Compilation of

Daily Class Notes

Ethics
 List of Lectures
1. What is Ethics?
2. What is Ethics? (Part-2)
3. What is Ethics? (Part 3)
4. Syllabus Explanation
5. Nature of Questions & Human Interface
6. Human Interface
7. Human Interface (Part - 2)
8. Determinants of Ethics
9. Determinants of Ethics (Part-02)
10. Domain and Determinants of Ethics
11. How to write answer
12. Determinants of Ethics (Part 3)
13. Determinants of Ethics (Part-4)
14. Essence of Ethics
15. Essence of Ethics - Egoism
16. Egoism and Hedonism
17. Critique of Egoism and Hedonism
18. Hedonism
19. Hedonism (Part-2)
20. Essence of Morality
21. Previous Year Question discussion
22. Utilitarianism
23. Utilitarianism and Kant
24. Kant
25. Kant (Part 2)
26. Kant and Rawls
27. John Rawls
28. Gandhi
29. Gandhi (Part 2)
30. Gandhi (Part 3)
31. Gandhi and Attitude
32. Previous Year Question Paper Analysis or Discussion:
33. Attitude
34. Attitude Part-II
35. PYQ || Extra Lecture
36. Attitude (Part-III)
37. Persuasion
38. Attitude and Emotional Intelligence
39. Attitude and Emotional Intelligence (Part 2)
40. Emotional Intelligence (Part-03)
41. Aptitude and Integrity
42. Integrity
43. Case Study
44. Case study (Part-02)
45. Case Study (Part-03)
46. Impartiality and Non-Partisanship
47. Tolerance, Objectivity and Empathy
48. Probity in Governance
49. Probity in Governance (Part-02)
50. Probity in Governance and Challenges of Corruption
51. Probity in Governance and Challenges of Corruption (Part - 02)
52. Probity in Governance (Part 3)
53. Probity in Governance (Part – 04)
54. Ethics In Public Administration and Doubt Session (Part – 2)
55. Case Study 2016, 2017
56. (NO DCN)
57. Case Study and Doubt Session
58. Ethics in Public Administration (Part - 03)
59. Case Study and Doubt Session (Part 02)
60. Laws, rules, regulations, and conscience as sources of ethical guidance
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 01
What is Ethics?
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What is Ethics?
What is Ethics?
❖ "Ethics is a Normative science": It suggests that ethics is concerned with establishing norms, standards, or
principles that guide human behavior.
➢ Normative ethics deals with questions about what is morally right or wrong.
❖ "Ethics is the science of inclusive and sustainable happiness": It emphasizes the idea that ethics is
concerned with promoting not just individual happiness but also the well-being and happiness of a broader
community or society, and it should be sustainable in the long run.
❖ "Ethics is a science of dilemma solving": Ethics often involves addressing moral dilemmas and making
difficult decisions in situations where there are conflicting values or principles.
➢ It provides a framework for resolving such dilemmas.
❖ "Ethics is a science of virtues and values": Virtue ethics, a prominent ethical theory, focuses on
developing good character traits (virtues) and values as a means to guide ethical decision-making.
➢ This statement highlights that ethics involves cultivating virtues and adhering to values.
❖ "Ethics is a science of human well-being": Ethics is concerned with human well-being and flourishing.
➢ It aims to determine how individuals and societies can achieve the highest possible quality of life and
fulfill their potential.
❖ "Ethics is a science of the quality of life": Quality of life is a key consideration in ethical discussions.
➢ It encompasses physical, mental, and social well-being, and ethics seeks to improve and sustain the quality
of life for individuals
❖ “Ethics is a science of code of conduct": Ethics often involves establishing codes of conduct or ethical
guidelines that govern behaviour and decision-making within various contexts, such as professional codes of
ethics.
NOTE:
❖ The Concept of Knives in Ethics:
➢ Considering a well-maintained and sharp knife as a representation of ethical decision-making.
➢ "Just as a knife is used for cutting, our ethical choices shape the outcomes and impact of our actions.
✓ A good knife is characterized by its sharpness, precision, and ability to make clean cuts without
causing unnecessary harm.
✓ Similarly, ethical decision-making involves making choices that are sharp, precise, and
considerate of the well-being of others.
➢ A sharp ethical 'knife' is one that is well-informed, guided by moral principles, and focused on
achieving the intended result without causing unintended harm.
✓ In contrast, a dull ethical 'knife' represents a lack of moral clarity, an inability to discern
right from wrong, and a greater potential to cause unintended consequences and harm.
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➢ Just as a skilled chef maintains their knives to ensure they are always sharp and ready for use,
individuals must continuously cultivate their ethical sensibilities, reflect on their values, and make
choices that are aligned with their principles.
➢ This analogy reminds us that ethical decisions, like a good knife, require ongoing care, attention, and
a commitment to doing the right thing in a way that minimizes harm and maximizes positive outcomes."
Ethical Perspective of a Human Being in Relation to Goodness and Wellness:
❖ Goodness: Humans, from an ethical standpoint, are capable of both good and bad actions.
➢ The concept of goodness involves making choices and taking actions that are morally right and beneficial
to oneself and others.
➢ Ethical systems and principles often aim to guide individuals towards making good choices that promote
well-being, fairness, and positive outcomes.
❖ Wellness: Wellness refers to the overall state of physical, mental, and emotional health and flourishing.
➢ Ethical considerations related to wellness involve promoting the well-being of individuals and
communities.
➢ This includes access to healthcare, education, a safe environment, and economic opportunities.
➢ Ethical frameworks may address issues such as healthcare equity, social justice, and policies that ensure
the wellness of all members of society.
❖ Balancing Goodness and Wellness: The ethical perspective of a human being should involve a balance
between pursuing goodness and wellness.
➢ Ethical decision-making should aim to achieve both individual and collective well-being while adhering
to principles of moral goodness.
➢ For example, providing aid to those in need (goodness) while also ensuring that everyone has access to
healthcare (wellness) can be a complex ethical consideration.
❖ Moral Responsibility: Ethical frameworks often emphasize the moral responsibility of individuals to act in
ways that contribute to the greater good and the wellness of society.
➢ This responsibility may involve acts of kindness, charity, and community service that promote both
goodness and wellness.
➢ Additionally, it may extend to advocating for policies and practices that support these goals at a societal
level.
HUMAN BEING: Ethical Perspective
❖ Emotive Being: From an ethical perspective, humans are considered emotive beings because they experience
a wide range of emotions and feelings.
➢ This aspect of human nature is important in ethics as it influences our moral decision-making.
➢ Emotions like empathy, compassion, and love can guide our ethical choices and actions, promoting values
such as kindness and care for others.
❖ Political Being: Humans are political beings in the sense that they are inherently social creatures who form
communities, societies, and governments.
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➢ Ethical considerations in politics revolve around questions of justice, fairness, and the common good.
➢ The ethical dimension of being a political being involves creating and upholding just laws, promoting
human rights, and ensuring the welfare of all members of society.
❖ Social Being: Ethics is closely tied to our social nature. As social beings, humans have a responsibility to
interact with others in ways that promote harmony, cooperation, and mutual well-being.
➢ Ethical principles such as honesty, respect, and cooperation play a significant role in guiding our social
interactions and relationships.
❖ Rational Being: Rationality is a key aspect of human nature, and it plays a central role in ethical decision-
making.
➢ Humans have the capacity for reason and critical thinking, which allows them to assess moral dilemmas,
consider the consequences of their actions, and make moral choices based on principles and values.
➢ Ethical frameworks often rely on rationality to justify moral rules and principles.
❖ Bodily Being: The ethical perspective of humans as bodily beings acknowledges the importance of physical
well-being and the ethical considerations surrounding issues like healthcare, bodily autonomy, and physical
harm.
➢ Ethical discussions in this context involve topics such as medical ethics, bodily integrity, and the rights
and responsibilities associated with the human body.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 02
What is Ethics? (Part-2)
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What is Ethics? (Part-2)

Ethics is the Science of Good Life and Human Well Beings:
❖ Ethics does indeed concern itself with the concept of the good life and the well-being of individuals and
society. Central to ethical inquiry is the examination of what actions and behaviors promote human
flourishing and overall well-being.
❖ Ethics aims to identify and understand principles and values that guide moral decision-making, with the
ultimate goal of promoting the betterment of individuals and society as a whole. It involves considering
the consequences of actions, examining moral virtues and values, and evaluating the impact of choices on the
well-being and happiness of individuals.
❖ Here, being means essence. Essence also means common characteristics.
❖ Examples: Essence of all knives is to cut. Increase in sharpness of knife is a quality.
❖ Human beings are rational, aesthetic, emotive, social and political beings.
❖ Ethics is a science to improve the quality of the essence of human beings.
Ethics is a Normative Science:
❖ Descriptive science: It is used for understanding the world in which we live.
➢ Its objective is to give descriptions of facts and rules.
➢ It describes what, why, and how.
❖ Normative Science: It is used for making the world a better place to live.
➢ It is used to study the artificial world.
➢ It is about philosophy.
➢ It is the science of ‘should’.
➢ It is a science of ideas.
➢ Examples: Morality philosophy (ethics).

