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8SGDWHG± )HEUXDU\

ƒ Quick Overview of Short Circuit

Currents
ƒ Per Unit Calculations
ƒ Symmetrical Components
ƒ Power System Modeling
ƒ Types and Causes of Faults
ƒ Consequences of Faults
ƒ Application of Fault Analysis
ƒ Classification of Short Circuits
ƒ Sequence Networks & Sequence
Network Models
2
ƒ Derivation of Sequence Network
Interconnections
ƒ Assumptions in Short Circuit
Calculations
ƒ Procedures for Short Circuit
Calculations
ƒ Fault MVA
ƒ Voltage Rise Phenomenon
ƒ Example Problem

4
 Various types
of current

Normal Overload Short-circuit Ground-

current current current fault current

ƒ Short-circuit current is greater than locked-

rotor current and may range upwards in
thousands of amperes.
ƒ The maximum value is limited by the
maximum short-circuit current available on
the system at the fault point.
ƒ Short-circuit current may be further classified
as bolted or arcing. Large amounts of short-
circuit current will flow into a bolted fault
than the arcing fault.

6
ƒ Ground-fault current consists of any current
which flows outside the normal circuit path.
ƒ Ground-fault current flows in the equipment
grounding conductor for low-voltage systems.
ƒ In medium- and high-voltage systems,
ground-fault current may return to the
source through the earth.
ƒ Ground-fault current on low-voltage systems
may be classified as leakage, bolted, or
arcing.

€Synchronous generators - when a short-

circuit occurs downstream of a synchronous
generator, it may continue to produce output
voltage and current.
€Synchronous motors - delivers short-circuit
current into the fault until the motor
completely stops
€Induction motors - short-circuit current
decays very quickly.
€Supply transformers - Transformer
impedances will also limit the amount of
short-circuit current from the utility
generators. 8
 Synchronous
Generator

Induction
Motor

Synchronous
Motor
9

Totally Totally Partially

Symmetrical Asymmetrical Asymmetrical
Current Current Current

10
ƒ “Symmetrical" and “Asymmetrical” are terms
used to describe the symmetry of the short-
circuit current waveform around the zero axis.
ƒ If a short-circuit occurs in an inductive reactive
circuit at the peak of the voltage waveform, the
resulting short-circuit current will be totally
symmetrical.
ƒ If a short-circuit, in the same circuit, occurs at
the zero of the voltage waveform, the resulting
short-circuit current will be totally
asymmetrical.
11

ƒ The symmetrical short circuit current consists only

the pure AC component inside its sinusoidal
waveform. It is applicable only for balanced three-
phase power system and can be calculated as the
total line-to-neutral voltage over the total
impedances on the power system.
ƒ The asymmetrical short circuit current is the actual
current that flows during a fault condition. It
consists of DC and AC components that contribute to
a certain amount of ‘DC offset’ in the waveform
immediately after the initiation of the fault. The
amount of ‘DC offset’ or asymmetry depends on the
point when the fault occurs.
12
ƒ The instantaneous peak short circuit current is
the maximum peak instantaneous fault current
on the asymmetrical short circuit current
waveform. It is a function of X/R ratio of the
system.
,QVWDQWDQHRXVSHDNVKRUWFLUFXLW
FXUUHQW $V\PPHWULFDOVKRUWFLUFXLW
FXUUHQW
6\PPHWULFDOVKRUWFLUFXLW
FXUUHQW

13

14
Advantages of Using Per Unit Calculations

ƒ Values in per unit quantities are much easier to

handle
ƒ Impedances being referred to one side of the
transformer due to transformation ratio is not a
problem
ƒ Manufacturers specify the impedances of their
equipment in percent (or per-unit) using the
nameplate rating of the equipment.

15

Advantages of Using Per Unit

Calculations (cont’d):

ƒ The per-unit impedances of electrical

equipment of the same type but different
ratings usually lie within a narrow range.
This makes the detection of an erroneous
impedance data easy. Also, if the impedance
of a particular equipment is not known, it is
acceptable for most studies to select from a
range of tabulated typical values.

16
Advantages of Using Per Unit
Calculations (cont’d):

ƒ Per-unit representation yields more relevant

information and easily correlated data.
ƒ Network calculations are the same for
single-phase and three-phase systems.
There is less chance of mix-up between
phase and line voltages, single-phase and
three-phase powers, and primary and
secondary voltages.

17

Advantages of Using Per Unit

Calculations (cont’d):

ƒ Per-unit calculation is more convenient to

use when the solution requires a digital
computer
ƒ Power system components, i.e., generators,
transformers, transmission lines, etc. are
modeled with per unit impedances in the
different power system applications like
Loadflow, Short Circuit, Power System Stability,
Electromagnetic Transients, etc.

18
ƒ Choose any two of the electrical parameters. In
general, the base Volt-Amperes and base Voltage
are chosen.

Note: For actual power systems, equipment are rated in

kilovolts, kVA or MVA. Thus, the bases are often expressed
in kV and MVA or kVA.

ƒ Calculate the Base Impedance and Base Current

Note: The base MVA or kVA will also serve as base for
true/real power and reactive power. The base Z will
also be used as base for resistance and reactance.

