Bosh

BASIC
OCCUPATIONAL
SAFETY AND HEALTH
COURSE DESCRIPTION
THE COURSE TACKLES KEY OCCUPATIONAL, HEALTH AND SAFETY (OSH) CONCEPTS,
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES THAT ARE FOUNDATIONAL KNOWLEDGE REQUIREMENTS
ACCEPTABLE IN ALMOST ALL INDUSTRIES. SPECIFICALLY, IT ASSISTS LEARNERS IN
IDENTIFYING THE KEY ELEMENTS IN THE OSH SITUATION BOTH HERE AND ABROAD,
DETERMINE EXISTING AND POTENTIAL SAFETY AND HEALTH HAZARDS, IDENTIFY THE RANGE
OF CONTROL MEASURES, DISCUSS PERTINENT PROVISION OF PHILIPPINE LAWS THAT
REFER TO OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH, EXPLAIN KEY PRINCIPLES IN EFFECTIVELY
COMMUNICATING OSH, IDENTIFY COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE OSH PROGRAMS AND
DEMONSTRATE SOME SKILLS IN IDENTIFYING HAZARDS AND CORRESPONDING CONTROL
MEASURES AT THE WORKPLACE.
FACULTY INFORMATION
Name: ARJEAN DELA CRUZ
Email: arjeandelacruz7@gmail.com
Contact Number: 09279468339
Office: College of Engineering
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Introductory Concept; Promoting Safety and Health as an

Engineer’s Professional and Ethical Responsibility
2. Occupational Safety and Health
3. Industrial Hygiene
4. Control Measures for OSH hazards
6. Personal Protective Equipment
7. OSH Programming
8. Training of Personnel on OSH
9. OSH Legislation
10. Plant Visit Simulation
11. Fire Protection
LESSON 1
Promoting Safety and Health as an

Engineer’s Professional and Ethical
Responsibility
HAZARD
RISK
HAZARD
a source or situation with a potential to harm and
cause injury, ill health, damage to property,
damage to the environment, or a combination of
these. This manifest itself through specificity,
exposure, frequency, and severity.
RISK
the likelihood of an occurrence of a hazardous
event with specified period or in specified
circumstances and the severity of injury or
damage to the healthof people,
property,environment, or anycombination of
these cause by an event.
ACCIDENT
an unexpected, unforeseen, unplanned, and
unwanted occurrence or event that causes
damageor loss ofmaterials or properties,injury,
or death
OCCUPATIONAL ACCIDENT
an unexpected or unplanned occurrence, including
acts of violence arising out of or in connection with
work which results in one or more workers
incurring a personal injury, disease, or death. ∙
OCCUPATIONAL INJURY
an injury which results from a work-related event
or a single instantaneous exposure in the work
environment whereinmore than one person is
injured in a single accident, each case of
occupational injury should be counted separately
TEMPORARY INCAPACITY
a case wherein an injured person was absent from work for
at least one day, excluding the day of the accident, and was
able to perform again the normal duties of the job or
position occupied at the time of the occupational accident
or will be able to perform the same job but his/her total
absence from work is expected not to exceed a year
starting the day after the accident, or did not return to the
same job but the reason for changing the job is not related
to his/her inability to perform the job at the time of the
occupational accident
PERMANENT INCAPACITY
a case wherein an injured person was absent from work for
at least one day, excluding the day of the accident, and was
never able to perform again the normal duties of the job or
position occupied at the time of the occupational accident,
or will be able to perform the samejob but his/her total
absence from work is expected to exceed a year starting
the day after the accident.
FATAL CASE
a case wherein a personis fatally injured as a result of
occupational accident whether death occurs immediately
after the accident or within the same reference years the
accident.
SAFETY CULTURE
the product of individual and group
attitudes, perceptions, and values about
workplace behaviors and processes that
collectively result safety work units and
reliable organizational products.
TRAINING
an activity intended for acquiring skills and necessary
knowledge of rules, concepts, or attitudes needed to
function effectively in specified task situations
TIPS TO PROMOTE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND
HEALTH (HOPKINS 2018)
Implement safety and training programs for employees;
Reward employees for safe behaviors;
Partner with occupational clinicians;
Use label and signs to avoid unforeseen hazards;
Keep things clean and organized;
Make sure that employees have the right tools and must
be inspected regularly;
Encourage stretch breaks;
Employ safety protocols every now and then;
Keep an open forum for employees’ thoughts; and,
Have regular meetings regarding workplace safety.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND
SAFETY TRAININGS
FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMS
involve instruction in prevention of work-related injury
and illness through proper use and maintenance of tools,
equipment, and materials; knowledge of emergency
procedures; personal hygiene measures; needs for medical
monitoring; and use of PPE for non-routine operations or as
interim safeguard until engineering controls are
implemented.
RECOGNITION PROGRAMS
include instruction emphasizing awareness of workplace
hazards;knowledge of methods of hazard eliminationand
control; understanding right-to-know laws and ways for
collecting information on workplace hazards; recognizing
symptoms of toxic exposures;and observing and
reporting hazards or potential hazards to appropriate
bodies.
PROBLEM-SOLVING PROGRAMS
consist of instructions aimed at giving workers the
information and skills enabling them to participate in
hazard recognition andcontrol activities; to help identify
and solve problems through teamwork and cooperation in
the workplace.
EMPOWERMENT PROGRAMS
comprise instruction on building and broadening worker
skills inhazard recognition andproblem-solving. These
emphasize worker activism with the goal of ensuring their
rights to an illness and injury-free workplace and enabling
workers toeffect vital control measures through
educating co-workers and through the use of committee
processes or in health/safety contract negotiations.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT THAT
ENGINEERS WORK ETHICALLY IN
RELATION TO SAFETY?
LESSON 2
Occupational Safety & Health