Types of the World:

❖ The world can be classified into the Natural ( i.e. Physical world. It is studied through the physics we
study.) world and Artificial world (the world made by humans. Examples: Political world like society,
state. It is studied through political science).

Ethics is the Science of Inclusive and Sustainable Happiness:

❖ It means to reduce evils (sufferings, sorrow, pain) and increase the good (bliss, happiness, pleasure) of the
society.
❖ Examples:
➢ Buddhist Ethics: It is about understanding the root cause of suffering. To remove the sufferings with
the help of Ashtanga Marg.
➢ Karl Marx: The class conflict led by unequal distribution of material wealth leads to the suffering of
people. It is nothing but communism.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 03
What is Ethics? (Part 3)
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What is Ethics? (Part 3)

Ethics:
❖ Ethics as the Science of Human Well-being: Ethics does concern itself with human well-being, as it aims to
guide individuals and societies towards actions and principles that promote human flourishing and minimize
harm.
➢ However, it's not just a "science" in the conventional sense but a philosophical and normative inquiry into
what constitutes well-being and how it can be achieved.
❖ Ethics as a Normative Science: This is a more accurate characterization of ethics. Ethics is indeed a normative
science because it prescribes moral norms and principles that guide human behavior.
➢ It provides a framework for evaluating actions, behaviors, and decisions based on moral principles and
values.
❖ Ethics as the Science of Inclusive and Sustainable Happiness: While ethics seeks to enhance human well-
being, it also considers broader moral concerns beyond individual happiness.
➢ Sustainable happiness can be a part of ethical considerations, but ethics encompasses a wider range of
moral questions, including justice, fairness, rights, and duties.
Primary Function and Objective of Ethics:
❖ Ethics is a complex and multifaceted field, and its primary functions and objectives can vary depending on
different philosophical and cultural traditions.
❖ The primary function and objective of ethics in the Buddhist tradition are rooted in alleviating human suffering
and achieving enlightenment
➢ While in the Western tradition, ethics address a wide range of issues related to morality, justice, and
human well-being, with different philosophers.
❖ Buddha's Ethical Framework:
➢ Primary Function: In Buddhism, ethics play a fundamental role in addressing the root cause of human
suffering.
✓ The primary function of ethics, according to Buddha, is to guide individuals on a path toward
enlightenment and liberation from suffering.
➢ Objective: The objective of ethics in Buddhism is to cultivate moral virtue and wisdom, which help
individuals overcome ignorance, attachment, and aversion—the three poisons believed to be at the root
of suffering.
✓ The ultimate goal is to attain Nirvana, a state of liberation from
suffering.
➢ Ashtanga Marg: This refers to the Eightfold Path, which is a
central ethical and spiritual guideline in Buddhism.
✓ It includes aspects like Right Understanding, Right Intention,
Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort,
Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.
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✓ These principles guide ethical conduct and the pursuit of enlightenment.

❖ Western Ethical Traditions:
❖ Primary Function: In the Western philosophical tradition, ethics primarily serve as a framework for
understanding and guiding human behavior and moral decision-making.
➢ It provides a system of principles and values to determine what is right or wrong.
❖ Objective: The objective of Western ethics varies among different philosophers and ethical theories.
➢ For example, in the case of Karl Marx, his ethical framework is tied to addressing social and economic
injustices, particularly class conflict and inequality.
➢ The objective is to create a more just and equitable society.
❖ Concepts: Western ethics encompass a wide range of concepts and objectives, including ideas related to
individual rights, justice, freedom, and equality.
➢ Different ethical systems, such as utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics, may emphasize various
aspects of human behaviour and well-being.
❖ Karl Marx: Karl Marx, a 19th-century philosopher and economist, is indeed well-known for his critique of
capitalism and his analysis of the social and economic issues associated with it.
➢ Key Points of Marx’s View:

✓ Class Conflict: Marx argued that capitalism inherently generates class conflict due to the unequal
distribution of material wealth and resources.
▪ He believed that society was divided into two main classes: the bourgeoisie (capitalist class, or
owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (working class, or laborers).
▪ The conflict between these classes arises from the exploitation of the proletariat by the
bourgeoisie.
✓ Hierarchy: In a capitalist society, Marx saw a hierarchical structure where the bourgeoisie held
economic and political power.
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▪ This hierarchy was characterized by the concentration of wealth and resources in the hands of
a few, leading to social and economic inequalities.
✓ Domination: Marx contended that the capitalist class dominated the working class not only
economically but also politically and ideologically.
▪ The bourgeoisie used its economic power to exert influence over the state and shape the legal
and political systems in its favor.
▪ This domination allowed the capitalist class to maintain control over the means of production
and protect its interests.
✓ Exploitation: One of Marx's central criticisms of capitalism was the exploitation of labor.
▪ He argued that the capitalist mode of production led to the extraction of surplus value from the
labor of the working class.
▪ Workers were paid wages that were less than the value they added to the products they
produced.
▪ This surplus value was appropriated by the capitalist class as profit, leading to the exploitation
of laborers.
✓ Injustice: Marx saw capitalism as inherently unjust because it perpetuated the unequal distribution
of wealth and power.
▪ He believed that the system favored the interests of the bourgeoisie at the expense of the
working class, resulting in social and economic injustices.
❖ Communism: Communism, as advocated by Marx, seeks to address issues of hierarchy, domination,
exploitation, and inequality through the establishment of a classless and stateless society.
➢ The objective is to eliminate class conflict and create a more just and equitable social order based on
common ownership of the means of production.
Ethics is the Science of Happiness:
❖ Ethics is a complex and multifaceted field, and it encompasses a range of principles and values, including the
pursuit of happiness and the reduction of suffering.
❖ Reducing Evils and Increasing Good: One important aspect of ethics is to reduce suffering and increase
well-being and happiness within society.
➢ Ethical principles and guidelines aim to minimize actions and practices that lead to suffering, sorrow, and
pain while promoting behaviors and policies that enhance bliss, happiness, and pleasure.
➢ This involves making moral choices that prioritize the welfare of individuals and communities.
❖ Gender Justice: Gender justice is a specific ethical concern related to the fair and equitable treatment of
individuals of all genders.
➢ Ethical frameworks emphasize the importance of gender equality, women's rights, and addressing issues
such as discrimination, harassment, and violence.
➢ Promoting gender justice is seen as a moral imperative in many ethical systems.
❖ Ethical Ideas: Ethics provides a framework for exploring and developing ethical ideas and principles that
guide human behaviour.
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➢ Ethical ideas can encompass a wide range of topics, including concepts like justice, fairness, virtue, and
moral duty.
➢ Different ethical theories, such as utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics, offer different perspectives
on what constitutes ethical behavior.
❖ Transparency: It is considered an ethical principle in various contexts, including government, business, and
organizations.
➢ Ethical transparency involves openness, honesty, and accountability in decision-making and operations.
➢ It is seen as a way to prevent unethical behaviour and to build trust within a society.
❖ Happiness Index: The Happiness Index, also known as the World Happiness Report, is an attempt to measure
and quantify happiness and well-being on a national and global scale.
➢ It typically includes various parameters to assess the overall well-being of a population. Some of the
common parameters used in these indices can include GDP per capita, social support, life expectancy,
freedom to make life choices, generosity, and perceptions of corruption.
➢ While it is not a complete representation of ethics, it reflects a broader societal interest in measuring and
improving overall happiness.
Ethics is the Science of Dilemma Solving:
❖ Ethics is often concerned with addressing dilemmas and moral conflicts that arise when individuals or groups
are faced with difficult choices.
❖ It is indeed a field that deals with the resolution of ethical dilemmas, particularly when one must decide
between two or more competing moral principles or values.
❖ This can involve situations where there is a clash between "good vs. good" or "right vs. right."
➢ Good vs. Good Dilemmas: In some ethical situations, individuals or organizations may have to choose
between two or more options, each of which is considered morally good or desirable.
✓ This can create a moral dilemma because making one choice may entail sacrificing the other, even
though both options are morally sound.
✓ For example, a hospital administrator might face a dilemma when allocating limited medical
resources to patients, as they may have to choose between saving two equally deserving lives.
➢ Right vs. Right Dilemmas: Ethical dilemmas can also involve conflicts between competing "right"
principles or values.
✓ In these situations, one must decide between two or more courses of action, all of which are based
on ethical or moral principles but are in tension with each other.
✓ For instance, a person might encounter a situation where the ethical principles of honesty and loyalty
are in conflict.
✓ Upholding one value may require compromising the other.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 04
Syllabus Explanation
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Syllabus Explanation
Objective of Ethics:
❖ Ethics is about diagnosing the root causes of immorality and to provide solutions.
❖ Diagnosis:
➢ First Step: To identify the root cause of Immortality.
➢ Second Step: To remove Immortality.
Root Causes of Immorality:
1. Ignorance: Ignorance about right and wrong, good and bad, ethical values and principles. First (Ethics and
Human Interface) and Fifth points (Contributions of Moral Thinkers and Philosophers from India and
World) of the syllabus are meant to understand what is right and wrong.
2. Attitude: Attitude means acquired perspective. Wrong acquired perspective leads to wrong actions. The third
part of the syllabus (Attitude: Content, Structure, Function; its Influence and Relation with Thought
and Behaviour; Moral and Political Attitudes; Social Influence and Persuasion) is intended to ensure
ethical behavior and perspective.
3. Absence of Empathy and Compassion: Absence of empathy and compassion lead to social evils.
Emotional intelligence is necessary to instill values of empathy and compassion. The fourth part of the
syllabus is (Emotional Intelligence-Concepts, and their Utilities and Application in Administration and
Governance.)
4. Lack of Aptitude: Lack of aptitude may lead to unwanted results despite having good intentions. Good
ethical aptitudes are required in society for the betterment of society and institutions. The third part of the
syllabus (Aptitude and Foundational Values for Civil Service, Integrity, Impartiality, and Non-
partisanship, Objectivity, Dedication to Public Service, Empathy, Tolerance, and Compassion towards
the weaker sections) try to ensure the right people get membership of any particular institution.
Immoral Human Beings vs Moral Human Beings:

Immoral Human Beings Moral Human Beings

❖ Knowledge: Immoral individuals may possess ❖
knowledge, but they may use it to deceive, harm,
or exploit others.
➢ Their knowledge may be used for selfish or
unethical purposes, and they may disregard
the well-being of others in pursuit of their
goals.
❖ Attitude: Immoral individuals often exhibit
attitudes characterized by selfishness, lack of
Knowledge: Moral individuals typically use
their knowledge for the betterment of themselves
and others.
➢ They may seek to acquire knowledge that
can be used to promote the well-being of
society, adhere to ethical principles, and
avoid using knowledge for harmful
purposes.
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empathy, and a willingness to manipulate or harm ❖
others for personal gain.
➢ Their attitudes may be characterized by a
disregard for ethical principles and a focus on
their own interests.
❖ Emotional Intelligence: Immoral individuals may
have emotional intelligence, but they might use it
to manipulate and deceive others. ❖ Emotional Intelligence: Moral individuals use
➢ Their emotional intelligence may be used to
gauge the vulnerabilities of others and exploit
them for personal benefit, without genuine
empathy or concern for others' emotions.
Attitude: Moral individuals tend to exhibit
attitudes characterized by empathy, kindness, and
a commitment to ethical behavior.
➢ They show a willingness to help others,
respect the rights and well-being of those
around them, and follow moral values and
principles.
their emotional intelligence to connect with and
support others genuinely.
➢ They are often empathetic, understanding,
and considerate of the feelings and emotions
of others, seeking to build positive and
supportive relationships.

Problems of Immorality in Institutions:

❖ The problem of immorality in institutions can have various causes, and it often results in structural effects
within those institutions.
❖ Causes:
➢ Lack of Funding: Insufficient funding can lead to financial pressures within an institution, prompting
individuals to resort to unethical practises to compensate for budget shortfalls.
✓ This might include cutting corners, compromising on safety, or engaging in financial misconduct to
meet the institution's needs.
➢ Ineffective Regulation: Weak or ineffective regulatory oversight can foster a culture of non-compliance
and unethical behavior within an institution.
✓ In the absence of stringent regulations, individuals may be more likely to engage in immoral actions,
knowing that they are less likely to face consequences.
➢ Corruption: Corruption, such as bribery, embezzlement, or kickbacks, can infiltrate an institution,
creating a culture of dishonesty and unethical conduct.
✓ This can become systemic, undermining the institution's integrity and leading to a cycle of corrupt
behaviour.
➢ Other Causes: Various other factors, such as a lack of ethical leadership, a culture that prioritizes profit
over ethics, inadequate training on ethical standards, fear of retaliation for whistleblowers, or intense
competition that encourages unethical behavior for a competitive edge, can all contribute to immorality
within institutions.
❖ Structural Effects:
➢ Erosion of Trust: Immorality within an institution can result in a loss of trust among employees,
stakeholders, and the public.
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✓ Trust is a fundamental component of a healthy institution, and when it erodes, it can be challenging
to rebuild.
➢ Inefficiency and Ineffectiveness: Unethical behavior within an institution can divert resources and
energy away from its core mission and objectives, leading to inefficiency and ineffectiveness in achieving
the institution's goals.
➢ Reputation Damage: Immorality can harm an institution's reputation, which, in turn, can have financial
and operational consequences.
✓ A damaged reputation can deter clients, customers, investors, and partners.
➢ High Employee Turnover: When an institution's culture is marked by immorality, it can result in high
employee turnover.
✓ Ethical employees may leave the organization, leading to a loss of valuable human capital.
➢ Legal and Financial Consequences: Immorality often leads to legal and financial consequences,
including fines, lawsuits, and damage to an institution's financial stability.
➢ Lack of Public Confidence: Public institutions, in particular, rely on the trust and confidence of citizens.
✓ Immorality in these institutions can lead to a lack of confidence in government or public services,
which can have serious consequences for society as a whole.
Institutional Ethics:
❖ The sixth part of the syllabus is Ethics in Public Administration.
❖ The 7th part of the syllabus is Probity in governance.
Ethics in Public Administration:
❖ This part of the syllabus tries to understand why immorality, or lack of values or weakening of Institutional
norms are present in public institutions and private institutions.
❖ The root causes of the lack of morality in public institutions are a political construct, legal construct, personal
standards and civil society.
Probity In Governance:
❖ Probity is the moral value for institutions.
❖ It tries to ensure a social contract by the state.
❖ It also tries to enforce accountability of the state through the Constitution to ensure socio-economic justice in
society.

Additional Information: Exact Syllabus

General Studies- IV: Ethics, Integrity and Aptitude
This paper will include questions to test the candidates’ attitude and approach to issues relating to integrity,
probity in public life, and his problem solving approach to various issues and conflicts faced by him in dealing
with society. Questions may utilise the case study approach to determine these aspects. The following broad areas
will be covered :
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❖ Ethics and Human Interface: Essence, determinants and consequences of Ethics in-human actions;
dimensions of ethics; ethics - in private and public relationships. Human Values - lessons from the lives and
teachings of great leaders, reformers and administrators; role of family society and educational institutions
in inculcating values.
❖ Attitude: content, structure, function; its influence and relation with thought and behaviour; moral and
political attitudes; social influence and persuasion.
❖ Aptitude and foundational values for Civil Service, integrity, impartiality and non-partisanship, objectivity,
dedication to public service, empathy, tolerance and compassion towards the weaker-sections.
❖ Emotional intelligence-concepts, and their utilities and application in administration and governance.
❖ Contributions of moral thinkers and philosophers from India and world.
❖ Public/Civil service values and Ethics in Public administration: Status and problems; ethical concerns and
dilemmas in government and private institutions; laws, rules, regulations and conscience as sources of
ethical guidance; accountability and ethical governance; strengthening of ethical and moral values in
governance; ethical issues in international relations and funding; corporate governance.
❖ Probity in Governance: Concept of public service; Philosophical basis of governance and probity;
Information sharing and transparency in government, Right to Information, Codes of Ethics, Codes of
Conduct, Citizen’s Charters, Work culture, Quality of service delivery, Utilization of public funds,
challenges of corruption.
❖ Case Studies on above issues.
Source: UPSC 2023 Notification