19

20
21

22
 23

4XDQWLWLHVLQSHUFHQWDUHSHUXQLW㽢
24
25

26
27

28
 29

kVA/hp hp rating

1.00 Induction < 100 hp

1.00 Synchronous 0.8 pf
0.95 Induction 100 < 999 hp
0.90 Induction 1000 hp
0.80 Synchronous 1.0 pf

30
 31

The simple power system shown consists of a

generator, transformer, transmission line,
load transformer, and load. Draw the
impedance diagram of the system using
30MVA and 13.8kV as base values in the
generator circuit

32
 The power system data are as follows:
Generator : 25MVA, 13.8kV, x = 0.125pu
T1 : 30MVA, 13.2kV-69kV, x = 0.105pu
Line : Z = 2 + j4 ohms
T2 : 20MVA, 34.5kV-69kV, x = 0.05pu
Load : Static load of 10+j15 MVA @ 34.5kV

33

Solution:

Let’s divide the network into zones for proper

determination of kV base values:

=RQH =RQH =RQH

kVB = 13.8kV kVB = 13.8[69/13.2] kVB = 72.1364[34.5/69]
(given) =72.1364kV =36.0682kV
34
kV base values:
Zone 1: kVB = 13.8kV (given)
Zone 2: kVB = 13.8[69/13.2]=72.1364kV
Zone 3: kVB = 72.1364[34.5/69]=36.0682kV

Generator:

Transformer T1:

35

Transmission Line:
: : ‫ܤ‬
‫ݑ݌‬ ଶ : ଶ
‫ܤ‬ ‫ܤ‬ ‫ܤ‬
‫ܤ‬

‫ܮ‬ ଶ

Transformer T2:
ଶ


 The Per Unit Apparent Power of the Load:

VL = 34.5/36.0682 = 0.9565 pu

The Impedance Diagram:

M M M M

, 3 SX
(J 4 MSX
SX



Draw the impedance diagram for the power system shown below. Mark all
points and all the impedances in per unit. Neglect resistance, and use a base
of 138 kV in Line 1 and 50 MVA base. The ratings of the generators, motors,
and transformers are as follow:
Generator 1: 20,000 kVA, 13.2 kV, X" = 15%
Generator 2: 20,000 kVA, 13.2 kV, X" = 15%
Synchronous motor 3: 30,000 kVA, 6.9 kV, X" = 20%
T1, T3: 20,000 kVA, 13.8Y - 138Y kV, X = 10%
T2, T4: 20,000 kVA, 13.8Y - 132Y kV, X = 10%
T5, T6: 15,000 kVA, 6.9¨-138Y kV, X = 10% =RQH

=RQH =RQH

=RQH =RQH

=RQH

38
Identifying the base values: T1: X=0.10[138/138]2[50/20]
MVAB = 50MVA =0.250 pu
kV bases: T3: X=0.10[138/138]2[50/20]
Zone 1: kVB=138kV =0.250 pu
Zone 2: kVB=138[13.8/138]=13.8kV T2: X=0.10[13.8/13.8]2[50/20]
Zone 3: kVB=138[13.8/138]=13.8kV =0.250 pu
Zone 4: kVB=13.8[132/13.8]=132kV T4: X=0.10[132/132]2[50/20]
Zone 5: kVB=13.8[132/13.8]=132kV =0.250 pu
Zone 6: kVB=132[6.9/138]=6.6kV T5: X=0.10[138/132]2[50/15]
=0.3643 pu
Computing for the new PU impedances: T6: X=0.10[138/132]2[50/15]
G1: X”=0.15[13.2/13.8]2[50/20] =0.3643 pu
=0.3431 pu SM3: X”=0.20[6.9/6.6]2[50/30]
G2: X”=0.15[13.2/13.8]2[50/20] =0.3463 pu
=0.3431 pu

39

Line 1: ZL1=(6+j40)[50]/[138]2
=0.0158+j0.1050 pu
Line 2: ZL2=(3+j20)[50]/[132]2
=0.0861+j0.574 pu
Line 3: ZL3=(3+j20)[50]/[132]2
=0.0861+j0.574 pu
Impedance diagram:

40
 41

The following are the basic characteristics of

balanced polyphase systems:
1) The magnitudes of the voltages and currents in
each phase are equal.
2) The phase displacements of the voltage and the
current in each phase are also equal.
3) The mutual reactions between the phases are
represented by the equivalent self-impedances
of each phase because of symmetry.
4) The solution of one phase yields the solution of
other phases and the total solution.

42
 In dealing with normal or near normal operation of
power systems, the slight unbalances are ignored
and therefore, balanced operation is assumed, i.e.,
balanced loads, balanced generator outputs, and
balanced line/transformer parameters

43

Phasor Rotation
ƒ Counter clockwise
direction by
international
convention
Phase Sequence
ƒ The order in which
phasors pass a fixed
point

44
=V

=V

=V

45

The foregoing gives us a

very simple single-phase
solution!

46
 =

=)
=

%DODQFHG %DODQFHG
6RXUFH /RDG

ƒ Same simplification as in balanced systems is

not possible

47

ƒ Classical methods of analysis using Kirchhoff͛s laws

and simultaneous equations are very difficult to
solve and often impossible
ƒ Unbalanced reactions between phases
ƒ Where rotating machines are involved, it is
necessary to introduce impedances relating the
stator and rotor circuits

48
ƒ Alternative solution methods
ƒ Symmetrical components
ƒ Alpha, beta, zero components (popularized by
Edith Clarke of General Electric)
ƒ Positive-plus-negative, positive-minus-negative,
zero components
Only the method of symmetrical components will be
discussed in this material

49

Charles Legeyt Fortescue discussed in his

114-page paper “Method of Symmetrical
Coordinates Applied to the Solution of
Polyphase Networks”, which was published in
1918 by the then AIEE [now IEEE]), that any
set of N unbalanced vectors can be
represented by N sets of balanced vectors.
ƒ Balanced system can be simulated with
single phase. Easier to analyze and compute.
ƒ Three phase unbalanced vectors othree
balanced “sequence vectors.”

