Power System Analysis-1 18EE62

2020-21

Kubera U
Asst. Professor
Department of EEE, SJBIT
Power System Analysis-1 18EE62 2020-21

Module 2
Symmetrical Fault Analysis

Syllabus: Introduction, Transient on a Transmission Line, Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine(On No

Load), Short Circuit of a Loaded Synchronous Machine, Illustrative simple examples on power systems.
Selection of Circuit Breakers.

Table of Contents

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Transient on a Transmission Line

2.3 Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine(On No Load)

2.4 Short Circuit of a Loaded Synchronous Machine

2.5 Selection of Circuit Breakers

2.6 Worked Examples

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2.1 Introduction
This chapter is dedicated to abnormal system behavior under conditions of symmetrical short circuit.
Such conditions are caused in the system accidentally through insulation failure of equipment or flashover of
lines initiated by a lightning stroke or through accidental faulty operation. The system must be protected against
flow of heavy short circuit currents (which can cause permanent damage to major equipment) by disconnecting
the faulty part of the system by means of circuit breakers operated by protective relaying.

A power network comprises synchronous generators, Transformers, lines and loads. Though the operating
conditions at the time of fault are important, the loads can be neglected during fault, as voltages dip very low
so that currents drawn by loads can be neglected in comparison to fault currents.

The faults occurring in a power system can be broadly classified into symmetrical faults and
unsymmetrical faults. In the case of symmetrical faults (a symmetrical short circuit involving all the three
phases), the fault current is the same in all the three phases and hence the system remains balanced even after
fault occurrence. Therefore, the symmetrical fault conditions can be conveniently analyzed on a single phase
basis. On the other hand, the fault current is not the same in all three phases in the case of an unsymmetrical
fault. Hence, such fault conditions cannot be analyzed on a single phase basis. Special tools line symmetrical
components are used in such situations

In a modern large interconnected power system, heavy currents flowing during a fault must be interrupted
much before the steady state conditions are established. For selecting a circuit breaker we must, therefore,
determine the initial current that flows on occurrence of a short circuit and also the current in the transient that
flows at the time of circuit interruption.

2.2 Transient on a Transmission Line

Let us consider the short circuit transient on a transmission line. Certain simplifying assumptions are
made at this stage.

i. The line is fed from a constant voltage source.

ii. Short circuit takes place when the line is unloaded.
iii. Line capacitance very small, its effect is neglected and the line can be represented by a lumped RL series
circuit.
With the above assumptions the line can be represented by the circuit model of Fig 2.1. A voltage of v = Vm Sin
(ωt+α) is applied, when the line is not loaded and the short circuit is assumed to take place.

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Fig 2.1: Short circuited transmission line

It is known from circuit theory that the current after short circuit is composed of two parts,

i.e. Steady state current and Transient current.

⸫ 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑠 + 𝑖𝑡

𝑉𝑚
Where, is = |𝑍| sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼) is the steady state current or symmetrical short circuit current

𝑅
𝑉 𝑚
it = |𝑍| sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 is the transient current or DC off-set current which decays according to
𝐿
time constant of the circuit .
𝑅

Thus, the short circuit current is given by

𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
⸫ 𝑖= |𝑍|
sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼 − 𝜃) + |𝑍|
sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡

A plot of v, is, it and i is shown in the Fig 2.2. It easily follows from Fig 2.1(c) that maximum momentary short
circuit current imm corresponds to first peak. If decay of transient current in this short time is neglected.

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝑖𝑚𝑚 = + sin(𝜃 − 𝛼)
|𝑍| |𝑍|

Since transmission line resistance is small, 𝜃 ≅ 900

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
⸫ 𝑖𝑚𝑚 = |𝑍|
+ |𝑍|
𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝛼)

This has the maximum possible value for α=0, i.e., short circuit occurring when the voltage wave is going
through zero. Thus,

2 𝑉𝑚
⸫ 𝑖𝑚𝑚(max 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒) =
|𝑍|

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Which is twice the maximum value of symmetrical short circuit current and this is known as the doubling effect.