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 05
Nature of Questions & Human
Interface
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Nature of Questions & Human Interface

Nature of Questions:
❖ Idea of Ethics:
➢ Meaning of Ethics: Understanding the core principles and concepts of ethics.
➢ Relevance or Utility of Ethics: Exploring why ethics is important and how it is practically applied.
➢ Applied Ethics: Examining how ethical principles are put into practice in various real-world contexts.
➢ Role of Ethics in Administration and Public Institutions: Investigating the importance of ethics in
governing and public organizations.
❖ Ethical Problems:
➢ Social Problems: Analyzing ethical issues and challenges related to societal concerns and their
implications.
➢ Corruption: Understanding the ethical dimensions of corruption, its consequences, and strategies to
combat it.
❖ Quotes:
➢ Thinkers: Exploring quotes from prominent moral and ethical philosophers and thinkers.
➢ Social Reformers: Examining quotes from individuals who have played a significant role in bringing
about positive social change.
➢ General: Gathering quotes that offer wisdom and insights on various aspects of life and ethics.
❖ Values:
➢ Integrity: Understanding the importance of integrity as a core value.
➢ Human Values: Exploring values that are fundamental to human behavior.
➢ Foundation Civil Services Values: Identifying values that are essential for civil service roles.
➢ Developing Values: Strategies for cultivating and strengthening these values.
➢ Attitude:
❖ Attitude:
➢ Role and Function of Attitude: Understanding how attitudes influence thoughts and behavior.
➢ Types of Attitude: Differentiating between positive and democratic attitudes.
❖ Emotional Intelligence:
➢ Meaning of Emotional Intelligence: Defining the concept and its significance.
➢ Developing Emotional Intelligence: Strategies for enhancing emotional intelligence.
➢ Problem or Dilemma: Exploring challenges related to emotional intelligence.
❖ Aptitude:
➢ Moral Aptitudes: Including optimism, hope, courage, and conviction.
➢ Conscience: Understanding the meaning, crisis, role, and limitations of conscience.
❖ Dilemma and Challenges of Public Administration:
➢ Examining ethical dilemmas and challenges in the field of public administration.
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❖ Probity in Governance:
➢ Right to Information (RTI): Understanding the importance of transparency in governance.
➢ Citizen Charter: Examining the concept and role of citizen charters in public service.
Human Interface:
❖ Why and how ethics have only been associated with human beings?
➢ Ethics has primarily been associated with human beings because it is fundamentally concerned with the
moral principles and values that guide human behavior.
➢ Ethics arises from the capacity for moral reasoning and the ability to make conscious choices about one's
actions.
➢ While some discussions exist about ethical considerations in the treatment of animals and the
environment, the core of ethical philosophy has traditionally centered on human actions and decision-
making.
❖ What are the preconditions necessary for this association?
➢ The association of ethics with human beings is based on several preconditions:
✓ Moral agency: Humans possess the capacity for moral agency, which includes the ability to make
moral judgments, deliberate on ethical dilemmas, and choose between right and wrong courses of
action.
✓ Rationality: Human beings have the cognitive capacity to engage in moral reasoning, reflect on their
actions, and apply ethical principles to their behavior.
✓ Social and cultural context: Ethics is often shaped by the social and cultural context in which
humans exist. Norms, values, and moral codes are constructed and reinforced within human
societies.
✓ Accountability: Ethical responsibility and accountability for one's actions are crucial preconditions
for associating ethics with human beings.
❖ What are the determinants that make the domain of this association broader or narrower?
➢ The domain of ethical association can be broadened or narrowed based on several determinants, including:
✓ Expanding moral consideration: As society evolves and our understanding of consciousness and
sentience broadens, the ethical domain can expand to include considerations for non-human entities,
such as animals and the environment.
✓ Cultural diversity: Different cultures have their own ethical frameworks and values. The domain
of ethical association can vary from culture to culture, making it broader or narrower based on
cultural perspectives.
✓ Technological advancements: The development of artificial intelligence, biotechnology, and other
emerging fields can raise new ethical questions, potentially broadening the domain of ethical
association to include non-human entities and machines.
✓ Legal frameworks: The legal system often plays a role in defining the ethical domain. Laws and
regulations can either broaden or narrow the scope of ethical considerations based on how they
address various issues.
 4

❖ What is the role of social reformers and thinkers in this context?

➢ Social reformers play a crucial role in ethics by advocating for positive change and addressing ethical
issues within society.
➢ Their roles include:
✓ Promoting ethical values: Social reformers often work to promote ethical principles such as justice,
equality, and human rights. They inspire individuals and communities to uphold these values.
✓ Highlighting moral dilemmas: Social reformers may draw attention to ethical dilemmas and
injustices within society, driving public awareness and mobilizing support for change.
✓ Advocating for social change: Reformers work to change laws, policies, and societal norms to align
them with ethical principles. They may lead movements to address issues like poverty,
discrimination, and environmental sustainability.
✓ Inspiring moral courage: Social reformers can serve as moral exemplars, encouraging others to act
ethically and courageously in the face of adversity.
Key Terms:
❖ Determinism: Determinism is the philosophical view that events are completely determined by previously
existing causes.
➢ The doctrine that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes regarded as
external to the will.
➢ Some philosophers have taken determinism to imply that individual human beings have no free will and
cannot be held morally responsible for their actions.
❖ Examples:
➢ In earlier days tsunamis were considered unpredictable in nature. In the present day, the existing
knowledge helps to predict the tsunami on the basis of predetermined criteria.
➢ In patriarchy, rules are decided for women for what they can do or not.
❖ Objectification: If determinism is applied in culture and society, it will turn human beings into objects.
➢ Objectification is the act of treating a person as an object or a thing.
➢ It is part of dehumanization, the act of disavowing the humanity of others.
➢ Sexual objectification, the act of treating a person as a mere object of sexual desire, is a subset of
objectification.
❖ Example:
➢ In a patriarchal society, women are considered as objects that will subserve the interests of male members.
➢ Varna system.
❖ Voluntary act: If an action is voluntary, then it is completely free from force and ignorance, and the action-
doer can be held morally responsible.
❖ Free will: Free will is the supposed power or capacity of humans to make decisions or perform actions
independently of any prior event or state of the universe.
➢ It liberates human beings from determinism. It means to have a choice to decide. (Had I wished I could
have acted otherwise.)
 5

❖ Preconditions for free will:

➢ Knowledge about ethical and moral norms.
➢ Accountability and free will is closely linked with knowledge. This knowledge is about norms and
consequences (What is right ? or What is wrong ? ).
➢ Example: In the Right to Education Act , teachers cannot give physical punishment because a child is
‘ Dolly Incapax’ (Child can not do wrong).
➢ Having multiple choices
➢ Example: Citizens have rights in Democratic countries and not in dictatorship.
➢ Absence of internal pressure and external pressure.
➢ Examples:
✓ External Pressure: Theft at the gun point of bank manager, Taliban enforces norms for women in
Afghanistan, etc.
✓ Internal Pressure: OCD (Obsessive-compulsive disorder) person, unsound-minded person, etc.
How Do You Identify Whether a Conduct is Moral or Not?
❖ Through Conscience:
➢ What is Conscience: Conscience is the inner sense or moral compass within an individual that guides
their judgements and decisions about what is right and wrong.
✓ It is subjective moral awareness that helps individuals assess their actions.
➢ How it Works: Conscience is based on an individual's internal moral values and principles.
✓ When faced with a moral dilemma or choice, a person's conscience will often provide an intuitive
sense of whether an action is right or wrong.
✓ This inner voice can be influenced by personal beliefs, upbringing, cultural background, and ethical
development.
➢ Advantages: Relying on one's conscience can be a flexible and personal approach to ethical decision-
making.
✓ It allows individuals to consider the specific context and nuances of a situation and make moral
judgments accordingly.
➢ Limitations: Conscience can vary from person to person, and it is not always infallible.
✓ It may be influenced by biases, personal experiences, or cultural conditioning.
✓ What one person's conscience deems as moral may differ from another person's judgment.
❖ Through Rules or Code of Conduct:
➢ What are Rules and Codes of Conduct: Rules and codes of conduct are established sets of guidelines,
principles, or laws that define expected behaviours and ethical standards within a particular context,
organization, or society.
➢ How it Works: Ethical rules and codes provide clear and standardized criteria for evaluating conduct.
✓ These rules are often based on societal or organizational norms and values.
✓ When a particular action aligns with established rules or codes of conduct, it is considered moral
within that context.
 6