50
ƒ Positive-sequence components consisting of
three phasors equal in magnitude displaced
from each other by 120° in phase and having
the same sequence as the original phasors
ƒ Negative-sequence components consisting of
three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced
from each other by 120° in phase and having
a phase sequence opposite that of the
original phasors

51

ƒ Zero-sequence components consisting of

three phasors equal in magnitude and with
zero phase displacement between each
other
ƒ The unbalanced phasor is equal to the
phasor sum of the symmetrical components
of each phase, i.e.,

52
 3RVLWLYH6HTXHQFH 1HJDWLYH6HTXHQFH

=HUR6HTXHQFH 8QEDODQFHG3KDVRUV
53

Definition:
The operator a is a phasor with a magnitude
equal to unity with an angle of 120°, i.e.,
a=1/120°

Function:
Any phasor that is
multiplied by the
operator a is rotated
counterclockwise by
120㼻. This is shown
by the phasor diagram
on the right:
54
Equalities of Operator a

55

3RVLWLYH6HTXHQFH 1HJDWLYH6HTXHQFH =HUR6HTXHQFH

56
 (T䇻QD
(T䇻QD
(T䇻QD

57

0DNLQJWKHFRHIILFLHQWVRIVa1
DQGVa2 LQ(TXDWLRQVDDQG
DHTXDOWRWRVROYHIRUVa1
DQGVa2UHVSHFWLYHO\LQWHUPV
RIVaVbDQGVc ZLOO\LHOG

7KXV

58
7KHV\PPHWULFDOFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHFXUUHQWVLQWHUPVRIWKH
XQEDODQFHGFXUUHQWV

59

In summary:

60
In summary (matrix form):

61

62
Sequence Impedances

63

Definition:
Positive-sequence
impedance (Z1)

Negative-sequence
impedance (Z2)

Zero-sequence
impedance (Z0)
Sequence impedances of most power system components, i.e.,
rotating machines, transformers, etc., except transmission/
distribution lines, are generally expressed in percent or per unit
based on equipment ratings
64
 65

Armature resistance is usually very small

compared to the reactance, hence, neglected.
The reactances, on the other hand, are
referred to the direct-axis and quadrature-
axis. The direct-axis reactances are
commonly used in short circuit calculations.

66
67

68
69

70
71

72
 73

¾Positive-sequence impedance
ƒ Xd = direct-axis synchronous reactance
ƒ X͛d = direct-axis transient reactance
ƒ X͟d = direct-axis subtransient reactance

Xd > X’d > X”d

¾ Negative-sequence impedance (salient-
pole machines)

¾ Zero-sequence reactance is smaller

than the positive-sequence reactance
74
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ΎŶĂůLJƐŝƐŽĨ&ĂƵůƚĞĚWŽǁĞƌ^LJƐƚĞŵ 75
Ͳ W͘D͘ŶĚĞƌƐŽŶ

Subtransient X” (pu)

Induction Motor above 600V 0.17

Induction Motor below 600V 0.25

76
 77

¾The positive- and negative-sequence reactances of

transformers are equal, regardless of the construction
of the transformer.

78
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ƚŝŵĞƐƚŚĞĨůƵdžĨůŽǁŝŶŐĂƚĞĂĐŚůĞŐƚŚĞǁŝŶĚŝŶŐŝƐǁŽƵŶĚĂƌŽƵŶĚ͘ƐĂƌĞƐƵůƚ͕ĂƐƐƵŵŝŶŐ
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ŝŶƚŚĞůŝŶĞĂƌĂƌĞĂĂŶĚĚŽĞƐŶŽƚƐĂƚƵƌĂƚĞ͕ŝƚŝƐĞdžƉĞĐƚĞĚƚŚĂƚƚŚĞŵĂŐŶĞƚŝĐŝŵƉĞĚĂŶĐĞ
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¾ Thus, for three-phase shell type transformers, the zero-sequence
reactance is equal to the positive-sequence reactance. The same is
true for and single-phase transformers.
79

dŚĞŵĂŐŶĞƚŝĐƌĞůƵĐƚĂŶĐĞĨŽƌnjĞƌŽͲƐĞƋƵĞŶĐĞĨůƵdžŝƐƌĞůĂƚŝǀĞůLJŚŝŐŚĂŶĚĚĞƉĞŶĚĞŶƚŽŶƚŚĞ
ƚƌĂŶƐĨŽƌŵĞƌΖƐƉŚLJƐŝĐĂůƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞĂŶĚƚŚĞƚLJƉĞƌĂƚŚĞƌƚŚĂŶŽŶƚŚĞƚLJƉĞĂŶĚƐƚƌƵĐƚƵƌĞŽĨ
ƚŚĞŵĂŐŶĞƚŝĐĐŽƌĞ͘dŚĞƌĞĨŽƌĞ͕ƚŚĞŵĂŐŶĞƚŝĐŝŵƉĞĚĂŶĐĞ͕ǁŚŝĐŚŝƐŝŶǀĞƌƐĞůLJƉƌŽƉŽƌƚŝŽŶĂů
ƚŽƚŚĞŵĂŐŶĞƚŝĐƌĞůƵĐƚĂŶĐĞ͕ŝƐǀĞƌLJůŽǁ͘
¾ Hence, the zero-sequence reactance of the three-phase core-type
transformers is smaller than the positive-sequence reactance due to
the leakage of zero-sequence flux to the transformer tank during
ground faults.
80
 81
Ύ:͘W͘dƌĂŶƐĨŽƌŵĞƌ,ĂŶĚŬ

VOLTAGE RATING kVA RATING % IMPEDANCE

2.4kV – 13.8kV 300 - 500 Not less than 4.5%

2.4kV – 13.8kV 750 – 2,500 5.75%

General Purpose 15 – 1,000 3% to 5.75%

Less than 600V

Typical Values for X/R Ratio of Medium

Voltage Transformers

82
 83

¾ The positive- and negative-sequence

impedances of transmission lines are equal.
Assuming that the line is fully transposed,
the positive-/negative-sequence impedance
for a single-circuit line is calculated as
follows:

84
 Where:
ra = A-C resistance of the conductor at
specified frequency
GMR = Geometric Mean Radius of the conductor
GMD = equivalent symmetrical spacing
= (DABDBCDCA)1/3

85

For bundled conductors:

GMRb = Geometric Mean Radius of the
conductors in bundled conductors
Bundle of Two Bundle of Three

d Bundle of Four

d d
య
‫ ܾܴܯܩ‬ൌ ‫ ܴܯܩ‬ൈ ݀ d ‫ ܾܴܯܩ‬ൌ ‫ ܴܯܩ‬ൈ ݀ʹ
ర
‫ ܾܴܯܩ‬ൌ ͳǤͲͻ ‫ ܴܯܩ‬ൈ ݀͵
ܽ
ܽ ܾ

where: n = number of conductors in bundle

86
 For a fully transposed double circuit lines
where the two (or parallel) circuits are close
together (as when they are on the same
tower), the positive- and negative-sequence
inductive reactance of each circuit is given
by:

87

The figures below show the possible

conductor arrangement of a double circuit
line:

a c' a a'

b b' b b'

c a' c c'

Low-reactance Super-bundle
Configuration Configuration
88
¾ The zero-sequence impedance of
transmission lines is of higher value than
the positive-sequence impedance due to
the fact that the zero-sequence current
must return through the earth, or via the
earth and ground wires, if there are any.