Fig 2.2(a): Waveform of v and is under short circuit condition

Fig 2.2(b): DC component of current it

Fig 2.2(c): Total current of Short circuited transmission line

For the selection of circuit breakers to interrupt short circuit currents, Momentary short circuit current is
taken corresponding to its maximum possible value (a safe choice). Even though, the circuit breaker interrupt
fault current a few cycles after the occurrence of the fault (usually less than 5 cycles). This means that, when
the fault current is interrupted by a circuit breaker, the DC component has not yet died out completely and hence
contributes to the current to be interrupted. The computation of the DC component at the time of interruption
of current by the circuit breaker is very difficult and hence, the symmetrical short circuit current is calculated
and is increased by an empirical multiplying factor to account for the DC component.

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2.3 Short Circuit of a Synchronous Machine (On No Load)

A synchronous generator consists of an armature winding wound symmetrically for all the three phases on the stator
and a field winding wound on the rotor. Also on the field structure the damper windings are placed which are shorted on
themselves at both ends. The field winding is excited by direct current. When the rotor rotates, the armature winding(being
stationary) is cut by the magnetic flux of the field winding, hence three phase alternating emfs are induced in the armature
windings. In turn, alternating three phase currents are set up in these windings. These produces a rotating magnetic field
which rotates at synchronous speed in the air gap.

The field structure rotates at synchronous speed along with the rotating magnetic field produced by the armature
winding. During normal operating conditions, the field produced by the armature currents will be relatively stationary
with respect to the field and damper windings. Hence the rotating magnetic field will not induce any voltages and currents
in the field and damper windings during normal operating conditions. But, when the alternator suddenly undergoes a
symmetrical short circuit under constant excitation, the short circuited armature current changes from zero to a very high
value in all the three phases. The armature current will have an AC component as well as an offset DC component in each
of the three phases. A good way to analyze the effect of the three phase fault is to take an oscillogram of the current in
one of the phases upon the occurrences of such a fault.

The offset DC component of the short circuit current will be different in each phase and hence is accounted
separately on an empirical basis. In the absence of the offset DC component, the symmetrical short circuit current in any
phase is as shown in fig 2.3. This current will be similar in all the three phases except for a phase angle difference of 120
degree electrical.

Fig 2.3: Symmetrical short circuit armature current

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The armature current during symmetrical short circuit can be divided into three regions namely the subtransient, transient,
and steady state region. We account for the gradual decrease of current in the following paragraphs.

Under steady state short circuit conditions, the armature reaction of a synchronous generator produces a
demagnetizing flux. In terms of a circuit this effect is modeled as a reactance Xa in series with induced emf. This reactance
when combined with the leakage reactance Xl of the machine is called synchronous reactance Xd (direct axis synchronous
reactance in case of salient pole machines). Armature resistance being small can be neglected. The steady state short
circuit model of synchronous machine is shown in Fig 2.4 on per phase basis.

Fig 2.4: Steady state short circuit model of a synchronous machine

In this case, the direct axis synchronous reactance is given by

Xd = Xa + Xl

At the instant of short circuit, the offset DC current appears in all the three phase of the stator. This transient DC current
will induce currents in the rotor field winding and damper winding by transformer action. The induced currents in these
two windings will be in such a direction as to oppose the change of magnetic flux produced by the armature. This effect
can be represented by two reactances in parallel with Xa as shown in fig 2.5. Here Xf is the reactance of the field winding
and Xdw the reactance of the damper winding

Fig 2.5: Approximate circuit model during subtransient period of short circuit

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The combined effect of all the three reactance is to reduce the total reactance of the machine and so the short circuit current
is very large in this period called as the sub transient state. The total reactance of the machine under this condition is called
as the subtransient reactance Xd” and is given by

1
𝑋𝑑′′ = 𝑋𝑙 +
1 1 1
(𝑋 + 𝑋 + 𝑋 )
𝑎 𝑓 𝑑𝑤

The induced currents in both the field and damper windings decrease exponentially depending on their time constants
(L/R). The time constant of damper winding is much less than the time constant of field winding. Hence the induced
currents in the damper winding dies very fast within the first few cycles, effectively X dw becomes open circuited and the
resulting reactance is called as transient reactance Xd'. The transient state model of the alternator is shown in fig 2.6.