DID YOU KNOW?
2.3 million women and men

around the world succumb to
work-related accidents or
diseases every year; which
corresponds to over 6000
deaths every single day
WHAT DO YOU THINK IS THE
RELATIONSHIP OF PROMOTING
HEALTH AND SAFETY IN THE
WORKPLACE?
Basically, if the Work Environment is Healthy and Safe the workers will have
a good Physical, Social and Psychological well being, thus will tend to
Higher Productivity.
OBJECTIVE OF PROMOTING
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
to promote and maintain the highest degree of

physical, mental, and social well-being of workers in
all occupations
HISTORY OF OSHC IN THE
PHILIPPINES
Occupational Safety and Health (OSHC)
was established through Executive
Order No. 307, signed by the late
President Corazon C. Aquino, on
November 4, 1987.
MISCONCEPTIONS IN OCCUPATIONAL
SAFETY AND HEALTH
MYTH#1: INVESTING IN WORKPLACE
HEALTH AND SAFETY TRAINING IS TOO
EXPENSIVE.
ACCIDENT COST
Direct Cost
Medical Costs
Insurance Premiums
Employee Compensation
Indirect Cost
Inspect/repair/remove/replace damaged or destroyed
equipment and materials
Order replacement parts, materials or entire machines
Rent temporary replacement machines/tools
Pay overtime wages
Absorb possible lost sales
Hire and train new employee
Investigate accident
Complete written reports
File workers’ compensation or insurance claims
Clean-up area
Repair damaged work areas
MYTH#2: ACCIDENTS WILL HAPPEN NO
MATTER WHAT PRECAUTIONS WE TAKE.
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
Unsafe Conditions
Inadequate guards or protection
Defective tools/equipment
Congestion
Substandard housekeeping
Excessive noise
Inadequate illumination or ventilation
CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
Unsafe Practices
Operating without authority or permit
Failure to warn or secure
Operating at improper speed
Making safety devices inoperable
Using defective equipment
Using equipment improperly
Failure to use personal protective equipment
Improper loading or placement
Improper lifting
Taking improper position
Servicing equipment in motion
Horseplay
Drinking or drugs
MYTH#3: MY EMPLOYEES KNOW HOW TO
PROTECT THEMSELVES AND WORK
SAFELY WITHOUT FORMAL TRAINING.
MYTH#4: WE WORK IN AN OFFICE AND
DON'T HAVE TO WORRY ABOUT ANY
WORKPLACE HAZARDS.
MYTH#5: WORKPLACE SAFETY ONLY
AFFECTS ONE ASPECT OF OUR BUSINESS.
Safety and
Health
Programs
Introduction
Each year, thousands of workers die as a result of exposure to hazards in the workplace. Safety and Health Programs can help
reduce these fatalities through a proactive approach to finding and fixing hazards before they cause injury, illness, or death.
Introduction
Lesson objectives:
1. Recognize the costs of workplace accidents.
2. Recognize benefits of implementing an
effective safety and health program.
3. Describe the elements of an effective safety
and health program.
4. Identify three methods to prevent workplace
hazards.
Costs of Accidents
$$$
Direct costs:
• Cost of treatment
• Cost of physician and hospital
• Cost of medications
• Cost of medical equipment
Source: NIOSH
Costs of Accidents
$$$
Indirect costs:
• Schedule delays
• Lower morale
• Increased Absenteeism
• Poor Customer Relations
• Re-training
Advantages and
Disadvantages of
Occupational Health
and Safety
Source: OSHA
Advantages of Occupational Health and
Safety
Benefits may include:

• Enhance Safety
• Healthier Workforce
• Legal Compliance
• Better morale
• Improved recruiting and retention
• More favorable image and reputation
Source: OSHA
Advantages of Occupational Health and
Safety
• Cost Implication
• Resistance to Change
• Complexity in Implementation
• Potential Complacency
• Balancing Productivity
Source: OSHA
Safety and Health Programs
The main goal of safety and health programs is to

prevent workplace injuries, illnesses, and deaths, as
well as the suffering and financial hardship these
events can cause for workers, their families, and
employers. The recommended practices use a
proactive approach to managing workplace safety
and health.
Elements of Safety and Health
Programs
• Management Leadership
• Worker Participation
• Hazard Identification and Assessment
• Hazard Prevention and Control
• Education and Training
• Program Evaluation and Improvement
• Multi-Employer Worksites
Elements of Safety & Health Programs
Source: OSHA
Management Leadership
• Action Item 1: Communicate your
commitment to Safety and Health Programs
How to accomplish it:
• Establish a written safety and health policy
statement signed by top management
• Communicate the policy to all workers, contractors,
unions, supplier, visitors, customers, etc.
Action Item 2: Define program goals and
expectations
• Establish realistic, attainable and measurable
goals that demonstrate progress toward
improving safety and health
• Develop safety and health plans
Action Item 3: Allocate Resources

• Integrate safety and health into planning and
budgeting
• Allow time in workers schedule for participation
• Action Item 4: Expect Performance

• Define and communicate responsibilities and
authorities for accountability
• Set an example for workers by following the
same procedures
Source: OSHA
Worker Participation
• Action Item 1: Encourage workers to
report safety and health concerns
• Establish a process to report injuries, near misses
and other safety and health concerns
• Empower workers to temporarily suspend work they
feel is unsafe
• Action Item 2: Encourage participation in
the program
• Provide positive reinforcement to workers who
participate
• Maintain an open-door policy, inviting workers to
speak to managers about safety and health
• Action Item 3: Involve workers in all
aspects of the program
To accomplish, allow workers to be involved in:
• Developing a program
• Reporting hazards and developing solutions
• Analyzing hazards
• Defining safe work practices
• Conducting site inspections
• Participating in incident/near-miss investigations
• Serving as trainers
• Developing and evaluating training programs
• Action Item 4: Give workers access to
safety and health information
To accomplish, give workers information they
need to understand safety and health hazards:
• Safety Data Sheets
• Injury Illness Data
• Results of exposure monitoring
• Action Item 5: Remove barriers to
participation
• Ensure workers from all levels of the organization
can participate regardless of skill level, education,
or language
• Ensure policies and programs do not discourage
worker participation
Source: OSHA
Hazard Identification
• Action Item 1: Collect existing information
about workplace hazards
• Collect, organize and review information to
determine what types of hazards are present and
workers exposed
• Action Item 2: Inspect the workplace

• Routine inspections of workflow, equipment,
materials and talk to workers
• Use checklists
• Action Item 3: Conduct Incident
Investigations
• Develop a plan and procedure to begin
investigation immediately after an incident or
near miss.
• Conduct root cause analysis and investigate
with a team.
• Action Item 4: Identify hazards associated
with emergency and non-routine situations
• Assess foreseeable emergency scenarios or
non-routine tasks
• Conduct “table top” exercises to help you
plan and test your response plan and
procedures
• Action Item 5: Characterize the nature of identified
hazards, determine the controls to be implemented
and prioritize the hazards for control
• Evaluate each hazard by considering the severity of potential
outcomes, the likelihood that an event will occur and the
number of workers exposed
• Prioritize hazards so that the greatest risks are addressed first
• Use interim control measures to protect workers until more
permanent solutions can be implemented
Source: OSHA
Prevent/Control Workplace Hazards
Methods to prevent/control workplace hazards:

• Benefits of effective controls
– Protect workers from hazards
– Help avoid injuries, illnesses,
and incidents
– Minimize/eliminate safety and
health risks
– Help employers provide
safe/healthful working conditions
Source: OSHA
Hazard Prevention and Control

• Action Item 1: Identify control options

• Review literature, OSHA standards, NIOSH
publications, etc. for potential control
measures
• Get input from workers, safety consultants,
or investigate other workplaces with similar
hazards

• Action Item 2: Select controls

• Select controls using the hierarchy of
controls
• Use a combination when no single method
fully protects the worker
• Identify and evaluate options
Source: NIOSH

• Action Item 3: Develop and update a hazard
control plan

• List hazards in order of priority, assign
responsibility to a person(s), establish a
target completion date.
• Plan how to track progress and verification
of implementation

• Action Item 4: Select controls for emergency and
non-routine operations

• Develop procedures to control hazards
during these situations.
• Assign responsibility for implementing the
plan and conduct emergency drills.

• Action Item 5: Implement selected controls in the
workplace

• Implement controls starting with highest
priority, however, regardless of priority
employers must protect workers from
recognized serious hazards

• Action Item 6: Follow up to confirm that controls
are effective

• Conduct regular inspections of controls,
confirm that work practices are being
followed.
• Track progress and implementation
• Involve workers
– Understand conditions that create hazards
– Insights into how hazards can be controlled
Source of photos: OSHA

• Use a hazard control plan

• Develop plans with measures to protect
workers during emergencies and
non-routine activities
• Evaluate effectiveness of existing controls
and review new technologies
Source: OSHA
Education and Training
• Action Item 1: Provide program awareness
training

• Provide training to all managers, supervisors and
workers as well as contractors and temporary
workers on: safety policies and procedures,
program functions, emergencies, injury illness
reporting, and their rights under the OSH Act
• Ensure the training is provided in a language and
literacy level that all workers can understand
• Action Item 2: Train workers on specific roles and
responsibilities in the safety and health program

• Instruct workers with specific roles within the
safety and health program on how they should
carry out those responsibilities
• Provide opportunities for workers to ask
questions and offer feedback during training
• Action Item 3: Train workers on hazard identification and
controls

• Train managers and works on techniques for identifying
hazards; such as job hazard analysis
• Have workers demonstrate they can recognize hazards and
understand why controls are in place
• Provide training on new tasks and new assignments
• Provide training where required by specific OSHA standards
such as; hazard communication and lockout/tagout
Source: OSHA
Program Evaluation
• Action Item 1: Verify the program is implemented
and is operating

• Verify the core elements of the program are fully met
and key processes are in place and implemented
• Verify injuries are being reported, inspections are
conducted, progress is being tracked in controlling
identified hazards to ensure control measures are
effective and data collected to monitor the programs
performance
Program Evaluation
• Action Item 2: Correct program deficiencies and
identify opportunities to improve

• Proactively seek input from managers, workers, supervisors
and other stakeholders on how you can improve the program
• Determine whether changes in equipment, facilities, material,
personnel or work practices trigger any need for changes in
the program
• Determine whether the metrics and goals are still relevant
and how you could change them to more effectively drive
improvements
Source: OSHA
Host employer: An employer who hasgeneral supervisory authority
over the worksite, including controlling the means and manner of work
performed and having the power to correct safety and health hazards
or require others to correct them.
Contractor: An individual or firm that agrees to furnish materials or
perform services at a specified price, and controls the details of how
the work will be performed and completed.
Staffing agency: A firm that provides temporary workers to host
employers. A staffing agency hires its own employees and assigns
them to support or supplement a client’s workforce in situations
involving employee absences, temporary skill shortages, seasonal
workloads, and special projects.
Temporary workers: Workers hired and paid by a staffing agency
and assigned to work for a host employer, whether or not the job is
actually temporary
Multi-Employer Worksites
• Action Item 1: Management Leadership
• Provide a copy of the safety and health policy to all
contractors
• Before beginning on-site work, clarify each employer’s
responsibilities and obligations, such as;
• Providing training
• Selecting, providing and maintaining PPE
• Recording and reporting any injuries or illnesses
• Procedures for communication between host employer and all
contractors
• Action Item 2: Worker Participation

• Encourage employees to raise safety concerns
• Identify and remove any obstacles to their
participation in a program or reporting
• Action Item 3: Hazard Identification and
Assessment

• Host employer performs a worksite hazard
assessment and shares the results
• Contractors perform pre-job hazard
assessments of the work they will perform
• Action Item 4: Hazard Prevention and Control

• Before beginning work, the host employer
gives contractors information about programs
and procedures to control workers’ exposure
to hazards
• Action Item 5: Education and Training

• The host employer and contractor identify
any qualifications and certifications required
by the workers
• Temporary and contract workers also receive
appropriate hazard and standard specific
training
• Action Item 6: Program Evaluation and Improvement

• Exchange data on metrics tracks and use this data to
evaluate the program’s effectiveness
• All contractors should participate in these evaluations
• Sharing the results of the evaluations with contractors,
subcontractors and temporary staffing agencies who
can then inform the affected workers of the results
Summary
• OSHA encourages employers to create a
proactive approach for finding and fixing
hazards in the workplace.
• An effective safety and health program