89

To calculate the zero-sequence impedance of

a fully transposed line considering the effect
of the earth being used as a return path for
the zero-sequence current, the following
formulas are used:

90
 Where:
ܽ :

݀ ݁‫ݍ‬ :

݁ ݁ :
య
݁‫ݍ‬ ܾܽ ܾܿ ܿܽ

݁
91

De for Various Resistivities at 60 Hz*

Return Earth Condition Resistivity De Dad
(:-m) (ft) (ft)
Sea water 0.01-1.0 27.9-279 5.28-16.7
Swampy ground 10-100 882-2790 29.7-52.8
Average damp earth 100 2790 52.8
Dry earth 1000 8820 93.9
Pure slate 107 882,000 939
Sandstone 109 8,820,000 2970

If no actual earth resistivity data is available, it is not

uncommon to assume U to be 100 ohm-meter, in which
case, the italic quantities in the table apply.
$QDO\VLVRI)DXOWHG3RZHU6\VWHP 92
30$QGHUVRQ
 If the effect of the overhead ground wires are
to be included in the calculation of the zero-
sequence impedance of the line, it is
calculated as follows:

93

where:

94
One Ground Wire (with earth return)

95

Transmission Lines

Two Ground Wires (with earth return)

96
Transmission Lines

n-Ground Wires (with earth return)

97

98
ƒ Electro-dynamic forces due to abnormally large
currents resulting in
ƒ deformation of the bus-bars
ƒ disconnection of cables
ƒ excessive temperature with the risk of damage to
insulation
ƒ Electromagnetic interference with conductors in the
vicinity (disturbance to communication lines,
personal danger)
ƒ Mechanical and thermal stress, resulting in damage
of equipment
¾ Equipment containing insulating oil may explode during short circuits
and may cause fire resulting in serious hazard to personnel and to
other equipment

99

ƒ Voltage dips during the time required to clear the

fault, ranging from a few milliseconds to a few
hundred milliseconds
ƒ Shutdown of a part of the network, the extent of that
part depending on the design of the network and
the discrimination levels offered by the protection
devices;
ƒ Dynamic instability and/or the loss of machine
synchronization; disturbances in control/monitoring
circuits, etc.

100
1. The determination of the required
mechanical strength of electrical
equipment to withstand the stresses
brought about by the flow of high short
circuit currents
2. The selection of circuit breakers and
switch ratings
3. The selection of protective relay and fuse
ratings

101

4. The setting and coordination of protective

devices
5. The selection of surge arresters and
insulation ratings of electrical equipment
6. The determination of fault impedances for
use in stability studies
7. The calculation of voltage sags resulting
from short circuits

102
8. The sizing of series reactors to limit the
short circuit current to a desired value
9. To determine the short circuit capability of
series capacitors used in series
compensation of long transmission lines
10. To determine the size of grounding
transformers, resistances, or reactors

103

¾When designing the electrical installation

¾When operating conditions change
¾When installing or removing equipment
¾When planning for expansion

104
¾Factors Affecting Fault
™ Circuit configuration
™ Grounding system design/methods
™ Voltage class
™ Relative insulation levels to ground and
between phases
™ System characteristics

105

106
ƒ Single line-to-ground faults
ƒ Double line-to-ground faults
ƒ Line-to-line faults
ƒ Three-phase faults

107

ƒ One-line open faults

ƒ Two-line open faults

108
ƒ Single line-to-ground and one-line open
ƒ Double line-to-ground and one-line open
faults
ƒ Line-to-line and one-line open faults
ƒ Three-phase and one-line open faults

109

ƒ Single line-to-ground and two-line

open faults
ƒ Double line-to-ground and two-line
open faults
ƒ Line-to-line and two-line open faults
ƒ Three-phase and two-line open faults

Note: Derivation of sequence network interconnections

for series and simultaneous faults will not be
discussed.
110
™ SLG Fault = 0.70

™ L-L Fault = 0.15

™ DLG Fault = 0.10

™ Three-phase Fault = 0.05

111

Sequence Networks
112
The fault point of a system is that point
to which the unbalanced connection is
attached to an otherwise balanced
system.

To determine the fault current, each

sequence network of the system is
reduced to a Thevenin’s equivalent
network as seen from the fault point.

113

114
For determining the
maximum short circuit
current:

For system protection

coordination:

115

116
Note: The leakage impedances must first be converted into per unit
using the appropriate base values of voltage and kVA/MVA
117

118
 119

For salient-pole machines:

Where:

x䇿d = direct-axis sub-transient reactance

x䇿q = quadrature-axis sub-transient reactance
Note: For practical purposes, however, the negative-
sequence reactance is considered to be equal
to the positive-sequence reactance, as it is for
round-rotor machines 120
The negative-sequence network of two-
winding and three-winding transformers are
modeled exactly in the same way as the
positive-sequence network since the
positive-sequence and negative-sequence
impedances of the transformers are equal.