Fig 2.6: Approximate circuit model during transient period of short circuit

1
From the figure 2.6, it can be observed that 𝑋𝑑′ = 𝑋𝑙 + 1 1
( + )
𝑋𝑎 𝑋𝑓

The effect of field winding current will also die out in a short time depending on the time constant of the field winding.
This effect is equivalent to open circuited Xf and thus the armature regains its normal synchronous reactance Xd. (fig 2.2)
From equations of Xd, Xd’’, Xd’, we can observe that the subtransient reactance of the machine is the smallest and steady
state reactance of the machine is highest among the reactances. Therefore, Xd” < Xd' < Xd.

Let

|I|=RMS value of steady state current

|I'|=RMS value of transient current excluding DC component

|I”|=RMS value of subtransient current excluding DC component

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Power System Analysis-1 18EE62 2020-21

From the oscillogram of fig 2.3, we get

|I|=oa/√2; |I'|=ob/√2; |I”|=oc/√2

Therefore,

Xd”=Eg/|I”| = Eg/(oc/√2)

Xd'=Eg/|I'| = Eg/(ob/√2)

Xd=Eg/|I| = Eg/(oa/√2)

2.4 Short Circuit of a Loaded Synchronous Machine

The previous analysis all along had been for a synchronous generator operating on no load. In practice before
short-circuit, the generator would mostly be on load. The determination of short circuit currents when the machine is on
load involves the determination of internal voltages behind subtransient, transient and steady state reactances. These are
the voltages obtained by adding vectorially the subtransient, transient and steady state reactance voltage drops respectively
due to the load current IL to the terminal voltage V.

Hence

Eg”=V+IL(jXd”)

Eg'=V+IL(jXd')

Eg=V+IL(jXd)

The circuit models of the synchronous generator under the aforesaid conditions is as shown in fig 2.7a, 2.7b and 2.7c.

Fig 2.7: circuit models of the synchronous generator under loaded condition

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The synchronous motors have internal emfs and reactances similar to that of a generator except that the current direction
is reversed. During short circuit conditions these can be replaced by similar circuit models as shown in fig 2.5 except that
the voltage behind the subtransient, transient and steady state reactance is given by

Em”=V-IL(jXd”)

Em'=V-IL(jXd')

Em=V-IL(jXd)

Analysis of three phase symmetrical faults

The symmetrical fault can be analysed on single phase basis using reactance diagram or by using per unit reactance
diagram. The symmetrical fault analysis has to be performed separately for subtransient, transient and steady state
conditions of the fault, because the reactances and internal emfs of the synchronous machines will be different in each
state. Once the per unit reactance diagram of the power system is formed for a particular state
(subtransient/transient/steady state) of fault condition, then the currents and voltages in the various parts of the system can
be determined by any one of the following method:

i) Using Kirchoff's laws

ii) Using Thevenin's theorem.
iii) By forming the bus impedance matrix
Symmetrical fault analysis using Thevenin's theorem is discussed here.

The following procedure can be followed to calculate the voltages and currents during symmetrical fault using Thevenin's
theorem.

1) Select appropriate base values and determine the prefault condition reactance diagram of the given power system.

2) Calculate the prefault Thevenin's voltage at the fault point using the prefault current(load current). If the system is
unloaded, then the prefault voltage is 1p.u.

3) Determine the Thevenin's impedance of the system at the fault point by shorting all voltage sources.