increases worker involvement,
management commitment and allows
employers to better manager their
resources, personnel and environment.
Introduction
to
INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE
Industrial Hygiene
● “that science or art devoted to the
anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and
control of those environmental factors or
stresses, arising in or from the workplace,
that may cause sickness, impaired health
and well-being, or significant discomfort
and inefficiency among workers”
History
● Circa 400 BC
– lead toxicity in mining (Hippocrates)
● 500 years later
– Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar
– zinc and sulfur hazards
– protective mask
History
● 2nd Century AD
– Galen
• copper miners exposure to acid mists
● 1473
– Ulrich Ellenbog
• publication n occupational illness in gold miners
History
● 1556
– Agricola, German scholar
• diseases of coal miners
• preventive measures
• publication - De Re Metallica
● 1700’s
– Bernardino Ramazzini
• father of industrial hygiene
OSH Act of 1970
● The purpose of the OSH Act is to
“assure so far as possible every working,
man and woman in the nation safe and
healthful working conditions and to
preserve our human resources.”
Environmental
Factors or Stresses
● Chemical hazards
– gases, vapors, dusts, fumes, mists, and smoke
● Physical hazards
– non-ionizing and ionizing radiation, noise,
vibration, extreme temperatures and pressures
Environmental
Factors or Stresses
● Ergonomic hazards
– workstation design, repetitive motion, improper
lifting/reaching, poor visual conditions
● Biological hazards
– insects, mold, yeast, fungi, bacteria, and viruses
Routes of Entry
● Inhalation
– airborne contaminants
● Absorption
– penetration through the skin
● Ingestion
– eating
– drinking
OSHA Hierarchy of Control
● Engineering controls
● Work practice controls
● Administrative controls
● Personal protective equipment (PPE)
Types of Exposure
● Acute
– Short term period between exposure and onset
of symptoms
● Chronic
– Long time period between exposure to an agent
and the onset of symptoms
Types of Air Contaminants
● Particulates
– dusts, fumes, mists, and fibers
– non respirable particles
• > 10 μm in diameter
– respirable particles
• < 10 μm in diameter
● Fumes
– volatilized solids condenses in cool air
• < 1.0 μm in diameter
– hot vapor + air (reaction with) = oxide
● Mists
– suspended solid droplets
– generated by a condensation of liquids from a
vapors to a liquid state
● Fibers
– solid, slender, elongated structures
– length several times the diameter
● Gases
– formless fluids that expand to occupy a space
• arc-welding, internal combustion engine exhaust air
● Vapors
– liquid changed to vapor
• organic solvents
Units of Concentration
● ppm
– parts per million
● mg/m3
– milligrams per cubic meter
● mppcf
– millions or a particle per cubic foot
● f/cc
– fibers per cubic centimeter
Exposure Limits
Air Contaminants
● OSHA
– Occupational Safety and Health Administration
● NIOSH
– National Institute of Occupational Safety and
Health
● ACGIH
– American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists
Exposure Limits
Air Contaminants
● OSHA
– PEL
• permissible exposure limit
● NIOSH
– REL
• recommended exposure level
● ACGIH
– TLV
• threshold limit value
Exposure Limits
Air Contaminants
● OSHA
– PEL, STEL, Ceiling
● NIOSH
– TWA, STEL, Ceiling
● ACGIH
– TWA, STEL, Ceiling
Exposure Limits
Air Contaminants
● TWA
– takes into account variable exposure through a full
shift, 8 hour work day
● STEL
– limit of exposure during a short period, 15 minutes
● CEILING
– absolute maximum level of exposure not to be
exceeded
Exposure Limits
Air Contaminants
● Legally enforceable
– OSHA PEL
– OSHA AL (action level)

KNOWLEDGE CHECK
HAZARD OR RISK?
KNOWLEDGE CHECK
HAZARD OR RISK?
KNOWLEDGE CHECK
HAZARD OR RISK?
Tenets of Industrial Hygiene
Industrial Hygiene
● ANTICIPATION
● RECOGNITION
● EVALUATION
● CONTROL
ANTICIPATION
● This principle typically requires a survey of the workplace
design, operations, processes, work tasks, materials and
worker population.
● A current inventory of chemicals and their Safety Data
Sheets will quickly identify all the chemical hazards in the
workplace.
● The hazardous properties of each chemical onsite can help
to prioritize which hazards need to be investigated.
Safe Data Sheets
● General Information
● Hazardous Ingredients
● Physical & Chemical Characteristics
● Fire & Explosive Hazard Data
● Health Hazards
● Safe Handling and Use
● Control Measures
ANTICIPATION
● requires the IH to perform what is known as a
‘‘walk-through’’ survey or inspection. This includes but is
not limited to the following:
– visual reconnaissance of all areas of the workplace;
– taking pictures;
– preparing drawings;
– interviewing employees;
– review of company safety policies,
– previous inspection reports,
– injury logs, and medical records; and other measures.
RECOGNITION
● This principle emphasizes the importance of recognizing and
understanding the potential hazards of the work
environment, internal processes, and job tasks, including
chemical and physical hazards at a workplace.
Questions that should be answered during preliminary
investigations and inspections might include:
● What environmental stressors are present in the facility?
● Where are the points of origin of those environmental
stressors?
● What are the forms that those environmental stressors
take? Are they dusts, vapors, gases, mists?
● What are the work processes at the facility?
● Have these work processes changed in any way?
● What are the raw materials and intermediate and
finished products that are involved in the work process?
Do they pose health risks?
● What physical and mental tasks are required? Do these
tasks require frequent repetitive motions or excessive
forces for long durations?
● What control methods are currently being used?
EVALUATION
● After anticipating and recognizing your health hazards, it’s
time to evaluate the risk of exposure through an
Occupational Exposure assessment. This assessment is
crucial determining whether the exposure levels are within
acceptable limits and if additional control measures are
needed to minimize risk. It typically involves the collection
of data through various methods such as air sampling,
personal monitoring, and biological monitoring.
Occupational Exposure Assessment
● Industrial Hygiene Monitoring
– Industrial hygiene monitoring measures a specific physical,
biological or chemical agent where the exposure occurs.
– Qualitative and quantitative analysis of data from monitoring
is used to determine if exposure results are acceptable,
unacceptable, or uncertain.
CONTROL
● Controls can be defined as processes, procedures, or method
changes that correct existing health problems and prevent or
minimize he risk of health hazards in the workplace
Activity 1: See it, Think it, and
Do it
See it (Recognize)
- What is unsafe?
Think it (Evaluate)
- What could happen?
Do it (Control)
- Provide solutions to control or
eliminate the hazard.
ERGONOMICS AND
SAFETY MANAGEMENT
Objectives
● Define ergonomic terminology
● List and describe the components of the
Operator-Machine System
● Explain the role of anthropometrics when
solving ergonomic problems
● Explain the role of biomechanics when solving
ergonomic problems
● List the categories of workstations
● Identify when selected types of workstations
should be considered the design of choice
Introduction to Ergonomics
● Ergonomics is crucial for health and safety
management, addressing issues like medical costs
and lost workdays.
● Work operations involving lifting, repetitive
motion, or stationary positions can cause
musculoskeletal problems, which can be
mitigated with simple interventions or
redesigning workstations or plants.
Definition of the Term
‘‘Ergonomics’’
- "Ergonomics" derives from Greek words ergos
(work) and nomos (study/principles), focusing on
the study of work and human capabilities.
- It encompasses various fields studying human
characteristics in connection with workplace
tools and materials, applying this knowledge to
design better working and living environments.
Ergonomics Is
Multidisciplinary
Ergonomics encompasses multiple
disciplines such as sociology, psychology,
anatomy, physiology, and more. It applies
principles in human factors engineering,
industrial design, safety, and occupational
health to optimize the industrial environment.
Ergonomics Objective
- Ergonomics aims to enhance human health, safety,
and performance by applying effective workplace
principles, ultimately aiding production managers
in boosting productivity and efficiency.
- Ergonomists collaborate within interdisciplinary
teams, including engineers, managers, medical
personnel, and line workers, to analyze job
requirements, workplace layout, and production
processes proactively, aiming to prevent issues
before they arise.
Anthropometry
Anthropometry involves measuring the
physical dimensions of the human body to
enhance workplace ergonomics and address
issues between facilities or equipment and
employees.
There are two types of anthropometric dimensions
useful for the study of human physiology and its
effect on workplace layout and design:
1. Structural or static anthropometry: The
body measurements and dimensions of subjects in
fixed, standardized positions are referred to as
‘‘structural’’ or ‘‘static’’ anthropometrics.
Common structural anthropometric measurements
include stature (height), sitting height, body
depth, body breadth, eye height sitting or
standing, knuckle height, elbow height, elbow to
fist length, and arm reach.
There are two types of anthropometric dimensions
useful for the study of human physiology and its
effect on workplace layout and design:
2. Functional or dynamic anthropometry:
Functional or dynamic anthropometry refers to
the body measurements and dimensions taken
during physical activities. Frequently used
functional measurements include crawling height,
crawling length, kneeling height, overhead reach,
bent torso height, and range of movement for
upper-body extremities.
Biomechanics
Biomechanics parallels mechanics for the
human body, concentrating on its mechanical
operation and the science of motion and force
in living organisms. It monitors body function
and modifies job requirements to reduce
internal and external stresses, primarily
focusing on the musculoskeletal system.
Two types of biomechanical
measurements:
1. Dynamics: the study of moving bodies
2. Statics: the study of bodies remaining at
rest (equilibrium) as a result of forces
acting upon them
In biomechanics there are two categories of
force creating motion of biological matter
or movements like walking or lifting:
1. Load: the external forces upon a