121

The same model as the positive-sequence

network is used for transmission lines
inasmuch as the positive-sequence and
negative-sequence impedances of
transmission lines are equal

122
 123

Solidly-Grounded Neutral

124
Impedance-Grounded Neutral

125

Ungrounded-Wye or Delta-Connected Generators

126
Transformer Zero-Sequence
Connection Circuit Equivalent

127

Transformer Zero-Sequence
Connection Circuit Equivalent

128
 Transformer Zero-Sequence
Connection Circuit Equivalent

129

(Credits to Engr. Antonio C. Coronel, Retired VP, Meralco and former Member, Board of Electrical Engineering)

P Q

Grounded wye S1 = 1 and S3 = 0

or
S2 = 1 and S4 = 0
Delta S1 = 0 and S3 = 1
or
S2 = 0 and S4 = 1
Ungrounded wye S1 = 0 and S3 = 0
or
S2 = 0 and S4 = 0
130
(Credits to Engr. Antonio C. Coronel, Retired VP, Meralco and former Member, Board of Electrical Engineering)

*URXQGHGZ\H± *URXQGHGZ\H

S1 = 1
S2 = 1
S3 = 0
S4 = 0

P Q

131

(Credits to Engr. Antonio C. Coronel, Retired VP, Meralco and former Member, Board of Electrical Engineering)

*URXQGHGZ\H± 8QJURXQGHGZ\H

S1 = 1
S2 = 0
S3 = 0
S4 = 0

P Q

132
(Credits to Engr. Antonio C. Coronel, Retired VP, Meralco and former Member, Board of Electrical Engineering)

*URXQGHGZ\H± 'HOWD

S1 = 1
S2 = 0
S3 = 0
S4 = 1

P Q

133

(Credits to Engr. Antonio C. Coronel, Retired VP, Meralco and former Member, Board of Electrical Engineering)

'HOWD± 'HOWD

S1 = 0
S2 = 0
S3 = 1
S4 = 1

P Q

134
The zero-sequence network model for a
transmission line is the same as that of the
positive- and negative-sequence networks.
The sequence impedance of the model is of
course the zero-sequence impedance of the
line. This is normally higher than the
positive- and negative-sequence impedances
because of the influence of the earth͛s
resistivity and the ground wire/s.

135

136
 137

Derivation of Sequence Network

Interconnections

Boundary conditions:
(T䇻Q
(T䇻Q

138
139

140
Where:
= fault impedance
= Thevenin䇻s equivalent positive-sequence
impedance as seen from the fault point
= Thevenin䇻s equivalent pre-fault voltage as
seen from the fault point

141

142
143

144
Derivation of Sequence Network
Interconnections

Boundary conditions:

145

146
Where:
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IDXOWYROWDJHDVVHHQIURPWKH
IDXOWSRLQW
7KHYHQLQ䇻VHTXLYDOHQW]HUR
VHTXHQFHLPSHGDQFHVHHQIURP
WKHIDXOWSRLQW
7KHYHQLQ䇻VHTXLYDOHQW
SRVLWLYHVHTXHQFHLPSHGDQFH
VHHQIURPWKHIDXOWSRLQW
7KHYHQLQ䇻VHTXLYDOHQW
QHJDWLYHVHTXHQFHLPSHGDQFH
VHHQIURPWKHIDXOWSRLQW
IDXOWLPSHGDQFHLQPRVWFDVHV
LVSXUHO\UHVLVWLYHLIQRW]HUR
147

148
 149

Derivation of Sequence Network

Interconnections

Boundary conditions:

150
(T䇻Q
(T䇻Q

(T䇻Q

(T䇻Q
151

(T䇻Q

152
153

154
 155

Derivation of Sequence Network

Interconnections

Boundary conditions:
(T䇻Q%&
(T䇻Q%&
(T䇻Q%&
156
157

158
159

160
Negative-sequence Component:

Zero-sequence Component:

The fault current

161

162
163

164
165

166
Single-to-line Ground Faults

167

168
169

170
 171

Three phase fault:

Single line-to-ground fault:

172
Line-to-line fault:

Double line-to-ground fault:

173

174
 175

1. Pre-fault load currents are neglected,

otherwise, IF=IF(no load) + Iload, where Iload is
determined from loadflow studies.
2. Pre-fault voltages are assumed equal to 1.0 per
unit.
3. Resistances are neglected (only for 115kV &
up).
4. Mutual impedances, when not appreciable are
neglected.
5. Off-nominal transformer taps are equal to 1.0
per unit.
¾ All tap changing transformers are in middle
position.
176
6. Positive- and negative-sequence impedances
are equal.
7. All line capacitances are ignored.
8. All non-motor shunt impedances are ignored;
motor loads may be treated the same way as
generators, i.e., voltage sources.
9. The voltage magnitude and phase angle of
generators and in-feeds are all set to the same
value.
10. Motors that are 50 hp and above are included
in the model.
11. Studies have shown that the shunt elements
and loads have little influence on the short
circuit currents (0.5% to 4%) and may
compensate each other.
177

178
Outline Procedures for Short Circuit
Calculations
1) Setup the network impedances expressed
in per unit on a common MVA base in the
form of a single-line diagram.
¾ In the impedance diagrams, only the
rotating machines in the positive sequence
network will have voltage sources
2) Determine the single equivalent
(Thevenin䇻s) impedance of each sequence
network as seen from the fault point.
3) Determine the distribution factor giving
the current in the individual branches for
unit total sequence current.
179

Outline Procedures for Short Circuit

Calculations
4) Interconnect the three sequence networks
for the type of fault under consideration
and calculate the sequence currents at the
fault point.
5) Determine the sequence current
distribution by the application of the
distribution factors to the sequence
currents at the fault point.
6) Synthesize the phase currents from the
sequence currents.

180
Outline Procedures for Short Circuit
Calculations
7) Determine the sequence voltages
throughout the different sequence
network from the sequence current
distribution and branch impedances.
8) Synthesize the phase voltages from the
sequence voltage components.
9) Convert the per unit currents and voltages
to actual physical units.

181

182
In the power system shown below, determine the
single line-to-ground and three phase fault levels for a
bolted fault (ZF = 0) at bus T. What is the ohmic value
of the neutral reactor to be connected at the neutral of
the 50 MVA power transformer to limit the single line-
to-ground fault to the three phase fault level. Compare
the voltage at Phase B-to-neutral for the bolted SLG
fault of the two conditions.