➢ Advantages: Rules and codes of conduct offer consistency and clarity in ethical decision-making.
✓ They help ensure that actions are aligned with shared values and principles, which is especially
important in contexts where multiple individuals or entities are involved.
➢ Limitations: Rules and codes of conduct can be rigid and may not cover every possible ethical situation.
✓ In some cases, following rules blindly without considering the unique circumstances of a situation
may lead to unethical outcomes.
✓ Additionally, different organizations or societies may have conflicting codes of conduct, creating
ethical dilemmas when individuals interact across various contexts.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 06
Human Interface
 2

Human Interface
Functions / Objective of Ethics:
❖ Ethics is a philosophical field that deals with moral principles, values, and the rightness or wrongness of human
actions.
➢ To Provide Norms for Human Behavior: Ethics aims to establish moral norms and principles that guide
human behavior and interactions.
✓ It helps define what is considered morally right and wrong in various situations.
➢ To Evaluate Human Actions: Ethics provides a framework for evaluating the moral character of human
actions.
✓ It helps individuals and societies assess whether a particular action is morally justifiable or
condemnable.
➢ To Improve the World: Rather than making the world a "bitter" place, ethics seeks to make the world a
better place to live.
✓ It promotes moral values and virtues that contribute to the well-being and flourishing of individuals
and communities.
➢ To Solve Moral Dilemmas: Ethics helps people navigate moral dilemmas and complex situations where
conflicting values or principles are at play.
✓ It provides tools and frameworks for ethical decision-making.
Ethics:
❖ Ethics as a Normative Science: Ethics is often described as a normative science because it deals with how
things "ought" to be rather than how they are.
➢ It establishes normative principles and moral standards to guide human behavior.
❖ Ethics to Evaluate Conduct, Decisions, and Character: Ethics indeed plays a crucial role in evaluating
various aspects of human life, including:
➢ Conduct: Ethics assesses the moral rightness or wrongness of actions and behaviors.
✓ It helps determine whether a specific conduct is morally acceptable or not.
➢ Decisions: Ethics guides individuals and societies in evaluating the ethical implications of the decisions
they make.
✓ It aids in making morally informed choices.
➢ Character: Ethics also examines the moral character of individuals, focusing on virtues and vices.
✓ It's concerned with cultivating good character traits and moral values.
❖ Core Function of Ethics to Evaluate Conduct and Decisions: The core function of ethics can indeed be
summarized as evaluating conduct and decisions.
➢ It provides a framework for assessing the moral aspects of human actions and the choices people make.
Evaluation of Free Will in Human Being:
❖ Knowledge: Free will is influenced by one's knowledge and awareness of the options available.
➢ In order to make choices, individuals need to have an understanding of the situation and the consequences
of their actions.
 3

➢ The more informed they are, the more their choices can be considered exercises of free will.
❖ Multiplicity of Options: Free will is most evident when individuals have multiple options or choices available
to them.
➢ The ability to choose among different alternatives is a hallmark of free will.
➢ If a person has only one option or is coerced into a particular course of action, their free will is limited.
❖ Absence of Pressure: True exercise of free will typically requires the absence of undue external pressure or
coercion.
➢ If someone is forced or manipulated into a decision against their wishes, it can undermine their free will.
➢ Free will is most evident when individuals make choices without significant external constraints or undue
influence.
Free Will:
❖ Knowledge of Ideal Rules and Values: Understanding ideal rules and values can help individuals make
informed decisions and choices.
➢ Free will is exercised when individuals, with knowledge of these ideals, make choices that align with their
own values and moral principles.
❖ Knowledge of Good and Evil: Knowledge of good and evil is crucial in moral decision-making.
➢ Free will is often associated with the ability to distinguish between morally right and morally wrong
actions and then choose to act in accordance with one's moral judgment.
❖ Knowledge of Right and Wrong: Similar to knowledge of good and evil, knowledge of right and wrong is
essential for the exercise of free will in moral and ethical contexts.
➢ It allows individuals to make choices that they believe are ethically correct.
❖ Knowledge of Consciousness: Knowledge of consciousness is less about specific moral values and more
about self-awareness and the ability to make deliberate and conscious choices.
➢ Free will often involves a level of conscious decision-making, where individuals are aware of their actions
and the reasons behind them.
Absence of Pressure:
❖ The absence of pressure is a key element in evaluating the exercise of free will.
❖ This absence of pressure can be categorized into two main types:
➢ Absence of Internal Pressure: This refers to the absence of internal psychological or emotional pressures
that might influence one's decision-making.
✓ When individuals make choices without feeling compelled by their own inner conflicts, fears, or
desires, it is more indicative of the exercise of free will.
➢ Absence of External Pressure: This relates to the absence of external influences, constraints, or
coercions that might limit or manipulate an individual's choices.
✓ External pressures can come from various sources, including:
▪ Social Sanctions: These are pressures or expectations imposed by society or a particular social
group.
 4

• People may feel compelled to conform to societal norms or expectations, but when they
can make choices without undue influence from these external social pressures, it is more
reflective of free will.
▪ Cultural Sanctions: Cultural norms and values can also exert pressure on individuals to
conform to particular ways of thinking or behaving.
• When individuals can make choices that deviate from these cultural norms without
significant constraints, it suggests a greater exercise of free will.
▪ Religious Sanctions: Some individuals may feel religious pressures or moral obligations based
on their religious beliefs.
• When individuals can make choices in alignment with their own religious or moral
convictions without being coerced, it signifies the exercise of free will.
Free Will:
❖ Knowledge:
➢ Knowledge of good and evil: Understanding moral values and the distinctions between what is
considered morally right and wrong.
➢ Knowledge of right and wrong: Awareness of ethical principles and the ability to differentiate morally
acceptable actions from morally unacceptable ones.
➢ Consciousness: Being self-aware and capable of making choices with an understanding of one's
intentions and the consequences of those choices.
❖ Absence of Pressure:
➢ Internal (Mental Health): The absence of internal psychological or emotional pressures that might
influence or compromise decision-making.
➢ External: The absence of external pressures, which includes:
✓ Absence of objectification: The freedom to make choices without being treated as an object,
respected as an autonomous individual.
✓ Absence of determinism: The freedom to make choices without being entirely determined by
external factors, such as fate or external influences.
❖ Multiple Options: The availability of various choices or alternatives, which is a fundamental aspect of free
will.
➢ Having multiple options allows individuals to make meaningful choices based on their preferences,
values, and judgments.
❖ Evaluation of Normative Ethics: This element emphasizes the importance of assessing how normative ethical
principles and values influence an individual's choices and actions.
➢ It involves considering whether one's actions align with prevailing moral standards and ethical norms.
Ethics In Dilemma Solving:
❖ Ethics plays a crucial role in solving moral dilemmas, especially when there's a conflict between values, ideals,
or rules.
 5

➢ Ecological vs. Development Balance: This ethical dilemma involves finding a balance between
ecological sustainability and economic development.
✓ On one hand, there's a moral obligation to protect the environment and preserve natural resources
for future generations.
✓ On the other hand, there's an economic imperative for development and progress.
✓ Ethical decision-making in this context involves considering the long-term impact on the
environment while meeting immediate developmental needs.
➢ Internal Security vs. Human Rights: This dilemma revolves around the tension between ensuring
national security and upholding human rights.
✓ Governments and societies must protect their citizens from threats, but it must be done within the
bounds of respecting individual rights and freedoms.
✓ Ethical decision-making in this context requires finding ways to maintain security without infringing
on fundamental human rights.
➢ Minority Rights vs. Gender Justice: This dilemma pertains to situations where there is a conflict
between protecting the rights of minority groups and promoting gender equality and justice.
✓ Ethical decision-making in this context involves recognizing the importance of both sets of rights
and striving to find a balanced approach that respects and upholds the rights of all individuals,
irrespective of their gender or minority status.
Science of Betterment:
❖ The concept of a "science of betterment" suggests a systematic and intentional approach to improving various
aspects of human life and society.
❖ It can encompass various fields, including ethics, social sciences, psychology, and policy studies, to drive
positive change in these areas and promote individual and societal improvement.
❖ It often relies on empirical research, data analysis, and evidence-based strategies to guide change and progress.
➢ Decisions: The science of betterment can
influence decision-making by promoting
rational thinking, ethical considerations, and the
use of evidence-based approaches to make more
informed and morally sound choices.
➢ Conducts: By promoting ethical conduct and
personal responsibility, the science of betterment
can encourage individuals to behave in ways that
align with moral and societal values.
➢ Institutions: The science of betterment can
drive institutional changes through policy
reforms, organizational restructuring, and the
implementation of practices that prioritize fairness, transparency, and accountability.
 6