structure or organism
2. Stresses: the internal forces

generated in the structure as a result of
loading
Classification of Body
Movement, Postures,
and Positions
1. Physiological classification systems
examine the way body parts move.
2. Operational classification systems

group body movements by the particular
work activity being performed
Figure 7-1. An example of arm
abduction and adduction.
Figure 7-2.
Examples of
wrist flexion
and extension.
Figure 7-3. An example of hand
neutral plane and deviation
positions.
Figure 7-4.
An example
of wrist
supination
and
pronation.
Abduction/Adduction
Abduction: The movement of a body part away from the center plane of
the body. Lifting the arm outward away from the body is an example of
abduction.
Adduction: The opposite of abduction. This is the movement of the body
part toward the center plane of the body. Lowering the arm toward the
body is an example of adduction.
Circumduction
Circumduction: Rotary movements which circumscribe an arc.
Swinging the arm in a circle is an example of circumduction.
Flexion/Extension
Flexion: The movement of a joint that decreases the angle between the
bones. Bending the arm at the elbow such that the hand moves closer to the
upper arm region is one example.
Extension: The opposite of flexion. The movement of a joint that
increases the angle between the bones. Straightening the arm is an
example of extension.
Neutral Plane/Deviation
Neutral Plane: The normal and low-stress position of segmental
physiological components. Maintaining the hand, wrist, and forearm at a
180-degree angle or in a straight and linear plane or dropping the hand,
wrist, forearm, elbow, and upper arm at one’s side is an example of neutral
planes.
Deviation: The movement or position of a body part away from the neutral
plane. Bending the wrist with the hand bent toward the thumb is referred to
as radial deviation. Bending the wrist with the hand bent toward the small
finger is referred to as ulnar deviation.
Rotation
Rotation: A movement in which a body part turns on its longitudinal axis.
The turning of the head or arm is an example of rotation.
Supination/Pronation
Supination: The turning of the forearm or wrist such that the hand rotates
and the palm is facing upward.
Pronation: The opposite of supination. The turning of the forearm or wrist
such that the hand rotates and the palm is facing downward.
Operational Categories of
Movement
Positioning: Moving an object and corresponding extremity from
one position to another. An example of positioning would be
reaching for a bolt stored in a bin to the right of an employee.
Continuous movement: A single movement involving muscle
control to adjust or guide a machine or other piece of equipment.
An example of continuous movement would be the steering of a
forklift.
Manipulative movement: The handling or assembling of parts.
This movement classification is usually limited to hand or finger
movement. An example of manipulative movement would be the
assembly of component parts.
Operational Categories of
Movement
Repetitive movements: The same movements recurring repetitively.
Hammering or using a screwdriver would be examples of repetitive
movements.
Sequential movements: A series of separate movements joined in a
specific order to complete a given task. Reaching for a tool with the
right hand, grasping a component in the left hand, moving the two
hands toward one another, and adjusting the component using the
tool are examples of sequential movements.
Static movements: Maintaining the position of a body member in
order to hold something in place. Though movement may not be
involved, the muscles are required to maintain the steady position of
the object.
Additional Characteristics of the
People Variable:
● Cumulative Trauma Disorders

● Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
● Cubital Tunnel Syndrome
● Tendonitis
● Tenosynovitis
Machine Variables
Machines:
• the position of the displays and controls
associated with the operation
and monitoring of machinery
• distance of part storage bins from the worker
• distance of the conveyor systems from the
worker area
• table height of the work surface
Machine Variables
Tools:
• shape and size of handle for correct fit
• vibration translation to hands or other parts
of the body
• correct use of tool
Machine Variables
Offices:
• design and layout of computer components
• back support of a chair
• height of keyboard surface
• position of the monitor
• layout of aisles and walkways
Environmental Variables
Environmental variables include temperature, lighting, noise,
vibration, humidity, and air contamination—any of which
can result in elevated ergonomic risks. Fatigue often
accompanies high temperatures and levels of humidity,
ultimately reducing the worker’s mental capability to focus
on a task. Health concerns such as heat stress, heat
exhaustion, and heatstroke are additional dangers. Lighting
or workplace illumination is another risk factor. Computer
glare on a monitor in an office environment can cause eye
fatigue and eyestrain problems. Insufficient illumination in a
warehouse can result in slipping and tripping incidents.
Excessive illumination or glare can result in operator errors
while using heavy equipment outdoors.
Workplace Layout and Design
Once the task analysis has been performed and ergonomic
problems have been observed, a determination is made as to
how to eliminate the hazards. One method to achieve this
goal is by examining how the work area is laid out and
redesigning the workplace to eliminate the problems.
Knowledge of workstations will help the safety professional
in this process.
Interventions—Workstations
Ergonomists recommend seated workstations when:
● All tools, equipment, or components required to perform
the tasks are easily reached from the seated position
● The primary tasks require fine manipulative hand
movements or inspection activities
● Frequent overhead reaches are not required
● The force exertion requirements to perform the task are
minimal
● Less than ten pounds of lifting force is required
● There is adequate leg space available (adapted from
Eastman Kodak, 1983).
Standing workstations are typically recommended
when:
• The operator is required to move around a given area to
perform the given task
• Extended and frequent reaches are required to perform
the intended tasks
• Substantial downward forces or lifting heavy objects,
typically weighing more than ten pounds, is required
• There is limited leg clearance below the workstation
surface (adapted from Eastman Kodak, 1983)
The combination workstation is recommended when:
• Several tasks requiring mobility are performed
• Reaching overhead or at levels below seated positions is
required— especially when forward or side position
reaches must be accomplished at a variety of levels above
the work surface (adapted from Eastman Kodak, 1983)
Grandjean (1988) recommends seven
guidelines for workplace layout and design:
1. Avoid any kind of bent or unnatural posture. (Bending
the trunk or the head sideways is more harmful than
bending forward.)
2. Avoid keeping an arm outstretched either forward or
sideways. (Such postures lead to rapid fatigue and reduce
precision.)
3. Work sitting down as much as possible. (Combination
workstations are strongly recommended.)
4. Use arm movements in opposition to each other or
symmetrically. (Moving one arm by itself sets up static
loads
Grandjean (1988) recommends seven
guidelines for workplace layout and design:
5. Maintain working fields (the object or table surface) at
an optimal height and distance for the eyes of the operator.
6. Arrange handgrips, controls, tools, and materials around
the station to facilitate the use of bent elbows close to the
body.
7. Raise arms where necessary by using padded supports
under the elbows, forearms, or hands.
Interventions—Manual Material Handling
Some additional considerations:
• Use engineering methods to automate lifting and moving
• Ensure the weight of the object is as close to the body as
possible when employees lift manually
• Eliminate bending and twisting motions when lifting
• Require lifting aids, whether mechanical ones or
coworkers, when exceeding NIOSH-recommended weight
limits.
Interventions—Video Display Terminal
Workstation Design
To ensure that a chair has as many ergonomic comfort
and safety qualities as possible, it should have the
following features:
• adjustable backrest and seat (to fit different body sizes)
• good lumbar support (lower back)
• five legs (for better stability)
• wheels (for mobility)
• reclining seat backs and adjustable seat pans (to control
the pressure on the back and thighs)
• armrests and footrests (if necessary to the situation)
(Barnes, 1994)
Questions:
1. What are the components of the operator-machine
system? Provide an example of a work activity using this
system.
2. How can the use of the industrial hygiene triad be
applied to ergonomic problems?
3. How can videotaping jobs be useful in the evaluation of
ergonomic problems?
4. How can anthropometrics and biomechanics be used to
solve ergonomic problems?
5. How does anthropometrics use statistical measurements
and methods?
6. What are the costs associated with material handling
and repetitive motion injuries? Why are these two types of
ergonomic problems of concern to the safety professional?
Safety
Profession
Terms and Concepts in
the Safety Profession
Safety Professionals - are concerned with people and company

resources. They have the knowledge and skills that are often
acquired through formal education and/or experience in the
safety field.
Techniques used by
Safety Professional
Loss Prevention - describes a program
designed to identify and correct potential
accident problems before they result in
financial loss or injury.
Loss Control - is a program designed to
minimize incident-based financial losses.
Safety management- encompasses the responsibilities of
planning, organizing, leading, and controlling activities necessary
to achieve an organization’s loss prevention and loss control
goals.
Job Titles of Individuals Performing
Occupational Safety and Health Activities
Industrial Hygienist: is involved in the monitoring and analytical

methods required to detect the extent of exposure and the
engineering and other methods used for hazard control.
Risk Manager: responsible for insurance programs and other

activities that minimize losses resulting from fire, accidents, and
other natural and man-made losses.
Safety Professional: An individual who, by virtue of their

specialized knowledge and skill and/or educational
accomplishments, has achieved professional status in the safety
field. They may also have earned the status of CSP from the
Board of Certified Safety Professionals.
Job Titles of Individuals Performing
Occupational Safety and Health Activities
Safety Engineer: An individual who, through education,

licensing, and/or experience, devotes most or all of their
employment time to the application of scientific principles and
methods for the control and modification of the workplace and
other environments to achieve optimum protection for both
people and property.
Safety Manager: responsible for establishing and maintaining

the safety organization and its activities in an enterprise. Safety
manager, administers the safety program and manages
subordinates, including the fire prevention coordinator, industrial
hygienist, safety specialists, and security personnel.
Specific roles and responsibilities of safety
professionals
Accident Investigation: determining the facts and causes

related to an accident based on witness interviews and site
inspections.
Work with Emergency Response Teams: organizing, training,

and coordinating skilled employees to react to emergencies such
as fires, accidents, or other disasters.
Environmental Protection: recognizing, evaluating, and

controlling hazards that can lead to undesirable releases of
harmful substances into air, water, or the soil.
professionals
Ergonomic Analysis and Modification: designing or modifying the

workplace based on an understanding of human
physiological/psychological characteristics, abilities, and limitations.
Fire Protection: eliminating or minimizing fire hazards by inspection,

layout of facilities, and design of fire suppression systems.
Hazard Recognition: identifying conditions or actions that may cause

injury, illness, or property damage.
Hazardous Materials Management: ensuring dangerous chemicals