183

Let’s determine the appropriate kV base values:

kVB=13.8 kVB=13.8(138/13.8) kVB=138(230/132)

= 138 =240.4545
kVB=138(13.8/132)=14.427
Next step is to convert all p.u. impedances to new
base values:

184
 ••—‹‰ͷͲƒ†ͳ͵Ǥͺƒ•„ƒ•‡˜ƒŽ—‡•ƒ–
ͳǣ
ଶ
ͳ͵Ǥͺ ͷͲ
‫ ͳݔ‬ൌ ‫ ʹݔ‬ൌ ͳʹΨ ൌ ͳͷǤͲΨ
ͳ͵Ǥͺ ͶͲ
ଶ
ͳ͵Ǥͺ ͷͲ
‫ Ͳݔ‬ൌ ͹Ψ ൌ ͺǤ͹ͷΨ
ͳ͵Ǥͺ ͶͲ

ͷͲ–”ƒ•ˆ‘”‡”ǣ
ଶ
ͳ͵Ǥͺ ͷͲ
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͳͲΨ ൌ ͳͲΨ
ͳ͵Ǥͺ ͷͲ

ͳ͵ͺǦŽ‹‡ǣ ൌͳ͵ͺǡ ൌͷͲ

ͷͲ
‫ ͳݔ‬ൌ ‫ ʹݔ‬ൌ ͵Ǥʹ: ൌ ͲǤͺͶͲʹΨ
ͳ͵ͺʹ
ͷͲ
‫ Ͳݔ‬ൌ ͸ǤͲ: ൌ ͳǤͷ͹ͷ͵Ψ
ͳ͵ͺʹ
185

ͳͲͲ–”ƒ•ˆ‘”‡”ǣሾ‘Ž†ሿ ൌͳ͵ʹǣ
ଶ
ͷͲ ͳ͵ʹ
‫ ܳܲݔ‬ൌ ͳͷΨ ൌ ͸Ǥͺ͸ʹͲΨ
ͳͲͲ ͳ͵ͺ
ଶ
ͷͲ ʹ͵Ͳ
‫ ܴܳݔ‬ൌ ͳͲΨ ൌ ͻǤͳͶͻ͵Ψ
ͷͲ ʹͶͲǤͶͷͶͷ
ଶ
ͷͲ ͳ͵ʹ
‫ ܴܲݔ‬ൌ ʹͲΨ ൌ ͳͺǤʹͻͺ͹Ψ
ͷͲ ͳ͵ͺ
ͳ
‫ ܲݔ‬ൌ ሺ͸Ǥͺ͸ʹͲ ൅ ͳͺǤʹͻͺ͹ െ ͻǤͳͶͻ͵ሻ ൌ ͺǤͲͲͷ͹Ψ
ʹ
ͳ
‫ ܳݔ‬ൌ ͸Ǥͺ͸ʹͲ െ ͳͺǤʹͻͺ͹ ൅ ͻǤͳͶͻ͵ ൌ െͳǤͳͶ͵͹Ψ
ʹ
ͳ
‫ ܴݔ‬ൌ ሺെ͸Ǥͺ͸ʹͲ ൅ ͳͺǤʹͻͺ͹ ൅ ͻǤͳͶͻ͵ሻ ൌ ͳͲǤʹͻ͵ͲΨ
ʹ

186
 “—‹˜ƒŽ‡–ʹ͵Ͳ•›•–‡ǣ
‫ܨܣܸܯ‬ ͳʹͲͲ
‫ܨܫ‬ ͵‫׎‬ ൌ ൌ ൌ ʹͶǤͲ‫ݑ݌‬
‫ܤܣܸܯ‬ ͷͲ
ͳͷͲͲ
‫ ܩܮܵ ܨܫ‬ൌ ൌ ͵ͲǤͲ‫ݑ݌‬
ͷͲ
›•–‡’‘•‹–‹˜‡Ǧ•‡“—‡…‡”‡ƒ…–ƒ…‡ǣ
ͳͲͲΨ
‫ ͳݔ‬ൌ ൌ ͶǤͳ͸͸͹Ψ
ʹͶ
›•–‡œ‡”‘Ǧ•‡“—‡…‡”‡ƒ…–ƒ…‡ǣ
͵ͲͲΨ
‫ Ͳݔ‬ൌ െ ʹ‫ ͳݔ‬Ψ
‫ ܩܮܵ ܨܫ‬ሺ‫ݑ݌‬ሻ
͵ͲͲΨ
‫ Ͳݔ‬ൌ  െ ʹ ൈ ͶǤͳ͸͸͹Ψ ൌ ͳǤ͸͸͸͹Ψ
͵Ͳ
187

ʹ͵Ͳ
ܸ݇‫ܤ‬ሺ݊݁‫ ݓ‬ሻ ൌ ͳ͵ͺ ൌ ʹͶͲǤͶͷͶͷܸ݇
ͳ͵ʹ

‘˜‡”–‹‰–Š‡•›•–‡‹’‡†ƒ…‡•–‘‡™„ƒ•‡‘ˆ
ʹͶͲǤͶͷͶͷǣ
ଶ
ʹ͵Ͳ
‫ ͳݔ‬ൌ ͶǤͳ͸͸͹Ψ ൌ ͵Ǥͺͳʹ͵Ψ
ʹͶͲǤͶͷͶͷ

ଶ
ʹ͵Ͳ
‫ Ͳݔ‬ൌ ͳǤ͸͸͸͹Ψ ൌ ͳǤͷʹͶͻΨ
ʹͶͲǤͶͷͶͷ

188
Positive sequence network:

Zero sequence network:

1
189

For a SLG fault at T:

଴Ǥଶହ଻ଵൈ଴Ǥଵଵହଵସ
‫ ͳݔ‬ൌ ͲǤʹͷ¸¸ͲǤͳͳͷͳͶ ൌ ൌ ͲǤͲ͹ͺͺ ‫ݑ݌‬
଴Ǥଶହ଻ଵା଴Ǥଵଵହଵସ
଴Ǥଵ଴ൈ଴Ǥ଴ଽଽସଽ
‫ Ͳݔ‬ൌ ͲǤͳͲ¸¸ͲǤͲͻͻͶͻ ൌ ൌ ͲǤͲͶͻͺ͹ ‫ݑ݌‬
଴Ǥଵ଴ା଴Ǥ଴ଽଽସଽ
͵
‫ܨܫ‬ ܵ‫ܩܮ‬ ൌ ൌ ͳͶǤͶͷͻͻ‫ݑ݌‬
ʹ ൈ ͲǤͲ͹ͺͺ ൅ ͲǤͲͶͺ͹
ͷͲ ൈ ͳͲͲͲ
ൌ ͳͶǤͶͷͻͻ ൌ ͵ǡͲʹͶǤ͹ͻ‫ܣ‬
ξ͵ ൈ ͳ͵ͺ
For a 3-phase fault at T:
ͳ ͳ
‫ ׎͵ ܨܫ‬ൌ ൌ ൌ ͳʹǤ͸ͻͲͶ‫ݑ݌‬
‫ͳݔ‬ ͲǤͲ͹ͺͺ
ͷͲ ൈ ͳͲͲͲ
ൌ ͳʹǤ͸ͻͲͶ ൌ ʹǡ͸ͷͶǤ͸͵‫ܣ‬
ξ͵ ൈ ͳ͵ͺ
190
191


 193

In the power system shown below, determine the

single line-to-ground and three phase fault levels for a
bolted fault (ZF = 0) at bus T. What is the ohmic value
of the neutral reactor to be connected at the neutral of
the 50 MVA power transformer to limit the single line-
to-ground fault to the three phase fault level. Compare
the voltage at Phase B-to-neutral for the bolted SLG
fault of the two conditions.


 Let’s determine the appropriate kV base values
choosing 230kV for the equivalent system:

kVB=230(132/230) kVB=230 kV
kVB=132(13.8/138) = 132 kV
=13.2 kV kVB=230(13.8/230)=13.8 kV
Next step is to convert all p.u. impedances to new
base values:



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ͳǣ
ଶ
ͳ͵Ǥͺ ͳͲͲ
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ͳ͵Ǥʹ ͶͲ
ଶ
ͳ͵Ǥͺ ͳͲͲ
‫ Ͳݔ‬ൌ ͹Ψ ൌ ͳͻǤͳʹ͹ͳΨ
ͳ͵Ǥʹ ͶͲ

ͷͲ–”ƒ•ˆ‘”‡”ǣ
ଶ
ͳ͵Ǥͺ ͳͲͲ
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ͳͲΨ ൌ ʹͳǤͺͷͻͷΨ
ͳ͵Ǥʹ ͷͲ

ͳ͵ͺǦŽ‹‡ǣ ൌͳ͵ʹǡ ൌͳͲͲ

ͳͲͲ
‫ ͳݔ‬ൌ ‫ ʹݔ‬ൌ ͵Ǥʹ: ൌ ͳǤͺ͵͸ͷΨ
ͳ͵ʹʹ
ͳͲͲ
‫ Ͳݔ‬ൌ ͸ǤͲ: ൌ ͵ǤͶͶ͵ͷΨ 
ͳ͵ʹʹ
 ͳͲͲ–”ƒ•ˆ‘”‡”ǣሾ‘Ž†ሿ ൌͳ͵ʹǣ
ଶ
ͳͲͲ ͳ͵ʹ
‫ ܳܲݔ‬ൌ ͳͷΨ ൌ ͳͷǤͲΨ
ͳͲͲ ͳ͵ʹ
ଶ
ͳͲͲ ʹ͵Ͳ
‫ ܴܳݔ‬ൌ ͳͲΨ ൌ ʹͲǤͲΨ
ͷͲ ʹ͵Ͳ
ଶ
ͳͲͲ ͳ͵ʹ
‫ ܴܲݔ‬ൌ ʹͲΨ ൌ ͶͲǤͲΨ
ͷͲ ͳ͵ʹ
ͳ
‫ ܲݔ‬ൌ ሺͳͷ ൅ ͶͲ െ ʹͲሻ ൌ ͳ͹ǤͷΨ
ʹ
ͳ
‫ ܳݔ‬ൌ ͳͷ െ ͶͲ ൅ ʹͲ ൌ െʹǤͷΨ
ʹ
ͳ
‫ ܴݔ‬ൌ ሺെͳͷ ൅ ͶͲ ൅ ʹͲሻ ൌ ʹʹǤͷΨ
ʹ



“—‹˜ƒŽ‡–ʹ͵Ͳ•›•–‡ǣ
‫ܨܣܸܯ‬ ͳʹͲͲ
‫ܨܫ‬ ͵‫׎‬ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͳʹǤͲ‫ݑ݌‬
‫ܤܣܸܯ‬ ͳͲͲ
ͳͷͲͲ
‫ ܩܮܵ ܨܫ‬ൌ ൌ ͳͷǤͲ‫ݑ݌‬
ͳͲͲ
›•–‡’‘•‹–‹˜‡Ǧ•‡“—‡…‡”‡ƒ…–ƒ…‡ǣ
ͳͲͲΨ ͳͲͲΨ
‫ ͳݔ‬ൌ ൌ ൌ ͺǤ͵͵͵͵Ψ
‫ ׎͵ ܨܫ‬ሺ‫ݑ݌‬ሻ ͳʹ
›•–‡œ‡”‘Ǧ•‡“—‡…‡”‡ƒ…–ƒ…‡ǣ
͵ͲͲΨ
‫ Ͳݔ‬ൌ െ ʹ‫ ͳݔ‬Ψ
‫ ܩܮܵ ܨܫ‬ሺ‫ݑ݌‬ሻ
͵ͲͲΨ
‫ Ͳݔ‬ൌ  െ ʹ ൈ ͺǤ͵͵͵͵Ψ ൌ ͵Ǥ͵͵͵͵Ψ
ͳͷ

Positive sequence network:

Zero sequence network:



For a SLG fault at T:

଴Ǥହସ଺ସ଼଼ൈ଴Ǥଶହଵ଺ଽ଼
‫ ͳݔ‬ൌ ͲǤͷͶ͸Ͷͺͺ¸¸ͲǤʹͷͳ͸ͻͺ ൌ ൌ ͲǤͳ͹ʹ͵͵ ‫ݑ݌‬
଴Ǥହସ଺ସ଼଼ା଴Ǥଶହଵ଺ଽ଼
଴Ǥଶଵ଼ହଽହൈ଴Ǥଶଵ଻ସ଻
‫ Ͳݔ‬ൌ ͲǤʹͳͺͷͻͷ¸¸ͲǤʹͳ͹Ͷ͹ ൌ ൌ ͲǤͳͲͻͲʹ ‫ݑ݌‬
଴Ǥଶଵ଼ହଽହା଴Ǥଶଵ଻ସ଻
The pre-fault voltage, Ea1=13.8/13.2=1.04545 pu
͵ ྶ ‫ͳܽܧ‬
‫ܨܫ‬ ܵ‫ܩܮ‬ ൌ ൌ ͸Ǥͻͳ͵ͳ͵‫ݑ݌‬
ʹ ൈ ͲǤͳ͹ʹ͵͵ ൅ ͲǤͳͲͻͲʹ
ͳͲͲ ൈ ͳͲͲͲ
ൌ ͸Ǥͻͳ͵ͳ͵ ൌ ͵ǡͲʹ͵Ǥ͹ͳ‫ܣ‬
ξ͵ ൈ ͳ͵ʹ
For a 3-phase fault at T:
‫ͳܽܧ‬ ͳǤͲͶͷͶͷ
‫ܨܫ‬ ͵‫׎‬ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͸ǤͲ͸͸ͷ͸‫ݑ݌‬
‫ͳݔ‬ ͲǤͲ͹ͺͺ
ͳͲͲ ൈ ͳͲͲͲ
ൌ ͸ǤͲ͸͸ͷ͸ ൌ ʹǡ͸ͷ͵ǤͶ͵‫ܣ‬
ξ͵ ൈ ͳ͵ʹ



202
203

204
Two 11-kV, 20 MVA, three-phase, three-phase, wye-connected
generators operate in parallel as shown; Z1=j0.18 pu, Z2=j0.15 pu,
Z0=j0.10 pu. The neutral point of one the generators is isolated
and that of the other is grounded through a 2.0-ohm resistor. A
solid single line-to-ground fault occurs at the terminal of one of
the generators. Calculate:
a) Fault current
b) Current in the grounding resistor
c) Voltage across the grounding resistor

205

Solution:

Choose the machine rating as the base values, i.e.,

kVB = 11 kV, MVAB = 20 MVA

Per unit impedance of grounding resistor:

RN = 2[20/112] = 0.33058 pu
3RN = 3x 0.33058 = 0.9917 pu

Machine per unit sequence impedances:

Z1 = j0.18 pu
Z2 = j0.15 pu
Z0 = j0.10 pu

206
Solution:
Positive sequence network: Negative sequence network:

Zero sequence network:

207

Solution:

a) For a single line-to-ground fault:

208
 Solution:

b) Current through the grounding resistor:

c) Voltage across the grounding resistor:

Alternatively:

209

Base Values at the Transmission Line:

MVAB = 20, kVB = 115
Determine the fault current and the generator fault
current contributions for a bolted fault (3-phase,
L-L, SLG, DLG) at the HV bus of T2.
210
 Solution:
Determine the appropriate kV bases:

kVB=115(13.8/115) kVB=115 kV (given) kVB=115(13.2/115)

211

Solution:
Convert all impedances to a common MVA base
and appropriate kV base:

212
Solution (cont’d):

213

Solution (cont’d):
Positive-sequence Network

Negative-sequence Network

214
 Solution (cont’d):

Zero-sequence Network

215

Solution (cont’d):
For a fault at the high-tension bus of
transformer T2:
Positive-sequence Network

Zero-sequence Network

216
Solution (cont’d):
For a fault at the high-tension bus of transformer
T2:

Thevenin䇻s Equivalent Networks as seen from

the Fault Point

217

Solution (cont’d):

For a three-phase fault at the high-tension bus

of transformer T2:

Sequence Network
Interconnection:

218
 Solution (cont’d):
Symmetrical Components
of Current:

Fault Current:

219

Solution (cont’d):
Ia1

Ia1G1 Ia1G2

Generator fault current contributions:

ܽ‫ͳܩ‬

ܽ‫ʹܩ‬

220
Solution (cont’d):
For a single line-to-ground fault at the high-
tension bus of transformer T2,

Sequence Network Interconnection:

221

Solution (cont’d):
Symmetrical Components of Current:

Fault Current:

222
Solution (cont’d):
Generator fault current contributions:

223

Solution (cont’d):
Zero-sequence Network

Generator phase A current contributions:

224
Solution (cont’d):

For a line-to-line fault at the high tension bus

transformer T2,

225

Solution (cont’d):

Symmetrical Components of Current:

Fault Current:

226
Solution (cont’d):
Generator fault current contributions:

227

Solution (cont’d):
Generator phase current contributions:

228
Solution (cont’d):

For a double line-to-ground fault at the high-

tension bus of transformer T2:

Sequence Network Interconnection:

229

Solution (cont’d):

Fault Current:

230
Solution (cont’d):
Symmetrical components of current:

231

Solution (cont’d):
Symmetrical components of current:

232
Solution (cont’d):
Symmetrical components of current:

233

Solution (cont’d):
Zero-sequence Network

Generator fault current contributions:

234
Solution (cont’d):
Zero-sequence Network

Generator fault current contributions:

235

236
A portion of a power system is shown below, which
also shows the ratings of the generators and the
transformer and their respective percent reactance. A
symmetrical short circuit appears on a feeder at F.
Find the value of the reactance X (in percent) such
that the short-circuit MVA does not exceed 300 MVA.

237

238
Assuming X = 0:

239

To limit the fault current to 300 MVA:

240