➢ Rules: It can help in the development and revision of rules and regulations to ensure that they reflect
current societal needs and ethical standards. This may involve changing or enacting laws and regulations.
➢ Values: The science of betterment can influence values by fostering moral and ethical education, raising
awareness of societal needs, and encouraging a shift toward values that prioritize the well-being and
welfare of all individuals.
➢ Habits: Changing habits is often challenging, but the science of betterment can provide strategies for
habit formation and modification.
➢ It may involve interventions such as behavioral science techniques, education, and self-help methods.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 07
Human Interface (Part - 2)
 2

Human Interface (Part - 2)

Factors which Maximise the Domain of Relationship of Human Beings with Ethics and Minimize
Domain of Ethics:
 Free will: Free will determines the relationship between human beings and ethics. It refers to an individual's
ability to make choices and decisions independently. It can both maximize and minimize the domain of the
relationship between human beings and ethics, depending on how it is exercised.
 If any act, conduct, or decision is conducted by free will, then that act will be moral or immoral.
 If free will is absent in any act, conduct, or decision, then that act will be non-moral.
Factors Influence Free Will in Society:
 Social Factors:
 These factors influence the degree and extent of free will.
 The society can be classified into two types:
 Closed Society: It is a society that is closed (Faith Based Society).
 Open Society: It is a society where discourses or multiple perspectives are allowed (Reason Based
Society).
How Closed Society and Open Society influence the Free Will?
 Closed Society:
 Cultural and Religious Influence: In a closed
society, the source of values is predominantly
culture, tradition, and religion. These elements
heavily shape the moral framework, and adherence
to them is seen as a duty.
 Predetermined Norms: Individuals in closed
societies are expected to conform to pre-
established norms and customs. These norms are
often deeply ingrained and may limit the extent to
which individuals can exercise their free will.
 Limited Critical Thinking: Critical evaluation, questioning, and dialectics are often discouraged or
absent in a closed society. The established beliefs and traditions are rarely challenged, restricting the
scope for independent thought.
 Social Roles: The society often emphasizes rigid social roles and duties, which can limit personal
autonomy and the ability to make choices independently.
 In "The Republic," Plato presents the "Allegory of the Cave" to illustrate his ideas about human
perception, reality, and the pursuit of knowledge.
 3

 In a closed society, the allegory can be used as a cautionary tale about the dangers of
unquestioningly accepting the beliefs and traditions of the community. It highlights the need to
challenge the limitations placed on free will by external authorities and rigid norms.
 Open Society:
 Reason and Rationality: In an open society, the emphasis is on reason and rationality. Individuals are
expected to act in a manner that aligns with logic and evidence, promoting the use of individual judgment.
 Diversity of Perspectives: Open societies allow for a diverse range of perspectives and opinions. This
encourages dialogue and the exchange of ideas, expanding the possibilities for individual free will.
 Freedom to make Choices: Open societies tend to have a greater prevalence of free will because
individuals have the freedom to make choices based on their own values, beliefs, and rational thinking.
 Influence of Social Reformers: Social reformers often play a significant role in transitioning closed
societies into open ones. They advocate for individual rights and the expansion of personal autonomy.
Nature of Polity:
 The nature of polity, or the political system and governance structure of a society, can significantly influence
the concept of free will.
 Here's how different types of polities can impact free will:

 Non-Democratic Society: A non-democratic society is one where political power and decision-making are
not based on principles of democracy. In a non-democratic society, the government and leadership may be
authoritarian, autocratic, or controlled by a single entity or a small group of individuals, and the citizens may
not have the right to participate in free and fair elections or have a say in governance.
 Non-Liberal Society: A non-liberal society does not prioritize individual rights, freedoms, and the rule of
law, as seen in liberal democracies. In such a society, there may be restrictions on freedom of speech,
freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and other individual liberties. The government or governing
authority may have significant control over various aspects of people's lives.
 Non-Secular Society: A non-secular society does not separate religious institutions from the state or
government affairs. In such a society, religious laws and principles may heavily influence or directly shape
the legal and political systems. There may not be a clear distinction between the government and religious
authorities, and individuals may be subject to religious mandates in various aspects of their lives.
 Non-Multi-Cultural Society: A non-multicultural society does not embrace cultural diversity or pluralism.
In such a society, there may be limited tolerance for different cultures, languages, and traditions. A single
dominant culture or group may hold a privileged position, and there may be little room for the coexistence of
multiple cultural or ethnic groups.
 In these societies, free will not or very little free will is present.
 4

Note:
 Monarchy: In a monarchy, the human beings act as per the directives of the king without having free
will.
 Theocracy: In a theocracy, the rules are implemented on behalf of divine command. In such a political
system, humans perform their duties according to the religious norms. In such a political system, there is a
lack of free will.
 Totalitarianism: In a totalitarian political system like fascism and Nazism the people do not have
complete free will.

Democratic:
 Democracy provides choice, egalitarianism (which means every individual is an end in itself), culture of
discourse.
 In a democracy, free will is practiced.
 Dialectics is the basis of democracy; it means the thesis and anthesis will lead to the synthesis. It means the
plurality of opinions eventually leads to the decision-making.
Liberalism:
 It is based on Individualism or Automism.
 As per it, individuals are supreme to the state or society.
 According to it, every individual should have maximum rights like the right to Liberty, the right to
property, and the right to life.
 Every individual causes maximum free will according to liberalism.
 According to it, everyone has maximum options.
 Examples: Free speech is the outcome of liberalism.
Multiculturalism:
 Multiculturalism is a sociopolitical and philosophical ideology or policy that promotes the coexistence and
equal recognition of diverse cultural, ethnic, religious, and social groups within a single society.
 It is a concept that values and celebrates cultural diversity and seeks to create an inclusive and
harmonious social environment where individuals from various backgrounds can live together, interact, and
contribute to the broader society.
 It is the ethics of diversity.
 It is the ethics of relativism.
 It is the ethics of heterogeneity.
 It is the ethics of pluralism.
 It protects from cultural domination.
 It promotes free will and choices.
 5

Secularism:
 Earlier this term was used to refer to scientific society.
 Secularism brings scientific temperament, indeterminism, verification, and hedonism.
 Secularism ensures empowerment of the weaker section of the society which eventually leads to Social
Justice.

 Expansion of Knowledge: Expansion of moral understanding to tell or give knowledge about understanding
good and evil, will increase the free will of people.
 Attitudinal Change: Attitudinal change can influence how individuals exercise their free will by persuasion
and the choices they make. While free will is the capacity to make choices independently, it is not entirely
divorced from one's attitudes, beliefs, and values. It is done by the removal or elimination of external
pressure.
 Moral Optimism: It refers to the belief or perspective that, on balance, moral progress and ethical
improvement in human behavior and society are possible and achievable. It is an outlook that maintains faith
in the capacity of individuals and communities to act in ways that promote ethical values, social justice, and
the common good. Social thinkers spread awareness about this which will result in self-determination,
autonomy, and elimination of objectification.
 Treating Human Beings as an End: They taught us to treat human beings as an end and never as a means.
This principle emphasizes the inherent value and dignity of each individual and underscores the importance
of respecting their autonomy and rights.