4) Draw the Thevenin's equivalent at the fault point. Then the p.u value of fault current is given by I f=VTH/(ZTH+Zf).
Multiplying the p.u value by the base value gives the actual value of the fault current. Here, Z f is the fault impedance of
the system. For a solid three phase short circuit, Zf=0

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5) The fault current in other parts of the network are determined from the knowledge of change in current due to fault and
prefault current. The fault current (i.e post fault current) in any part of the system is given by sum of prefault current and
change in current due to fault. The change in current due to fault can be estimated by connecting the Thevenin's source
with reversed polarity at the fault. Replace all other sources by zero values sources. Now the currents in various part of
the system are the change in currents due to fault. These currents are calculated using any conventional technique.

2.5 Selection of Circuit Breakers

When fault occur in a part of power system, heavy current flows in that part of circuit which may cause permanent
damage to the equipment connected therein. Hence the faulty part should be isolated from the healthy part immediately
on the occurrence of a fault. This is can be achieved by providing protective relays and circuit breakers. The protective
relays sense the faulty conditions and sends signals to circuit breakers to open the circuit under faulty condition, the circuit
breakers can be used as a switch.

The selection of a circuit breaker for a power system depends upon the computation of following currents during fault.

i. Rated momentary short circuit current

ii. Rated symmetrical interrupting current
The symmetrical short circuit current is obtained by using sub-transient reactances and internals voltages of the
synchronous machines. The momentary short circuit current is the calculated by multiplying the symmetrical short circuit
current by a factor of 1.6 to account for the DC component. The multiplying factor depends on the speed with the circuit
breaker has to operate, which are listed below,

Circuit Breaker Speed Multiplying Factor

8 cycles or slower 1.0
5 cycles 1.1
3 cycles 1.2
2 cycles 1.4
Normally, a circuit breaker is rated in Short Circuit MVA it has to interrupt then the short circuit current.

Short Circuit MVA to be interrupted is given by

S. C MVA3 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = √3 ∗ 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑉 ∗ 𝑆. 𝐶 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝐴

The rating of the circuit breaker must be more than the S.C MVA required to be interrupted.

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Power System Analysis-1 18EE62 2020-21

For the selection of a circuit breaker, for a particular location, we must find the maximum possible S.C MVA to be
interrupted with respect to the type and location of fault, generating capacity and load on the system. A 3 phase gives the
highest S.C MVA and the CB must be capable of interrupting this MVA. In a small system, the fault location which gives
the highest S. C MVA can be easily found. But for large power systems, various locations must be tried to obtain the
highest S.C MVA, which requires repeated S.C computations.

1. Making capacity of CB in MVA= √3 * rated voltage in kV* Initial momentary S.C current in kA.
2. Symmetrical capacity of CB in MVA=√3 * rated voltage in kV * Symmetrical S.C current in kA.

Problem #1: A transmission line of inductance 0.1 H and resistance 5  is suddenly short circuited at t = 0, at the far end of
a transmission line and is supplied by an ac source of voltage v = 100 sin (100t+150). Write the expression for the short
circuit current, i(t). Find the approximate value of the first current maximum for the given values of  and . What is this
value for =0, and =900? What should be the instant of short circuit so that the DC offset current is (i)zero and (ii)maximum?

Solution:

Figure P1.

Consider the expression for voltage applied to the transmission system given by

v = Vm sin(t+) = 100 sin (100t+150)

Thus we get: Vm = 100 volts; f = 50 Hz and  = 150.

Consider the impedance of the circuit given by:

Z = R + jL = 5 + j (100) (0.1) = 5 + j 31.416 ohms.

Thus we have: Zmag=31.8113 Ohms; =80.9570 and =L/R=0.1/5=0.02 seconds.