and other products are stored and used in such a manner as to
prevent accidents, fires, and the exposure of people to these
substances.
professionals
Health Hazard Control: recognizing, evaluating, and controlling

hazards that can create undesirable health effects, including noise,
chemical exposures, radiation, or biological hazards.
Inspection/Audit: evaluating/assessing safety and health risks
associated with equipment, materials, processes, or activities.
Recordkeeping: maintaining safety and health information to meet
government requirements, as well as provide data for problem solving
and decision making.
Regulatory Compliance: ensuring all mandatory safety and health
standards are satisfied.
Training: providing employees with the knowledge and skills necessary
to recognize hazards and perform their jobs safely and effectively.
Accident
Causation and
Investigation
Risk- describes both the probability and severity of a loss event.
Risk = Probability + Severity
Probability - refers to the likelihood of the occurrence of an
event. (Frequent, Probable, Occasional, Remote, and
Improbable)
Severity - refers to the magnitude of the loss in a given period of
time.
1. Catastrophic
2. Critical
3. Marginal
4. Negligible
Accident Causation Theories
Single Factor Theory - states there is a single and relatively simple
cause for all accidents.
Domino Theories - represent accidents as predictable chronological
sequences of events or causal factors.
Three phases of Domino Theories
1. Precontact phase: refers to those events or conditions
that lead up to the accident
2. Contact phase: refers to the phase during which the
individual, machinery, or facility comes into contact with the
energy forms or forces beyond their physical capability to
manage.
3. Postcontact phase: refers to the results of the accident
or energy exposure. Physical injury, illness, production
downtime, damage to equipment and/or facility, and loss of
reputation are just some of the possible results that can occur
during the postcontact phase of the domino theory.
Heinrich’s Domino Theory
According to Heinrich’s early theory, the following five factors
influence all accidents and are represented by individual dominos:
1. Negative character traits leading a person to behave in an unsafe
manner can be inherited or acquired as a result of the social
environment.
2. Negative character traits are why individuals behave in an unsafe
manner and why hazardous conditions exist
3. Unsafe acts committed by individuals and mechanical or physical
hazards are the direct causes of accidents
4. Falls and the impact of moving objects typically cause accidents
resulting in injury
5. Typical injuries resulting from accidents include lacerations and
fractures
Bird and Loftus’ Domino Theory
Bird and Loftus’ theory uses five dominos that represent the
following events involved in all incidents:
1. Lack of Control - Management

2. Basic Cause - Origin
3. Immediate Cause - Symptoms
4. Incident - Contact
5. People- Property- Loss
Marcum’s Domino Theory
misactsident is an identifiable sequence of misacts associated with
inadequate task preparation leading to substandard performance
and miscompensated risks.
MULTIPLE CAUSATION ACCIDENT
THEORIES
Multiple Factors Theory
Manuele (1997a) - suggests the chief culprits in accident

causation are less-than-adequate safety policies, standards, and
procedures; and inadequate implementation accountability systems.
He coined the term unsafe act .
Grose’s multiple factors theory uses four Ms to represent factors

causing an accident: machine, media, man, and management.
Systems Theory of Causation
R. J. Firenzie’s Theory of Accident Causation.
Firenzie’s theory is based on interaction among three
components: person, machine, and environment
Systems Theory of Causation
R. J. Firenzie’s Theory of Accident Causation.
Firenzie’s theory is based on interaction among three
components: person, machine, and environment
Accident Causing Factors
• Basic Causes
– Management • Direct Causes
– Environmental – Slips, Trips, Falls
– Equipment – Caught In
– Human Behavior – Run Over
• Indirect Causes – Chemical Exposure
– Unsafe Acts
– Unsafe Conditions
Policy & Procedures
Basic Environmental Conditions
Causes Equipment/Plant Design
Human Behavior
Unsafe Indirect Causes Unsafe

Acts Conditions
Slip/Trip Fall
Direct
Energy Release
Causes
Pinched Between
ACCIDENT
Personal Injury
Property Damage
Potential/Actual
Basic Causes
• Management Systems & Procedures
• Environment Natural & Man-made
• Equipment Design & Equipment
• Human Behavior
Management
• Systems &
Procedures
– Lack of systems &
procedures
– Availability
– Lack of Supervision
Environment
• Physical
– Lighting
– Temperature
• Chemical • Biological
– vapors –Bacteria
– smoke –Reptiles
Environment
Design and Equipment
• Design
– Workplace layout
– Design of tools &
equipment
– Maintenance
Design and Equipment
• Equipment
– Suitability
– Stability
• Guarding
• Ergonomic
• Accessibility
Human Behavior
Common to
all accidents
Not limited to person

involved in accident
Human Factors
• Omissions &
Commissions
• Deviations from
SOP
– Lacking Authority
– Short Cuts
– Remove guards
Human Behavior is a function of :
Activators (what needs to be done)
Competencies (how it needs to be done)
Consequences
(what happens if it is/isn’t done)
ABC Model
Antecedents
(trigger behavior)
Behavior
(human performance)
Consequences
(either reinforce or punish behavior)
Only 4 Types of
Consequences:
•Positive Reinforcement (R+)
("Do this & you'll be rewarded")
•Negative Reinforcement (R-)

("Do this or else you'll be penalized")
Behavior
•Punishment (P)
("If you do this, you'll be penalized")
•Extinction (E)
("Ignore it and it'll go away")
Consequences Influence
Behaviors Based Upon
Individual Perceptions of:
• Significance
Magnitude
{ positive
or
Impact negative
⬥ Timing - immediate or future
⬥ Consistency - certain or uncertain

Human Behavior
• Behaviors that have consequences that are:
• Soon
• Certain
• Positive
Have a stronger effect on people’s behavior