PW Web/App: https://smart.link/7wwosivoicgd4
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 08
Determinants of Ethics
 2

Determinants of Ethics

❖ The domain of ethics intersects with the concept of "human interface". A fundamental understanding of
human behavior and its interface with the world is crucial for comprehending and classifying the
domains of ethics.
To start with, human beings are categorised as :
❖ Human being as Emotive being: Ethics have a profound influence on the quality of life and emotional well-
being by providing a framework for making moral choices.
➢ It deals with questions of morality, values, and what is considered right and wrong. This domain
deals with the ethics of personal life.
❖ Human being as Rational being: The idea of humans as rational beings is a fundamental aspect of the domain
of ethics. Here, rationality, reason, and uniformity are central to the process of moral reasoning and
decision-making.
➢ It involves equality, justice, rules, etc. This domain deals with the ethics of Public life.
(A) Ethics of Personal Life :
❖ Ethics of Personal life influence how people interact with others, make choices, and live in accordance
with their moral beliefs.

Ethics of Personal Life

Ethics of
Ethics of Ethics of Ethics of Ethics of
Religious and
Minority Faith Emotions Personal
Cultural Issues
relationship
(B) How to identify whether any particular issue or question is genuinely a question of Personal life?
❖ Any particular issue is considered an issue of personal life where there is the possibility of plurality, diversity,
and subjectivity, and where uniformity is not possible because it is deeply tied to individual experiences,
values, and choice.
(C) Values, do's and don't of Personal Life :
Values of Personal life includes:
❖ Tolerance
❖ Equality ( Equal treatment with all classes)
❖ Plurality
❖ Relativism
 3

Do's and Don'ts of Personal Life Includes:

Do’s Don’ts
Integrity Hierarchy
Self Reflection Division of Truth as Inferior and superior
Fairness Religious or cultural nationalism
(D) Ethical Theories Which Governs Personal Life:
It includes two theories:
❖ Multiculturalism
❖ Positive Secularism (Sarva Dharma Sambhav)
1. Multiculturalism:
➢ Multiculturalism deals with the coexistence of diverse cultures within a single society.
➢ It promotes the idea that individuals should respect and appreciate cultural diversity.
➢ It calls for the recognition and representation of diverse cultures in various aspects of society.
➢ Multiculturalism is closely associated with the protection of diversity, particularly the plurality of
minority cultures and communities.
➢ It is promoted through giving special rights to minorities, making and passing personal laws, etc., which
ultimately give rise to cultural equality, liberty, and justice in society.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 09
Determinants of Ethics (Part-02)
 2

Determinants of Ethics (Part-02)

Domain of Ethics:
❖ Human beings have two dimensions: Human beings as Rational beings and Emotive beings.
1) Human as a Rational Being (Public Life):
✓ Rational Being means the humans act according to the Horizons.
✓ Rational well being is associated with homogeneous identity.
✓ The rules are uniform when humans act as rational beings.
✓ It is related to ethics in public relations.
2) Human as an Emotive Being (Personal Life):
✓ It means humans have emotions.
✓ Emotional well being is associated with heterogeneous identities.
✓ The ethics of heterogeneous identity are due to religious diversity, and for religious diversity there
are personal laws.
✓ It is associated with ethics in private relationships.
Domain of Ethics: (How To Solve Dilemmas)
❖ In the domain of ethics, solving dilemmas involves evaluating moral conflicts by considering principles,
consequences, and ethical theories.
❖ Ethical decision-making seeks to strike a balance between conflicting values and achieve the best ethical
outcome.
❖ Dilemmas in Private Life Versus Ethics in Private Life:
➢ For example: Facial Recognition Technology (FCT) is being used for various purposes, from law
enforcement to border control to citizen services. And their differing concerns about privacy, civil
liberties, and state surveillance in private life.
➢ In such dilemma, the decision can be taken as:
✓ Non use of facial recognition technology (FCT) goes against the theory of relativism.
✓ The demand of citizens regarding FCT concerns is consistent with the theory of relativism and theory
of subjectivity.
✓ Use of FCT should be based on objective value like crime rate, immigration check, national
security, etc
Ethics in Private Relationship:
❖ It is also called Ethics of a diversity, Ethics of heterogeneity, Ethics of pluralism, Ethics of emotive well being,
Ethics of subjectivity and relativism.
❖ To study ethics in private relationships, it is necessary to understand what kind of values are required, which
theories should be used (multiculturalism , relativism, pluralism) and what should be the code of conduct.
Ethics of Public Life:
❖ This ethics ends at material well being and material development.
 3

❖ The main role in material development is reason.

❖ It is desired for the common well being.
❖ It is associated with development and progress of all.
Objective of Ethics In Public Relationship:
❖ Inclusive development
❖ Scientific temperament
❖ Social progress
❖ Material welding
❖ To maximize capabilities and skills
❖ In this concept all citizens are the same and everyone will have equal uniform rights and uniform laws.
❖ Public life is associated with development and progress of all.
➢ Public Life: Public life refers to activities, organizations, and interactions that impact society as a whole,
such as politics, government, civic engagement, and public policies.
➢ Identifying False Issues: To determine if an issue is false, use fact-checking, multiple credible sources,
critical thinking, expert opinions, and consider the context.
➢ Values and Ethical Theories: In public life, important values include transparency, accountability,
justice, democracy, and ethical theories like utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics guide ethical
behavior.
➢ Dilemmas and Disputes: In public life, dilemmas and disputes between stakeholders may arise due to
conflicting interests.
✓ Resolve them by identifying stakeholders, conducting ethical analysis, seeking compromise,
involving the public, and ensuring transparency and accountability.
Theories of Ethics In Public Relationship:
❖ The theories which support ethics in public relationship or theory of democracy, theory of liberalism and theory
of secularism. Here, the identity of humans is either individual or human being.
Values of Ethics In Public Relationship:
❖ The values supporting ethics in public relationships are non discrimination, impartiality , objectivity, etc.
➢ Example: According to the articles 15 and 16 of Indian Constitution, there should be no discrimination
on the basis of race, sex,etc.
Liberalism:
❖ Liberalism is a philosophical and political framework that places a strong emphasis on individual rights,
personal freedom, and the protection of human dignity.
➢ Ethically, liberalism values the autonomy and agency of individuals, promoting a society where every
person has the opportunity to pursue their own values and live according to their own beliefs, as long as
this does not infringe upon the rights and freedoms of others.
➢ It is rooted in the ethical principle of respecting the inherent worth and potential of each human being,
regardless of their background, beliefs, or identity.
 4

❖ Ideal in Liberalism:
➢ Aims to create a society where people can flourish and lead fulfilling lives.
➢ Ethical ideals include justice, fairness, and the promotion of human well-being.
➢ Encourages a world where diversity and pluralism are celebrated.
❖ Liberty in a Liberal Society:
➢ A core ethical value in liberalism.
➢ It implies the right to make choices, express oneself, and live freely within ethical boundaries.
➢ Balances personal autonomy with the responsibility to not infringe on the equal liberty of others.
❖ Liberal State:
➢ Rooted in principles of justice, equality, and individual rights.
➢ Ethical responsibility to safeguard the well-being and freedoms of citizens.
➢ Upholds the rule of law, equal opportunities, and the prevention of discrimination.
❖ Liberal Economy:
➢ Values economic freedom, competition, and opportunity.
➢ Encourages ethical business practices and the pursuit of economic prosperity.
➢ Emphasizes the fair distribution of resources, economic justice, and social welfare.
Secularism:
❖ Secularism is a concept that advocates the separation of religion and the state, creating a society where public
affairs, laws, and governance are not influenced by religious doctrines.
➢ It is a cornerstone of a democratic and pluralistic society that respects individual autonomy and diverse
belief systems.
➢ When we consider secularism in the context of building a scientific society, we find ethical principles that
guide us towards progress, fairness, and the responsible use of knowledge.
❖ Freedom of Belief: Secularism champions the ethical principle of freedom of belief, ensuring that individuals
have the autonomy to follow their religious or non-religious convictions.
➢ In a scientific society, respecting this freedom is essential, promoting ethical pluralism and tolerance for
diverse perspectives.
❖ Equality: Ethical values of equality and non-discrimination are at the heart of secularism.
➢ A scientific society seeks to create an equitable environment where all individuals, regardless of their
beliefs, have equal access to education, opportunities, and benefits of scientific progress.
❖ Knowledge and Inquiry: In a scientific society, the pursuit of knowledge is a fundamental ethical endeavor.
➢ Secularism encourages open inquiry and critical thinking, pushing us to seek rational and evidence-based
explanations for natural and social phenomena.
❖ Ethical Responsibility: In such a society, there is an ethical responsibility to utilize scientific knowledge for
the betterment of humanity and the environment.
➢ This includes addressing ethical dilemmas posed by scientific advancements, such as bioethics and
environmental ethics.
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❖ Respect for Ethical Boundaries: While secularism respects the separation of religion and state, it also
acknowledges that ethical values guide human behavior.
➢ A scientific society recognizes these values as a foundation for laws, policies, and ethical conduct.
Democracy:
❖ Form of Government: Democracy is a political system where power is vested in the people.
➢ It enables citizens to participate in the decision-making processes of their nation, elect representatives,
and hold their leaders accountable through regular, free, and fair elections.
❖ Values: Democracy is built upon fundamental ethical values, including equality, liberty, justice, and individual
rights.
➢ It promotes the equal treatment of all citizens, safeguards personal freedoms, ensures access to
opportunities, and strives to create a just society.
❖ Culture: Democracy fosters a culture of open dialogue, tolerance, and respect for diverse perspectives.
➢ It encourages citizens to engage in civil discourse, celebrate diversity, and uphold the principles of
fairness and inclusivity.
❖ Form of Life: In a democratic society, participation in civic life is not just a privilege but a responsibility.
➢ It is a way of life where individuals actively engage in the political process, express their opinions, and
contribute to the common good.
➢ Democracy empowers people to collectively shape their government, reinforcing values like equality and
liberty in their everyday lives.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 10
Domain and Determinants of
Ethics
 2