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The short circuit current is given by:

i(t) = [Vm/Z] sin (t+-) + [Vm/Z] sin (-) e-(R/L)t

= [100/31.8113] [sin (100t+150-80.9570) + sin(80.9570-150) e-(t/0.02)]

= 3.1435 sin(314.16 t – 65.96) +2.871 e–50t

Thus we have:

i) imm = 3.1435 + 2.871 e–50t

where t is the time instant of maximum of symmetrical short circuit current. This instant occurs at (314.16 tc –
65.960) = 900 ; Solving we get, t = 0.00867 seconds so that imm = 5 Amps.

ii) imm = 2Vm/Z = 6.287 A; for =0, and =900 (Also, imm = 2 (3.1435) = 6.287 A)

iii) DC offset current = [Vm/Z] sin (-) e-(R/L)t

= zero, if (-) = zero, i.e.,  = , or  = 80.9570

= maximum if (-) = 900, i.e.,  =  - 900, or  = - 9.0430.

2.6 Worked Examples

1. A 25 MVA, 11 KV, 20% generator is connected through a step-up transformer- T1 (25 MVA, 11/66 KV,
10%), transmission line (15% reactance on a base of 25 MVA, 66 KV) and step-down transformer-T2
(25 MVA, 66/6.6 KV, 10%) to a bus that supplies 3 identical motors in parallel (all motors rated: 5
MVA, 6.6 KV, 25%). A circuit breaker-A is used near the primary of the transformer T1 and breaker-B
is used near the motor M3. Find the symmetrical currents to be interrupted by circuit breakers A and B
for a fault at a point P, near the circuit breaker B.

Solution:

Consider the SLD with the data given in the problem statement. The base values are selected as under:

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Selection of bases:

Sb = 25 MVA (common); Vb = 11 KV (Gen. circuit)- chosen so that then Vb = 66 KV (line

circuit) and Vb = 6.6 KV (Motor circuit).

Pu values:

Xg=j0.2 pu, Xt1=Xt2=j0.1 pu; Xm1=Xm2=Xm3=j0.25(25/5)=j1.25 pu; Xline=j0.15 pu.

Since the system is operating at no load, all the voltages before fault are 1 pu. Considering the
pu reactance diagram with the faults at P, we have:

Current to be interrupted by circuit breaker A = 1.0 /j[0.2+0.1+0.15+0.1]

= - j 1.818 pu = - j 1.818 (25/[3(11)]) = - j 1.818 (1.312) KA = 2.386 KA

And Current to be interrupted by breaker B = 1/j1.25 = - j 0.8 pu

= - j0.8 (25/[3(6.6)]) = - j0.8 (2.187) KA = 1.75 KA.

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2. Two synchronous motors are connected to a large system bus through a short line. The ratings of the
various components are: Motors(each)= 1 MVA, 440 volts, 0.1 pu reactance; line of 0.05 ohm reactance
and the short circuit MVA at the bus of the large system is 8 at 440 volts. Calculate the symmetrical
short circuit current fed into a three-phase fault at the motor bus when the motors are operating at 400
volts.

Solution:

Consider the SLD with the data given in the problem statement. The base values are selected as under:

Sb = 1 MVA; Vb = 0.44 KV (common)- chosen so that Xm(each)=j0.1 pu, Em = 1.000,

Xline=j0.05 (1/0.442) = j 0.258 pu and Xlarge-system -= (1/8) = j 0.125 pu.

Thus the prefault voltage at the motor bus; Vt = 0.4/0.44 = 0.90900,

Short circuit current fed to the fault at motor bus (If = YV);

If = [0.125 + 0.258]-1 + 2.0 }0.909 = [20.55 pu] [1000/(3(0.4))]

= 20.55 (1.312) KA = 26.966 KA.

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References
1. “Modern Power System” by D P Kothari, McGraw hill 4th edition
2. “Power System Analysis and Stability” by P M Chandrashekharaiah, First edition
3. “Power System Analysis” by Hadi Sadat, McGraw hill 1st edition

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