Some examples of Consequences:
Why is one sign often ignored, the
other one often followed?
Human Behavior
• Soon
• A consequence that follows soon after a
behavior has a stronger influence than
consequences that occur later
• Silence is considered to be consent
• Failure to correct unsafe behavior
influences employees to continue the
behavior
Human Behavior
• Certain
• A consequence that is certain to follow
a behavior has more influence than an
uncertain or unpredictable
consequence
• Corrective Action must be:
– Prompt
– Consistent
– Persistent
Human Behavior
• Positive
• A positive consequence influences
behavior more powerfully than a
negative consequence
• Penalties and Punishment don’t work
• Speeding Ticket Analogy
Human Behavior
• Example: Smokers find it hard to stop
smoking because the consequences are:
A) Soon (immediate)
B) Certain (they happen every time)
C) Positive (a nicotine high)
The other consequences are:
A) Late (years later)
B) Uncertain (not all smokers get lung cancer)
C) Negative (lung cancer)
Deviations from SOP
• No Safe Procedure
• Employee Didn’t know Safe Procedure
• Employee knew, did not follow Safe
Procedure
• Procedure encouraged risk-taking
• Employee changed approved procedure
Human Behavior
• Thought Question:
What would you do as a worker if you

had to take 10-15 minutes to don the
correct P.P.E. to enter an area to turn
off a control valve which took 10
seconds?
Human Behavior
• Punishment or threatening workers is a

behavioral method used by some Safety
Management programs
• Punishment only works if:
– It is immediate
– Occurs every time there is an unsafe behavior
• This is very hard to do
Human Behavior
• The soon, certain, positive
reinforcement from unsafe behavior
outweighs the uncertain, late, negative
reinforcement from inconsistent
punishment
• People tend to respond more positively

to praise and social approval than any
other factors
Human Behavior
• Some experts believe you can change
worker’s safety behavior by changing their
“Attitude”
• Accident Report – “Safety Attitude”
• A person’s “Attitude” toward any subject is
linked with a set of other attitudes - Trying
to change them all would be nearly
impossible
• A Behavior change leads to a new “Attitude”
because people reduce tension between
Behavior and their “Attitude”
Attitudes
however
Are inside a person’s head -therefore they

are not observable nor measurable
Attitudes can be changed by

changing behaviors
Human Behavior
• “Attention” Behavioral Safety
approach
– Focuses on getting workers to pay
“Attention”
– Inability to control “Attention” is a
contributing factor in many injuries
• You can’t scare workers into a safety

focus with “Pay Attention” campaigns
Reasons for Lack of Attention
1. Technology encourages short attention

spans (TV remote, Computer Mouse)
2. Increased Job Stress caused by
uncertainty (mergers & downsizing)
3. Lean staffing and increased workloads
require quick attention shifts between
tasks
4. Fast pace of work – little time to learn
new tasks and do familiar ones safely
Reasons for Lack of Attention
5. Work repetition can lull workers into a loss
of attention
6. Low level of loyalty shown to employees by
an ever reorganizing employer may lead to:
a) Disinterested workers
b) Detached workers (no connection to employer)
c) Inattentive workers
Human Behavior
• Focusing on “Awareness” is a typical

educational approach to change safety
behavior
• Example: You provide employees with a

persuasive rationale for wearing safety
glasses and hearing protection in certain
work areas
Human Behavior
Developing Personal Safety Awareness
A) Before starting, consider how to do job safely
B) Understand required P.P.E. and how to use it
C) Determine correct tools and ensure they are in good
condition
D) Scan work area – know what is going on
E) As you work, check work position – reduce any strain
F) Any unsafe act or condition should be corrected
G) Remain aware of any changes in your workplace – people
coming, going, etc.
H) Talk to other workers about safety
I) Take safety home with you
Human Behavior
Some Thought Questions:
1. Do you want to work safely?
2. Do you want others to work safely?
3. Do you want to learn how to prevent
accidents/injuries?
4. How often do you think about safety as
you work?
5. How often do you look for actions that
could cause or prevent injuries?
Human Behavior
• More Thought Questions:
a) Have you ever carried wood without wearing gloves?
b) Have you ever left something in a walkway that was a
tripping hazard?
c) Have you ever carried a stack of boxes that blocked your
view?
d) Have you ever used a tool /equipment you didn’t know how
to operate?
e) Have you ever left a desk or file drawer open while you
worked in an area?
f) Have you ever placed something on a stair “Just for a
minute”?
g) Have you ever done anything unsafe because “I’ve always
done it this way”?
Human Behavior
TIME!
“All this safety stuff takes time doesn’t it”?
“I’m too busy”!
“I can’t possibly do all this”!
“The boss wants the job done now”!

Human Behavior
• Does rushing through the job, working

quickly without considering safety, really
save time?
• Remember – if an incident occurs, the job

may not get done on time and someone could
be injured – and that someone could be
YOU!!

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BASIC

1. Introductory Concept; Promoting Safety and Health as an

Promoting Safety and Health as an

Occupational Safety & Health

2.3 million women and men

to promote and maintain the highest degree of

Benefits may include:

The main goal of safety and health programs is to

How to accomplish it:

How to accomplish it:

How to accomplish it:

Methods to prevent/control workplace hazards:

Hazard Prevention and Control

How to accomplish it:

Hazard Prevention and Control

How to accomplish it:

Hazard Prevention and Control

How to accomplish it:

Hazard Prevention and Control

How to accomplish it:

Hazard Prevention and Control

How to accomplish it:

Hazard Prevention and Control

How to accomplish it:

Source of photos: OSHA

• Use a hazard control plan

How to accomplish it:

How to accomplish it:

How to accomplish it:

How to accomplish it:

How to accomplish it:

How to accomplish it:

How to accomplish it:

How to accomplish it:

How to accomplish it:

How to accomplish it:

• An effective safety and health program

– OSHA AL (action level)

1. Load: the external forces upon a

2. Stresses: the internal forces

2. Operational classification systems

● Cumulative Trauma Disorders

Safety Professionals - are concerned with people and company

Industrial Hygienist: is involved in the monitoring and analytical

Risk Manager: responsible for insurance programs and other

Safety Professional: An individual who, by virtue of their

Safety Engineer: An individual who, through education,

Safety Manager: responsible for establishing and maintaining

Accident Investigation: determining the facts and causes

Work with Emergency Response Teams: organizing, training,

Environmental Protection: recognizing, evaluating, and

Ergonomic Analysis and Modification: designing or modifying the

Fire Protection: eliminating or minimizing fire hazards by inspection,

Hazard Recognition: identifying conditions or actions that may cause

Hazardous Materials Management: ensuring dangerous chemicals

Health Hazard Control: recognizing, evaluating, and controlling

1. Lack of Control - Management

Manuele (1997a) - suggests the chief culprits in accident

Grose’s multiple factors theory uses four Ms to represent factors

Unsafe Indirect Causes Unsafe

• Management Systems & Procedures

• Environment Natural & Man-made

• Equipment Design & Equipment

Not limited to person