

Authenticity Verification: Certain high-value foods, like spices or premium alcoholic beverages, are
susceptible to adulteration or counterfeiting. Electronic noses can assist in verifying the authenticity of these
products by analyzing their aroma profiles and comparing them to known standards.

DNA ORIGAMI

• DNA origami involves the precise folding of DNA strands into desired shapes and structures using
complementary base pairing.

• The process involves the folding of a long single strand of viral DNA aided by multiple smaller "staple"
strands. These shorter strands bind the longer in various places, resulting in the formation of a pre-
defined two- or three-dimensional shape.

• Each staple binds to a specific region of the DNA template, and thus due to Watson-Crick base pairing,
the necessary sequences of all staple strands are known and displayed.

• These structures can serve as scaffolds for various applications, including targeted drug delivery,
molecular sensing, and even building nanoscale devices.
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BIOCOMPUTING

Biocomputing involves designing molecular-scale systems that can perform computational tasks using
biological molecules, such as DNA or enzymes.

• Computing process which use synthesized biological components to store and manipulate data
analogous to processes in the human body. The result is small, faster computing processes that operate
with great accuracy.

• These systems are often referred to as "biological computers" and can process information in parallel,
offering potential advantages over traditional electronic computers.

BIOIMAGING

Bioimaging is a noninvasive process of visualizing biological activity in a specific period.

• Bioimaging involves the visualization of biological structures and processes using various imaging
modalities, such as X-ray, MRI, CT scan, ultrasound, PET scan, and microscopy.

• It is helpful in connecting the observation of subcellular structures and all the tissues in the multicellular
organisms

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is particularly machine learning and deep learning techniques, can analyze and
interpret the vast amount of data generated by bioimaging technologies.

• Artificial intelligence can assist providers in a variety of patient care and intelligent health systems

• Numerous medical data sources are required to perfectly diagnose diseases using artificial intelligence
techniques, such as ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging, mammography, genomics, computed
tomography scan, etc.

• This combination has the potential to enhance the accuracy, speed, and efficiency of disease diagnosis.

Bioimaging and Artificial intelligence (AI) Applications

1. Dermatology: AI can analyze images of skin lesions to assist in diagnosing skin conditions, including skin
cancers.

2. Predictive Modeling: AI can develop predictive models based on historical patient data and medical images.
These models can help identify patients at risk of developing certain diseases, allowing for early intervention
and personalized treatment plans.

3. Drug Discovery: Bioimaging, coupled with AI, is used in drug discovery to visualize how potential drugs
interact with biological structures. This helps researchers identify promising drug candidates and understand
their mechanisms of action.

4. Radiomics and Imaging Biomarkers: Radiomics involves extracting quantitative features from medical
images to generate imaging biomarkers. AI can analyze these biomarkers to predict treatment response, disease
progression, and patient outcomes.

5. Personalized Medicine: By analyzing medical images along with genetic and clinical data, AI can help tailor
treatment plans to individual patients, considering their unique characteristics and disease profiles.

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6. Data Fusion: AI can integrate information from multiple imaging modalities and other medical data sources
to provide a more comprehensive view of a patient's condition.

SELF-HEALING BIOCONCRETE

Self-healing bioconcrete is a fascinating and innovative material that integrates biological processes with
concrete technology to enhance the durability and longevity of concrete structures. It employs the natural
healing abilities of certain bacteria and their biomineralization processes to repair cracks and damage in
concrete.

Self-healing bioconcrete works based on these key components:

• Bacillus Spores: Certain strains of bacteria, such as Bacillus species, are used in self-healing
bioconcrete. These bacteria can form spores that remain dormant until activated by specific conditions,
such as the presence of moisture.

• Calcium Lactate Nutrients: Calcium lactate is a nutrient source that serves as food for the bacteria.
When combined with water and the bacteria, it forms an environment conducive to bacterial growth and
biomineralization.

• Biomineralization Processes: When the bacteria are activated by moisture and provided with calcium
lactate nutrients, they metabolize the nutrients and produce calcium carbonate (CaCO3) as a byproduct.
This calcium carbonate deposition in the presence of moisture helps to seal cracks and restore the
structural integrity of the concrete.

Working Mechanism:

• Activation: When cracks form in the concrete due to various factors like shrinkage, mechanical stress,
or environmental conditions, moisture penetrates the cracks and activates the dormant bacteria spores.

• Nutrient Consumption: The activated bacteria consume the calcium lactate nutrients in the presence of
moisture. As they metabolize these nutrients, they produce calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) through a
process called biomineralization.

• Crack Sealing: The newly formed calcium carbonate particles fill the cracks, gradually sealing them
and preventing the intrusion of water, chemicals, and other damaging agents.

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BIOREMEDIATION (via Microbial Surface Adsorption)

Bioremediation is a biotechnical process, which abates or cleans up contamination. Microbial surface

adsorption bioremediation is a process by which microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, bind to the
surfaces of pollutants, such as heavy metals, and immobilize them. This immobilization prevents the pollutants
from leaching into the environment and reduces their potential harm.

It is a type of waste management technique which involves the use of organisms to remove or utilize the
pollutants from a polluted area.

Types of Bioremediation–

1) Biostimulation:

In this process, the bacteria are stimulated to initiate the process. The contaminated soil is first mixed with
special nutrients substances including other vital components either in the form of liquid or gas. It stimulates the
growth of microbes thus resulting in efficient and quick removal of contaminants by microbes and other
bacterias.

2) Bioaugmentation:

In this process a certain sites mainly microorganisms are required to extract the contaminants.

For example – municipal wastewater. In these special cases, the process of bioaugmentation is used.

3) Intrinsic Bioremediation:

The process of intrinsic bioremediation is most effective in the soil and water because of these two biomes
which always have a high probability of being full of contaminants and toxins. The process of intrinsic
bioremediation is mostly used in underground places like underground petroleum tanks. In such place, it is
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difficult to detect a leakage and contaminants and toxins can find their way to enter through these leaks and
contaminate the petrol. Thus, only microorganisms can remove the toxins and clean the tanks.

In the context of bioremediation, microbial surface adsorption can be applied to remove heavy metals from
contaminated water or soil. The process involves:

Microbial Selection: Microorganisms with natural metal-binding capabilities, such as certain bacterial species,
are selected for their affinity to specific heavy metals.

Biosorption: The selected microorganisms are introduced to the contaminated environment. They attach to the
surfaces of the heavy metal ions through a variety of mechanisms, including ion exchange and binding to cell
wall components.

Metal Removal: As the microorganisms bind to the heavy metal ions, they remove them from the solution or
soil, effectively reducing the metal concentration and cleaning the environment.

Harvesting and Disposal: Once the microorganisms have adsorbed the heavy metals, they can be harvested
and processed to recover the metals. The remaining biomass can be safely disposed of or potentially used in
other applications.

BIOMINING (via Microbial Surface Adsorption)

Biomining, also known as bioleaching or bioextraction, is a process in which microorganisms are used to
extract valuable metals from ores, such as copper, gold, and uranium. Microbial surface adsorption plays a role
in this process by allowing microorganisms to adhere to mineral surfaces and accelerate the dissolution of
metals from the ore.

Microbial Attachment: Microorganisms that flourish in the specific conditions of the ore are selected. These
microorganisms can attach to the mineral surfaces.

Metal Dissolution: The microorganisms release bioleaching agents, such as organic acids and enzymes, which
react with the minerals and promote the dissolution of metals from the ore.

Metal Recovery: The dissolved metals are then collected and recovered from the leach solution using various
separation techniques.

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