Domain and Determinants of Ethics

Dilemma:
❖ Faith versus Faith (Personal Law versus Personal Law):
➢ This dilemma revolves around conflicts that arise when different faith-based personal laws, often
governed by religious authorities, clash with each other.
➢ It typically occurs in multi-faith societies where individuals of different religious backgrounds have their
own distinct set of rules and regulations concerning personal matters such as marriage, divorce,
inheritance, and family matters.
➢ The challenge here is to balance the principles of religious freedom and cultural diversity with the
need for a unified legal framework that ensures equal rights and protections for all citizens.
❖ Faith versus Reason (Personal Law versus Uniform Civil Code (UCC)):
➢ This dilemma concerns the tension between religious beliefs or practices and secular, rational, and
uniform civil laws.
➢ In many countries, there is a debate about the implementation of a Uniform Civil Code, which aims to
replace religious-based personal laws with a uniform set of civil laws that applies to all citizens, regardless
of their faith.
➢ This can lead to contentious issues like the practice of triple Talaq (a form of instant divorce in Islam) and
entry restrictions, as seen in the Sabarimala temple case, where religious traditions clash with principles
of gender equality and individual rights.
➢ The challenge is to strike a balance between respecting religious beliefs and ensuring that legal and
ethical standards are upheld uniformly for all citizens.
Human Being as a Set of Identities:
❖ Natural Universal Identities (Static):
➢ These identities refer to fundamental and inherent aspects of a human being that are universal and
unchanging.
➢ They are often connected to a person's core characteristics and are typically regarded as essential to their
identity.
➢ These might include biological factors like one's genetic makeup (e.g., DNA), physiological features (e.g.,
gender, race), and inherent traits (e.g., temperament).
➢ Natural universal identities are considered static because they are not easily altered or removed and form
the foundational aspects of a person's self.
❖ Artificial Changeable Identities:
➢ These identities are more malleable and can be shaped or constructed by individuals or society.
➢ They are often linked to external factors, cultural influences, and personal choices.
➢ Examples of artificial and changeable identities might include religious affiliation, political beliefs,
nationality, profession, hobbies, or even fashion choices.
➢ These identities can be adopted, changed, or discarded over time, reflecting the adaptability of human
identity in response to experiences and societal influences.
 3

Case Study (Sabarimala Temple Issue in india):

❖ Context:
➢ Sabarimala is a famous Hindu temple located in the Indian state of Kerala.
➢ The temple is dedicated to Lord Ayyappan, a deity believed to be celibate, and is considered one of the
holiest sites in Hinduism.
➢ For many years, Sabarimala had a tradition of excluding women of menstruating age (typically between
10 and 50 years) from entering the temple.
➢ This practice was based on the belief that the presence of menstruating women was considered impure
and would violate the temple's celibate deity's sanctity.
❖ Supreme Court Verdict:
➢ The Sabarimala case gained national and international attention when it was taken to the Supreme Court
of India.
➢ In September 2018, the Supreme Court delivered a landmark verdict on the issue.
➢ The court ruled that the ban on women of menstruating age entering the Sabarimala temple was
unconstitutional and discriminatory.
➢ It cited the fundamental rights of women, particularly their right to equality and freedom of religion.
➢ The verdict held that religious practices should adhere to the principles of gender equality enshrined in
the Indian Constitution.
➢ The court ordered that women of all age groups should be allowed to enter the temple.
❖ Context of Identity of Women:
➢ Sabarimala is a Hindu temple located in the Indian state of Kerala.
➢ The temple is dedicated to Lord Ayyappan and is considered one of the holiest sites in Hinduism.
➢ Traditionally, the temple had a longstanding practice of excluding women of menstruating age (usually
between 10 and 50 years) from entering its premises.
➢ This practice was based on the belief that the deity Lord Ayyappan is a celibate deity, and the presence
of menstruating women was seen as impure.
➢ The restriction on women's entry was deeply rooted in religious and cultural traditions.
❖ Supreme Court Verdict:
➢ The Sabarimala case gained widespread attention in 2018 when the Supreme Court of India delivered a
landmark verdict on the matter.
➢ The Supreme Court ruled that the practice of excluding women of menstruating age from entering the
Sabarimala temple was discriminatory and violated the fundamental rights of women, particularly their
right to equality and freedom of religion.
➢ The court held that the ban on women's entry into the temple was unconstitutional and ordered that women
of all age groups should be allowed to enter the temple.
➢ This verdict was seen as a significant step towards gender equality and women's rights in the context of
religious practices.
 4

❖ Temple Entry and Other Issues with Women:

➢ The Supreme Court's verdict led to significant social and political debates in India.
➢ It raised questions about the balance between religious freedom and gender equality.
➢ Many women's rights activists and progressive groups hailed the decision as a victory for gender equality,
emphasizing that women should have the right to worship at all places of religious significance.
➢ However, there was also significant opposition to the verdict, with some arguing that it interfered with
religious traditions and customs.
❖ The Implementation of the Verdict:
➢ The implementation of the verdict faced challenges, including resistance from certain religious and
cultural groups, which led to protests and demonstrations.
➢ The situation remained contentious, with ongoing discussions and legal actions about the implementation
of the court's decision, the preservation of traditions, and the protection of women's rights.
Domain (Types) of Ethics (Part 2):
❖ Normative Ethics:
➢ Normative ethics, also known as prescriptive ethics, is a branch of ethics that deals with the formulation
of moral principles, rules, and guidelines for determining what is morally right and wrong.
➢ It seeks to provide a framework for evaluating and prescribing ethical behavior. Normative ethics is
concerned with questions like "What ought one to do?" and "What are the principles that should guide
our moral decision-making?"
➢ It encompasses various moral theories, such as utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics, and others,
which offer different approaches to evaluating moral choices.
NOTE:
❖ Normative ethics, also known as general ethics, is a branch of ethics that seeks to establish principles
and criteria for determining what is morally right and wrong.
❖ Two prominent moral theories within normative ethics are utilitarianism and Kantian ethics, which offer
different approaches to evaluating ethical decisions and actions.
➢ Utilitarianism:
✓ Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory associated with philosophers like Jeremy
Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
✓ It posits that the morality of an action is determined by its consequences.
✓ According to utilitarianism, an action is morally right if it maximizes overall well-being or
happiness and minimizes suffering for the greatest number of people.
✓ The principle of the "greatest good for the greatest number" is central to utilitarianism.
✓ This theory focuses on the idea of utility, where utility is often equated with happiness or pleasure,
and it advocates for actions that result in the greatest amount of happiness for society.
 5

➢ Kantian Ethics:
✓ Kantian ethics, developed by Immanuel Kant, is a deontological or duty-based ethical theory.
✓ Kant's moral philosophy centers on the idea of categorical imperatives, which are moral
commands that apply universally and unconditionally.
✓ According to Kant, an action is morally right if it can be willed as a universal law without
contradiction and if it treats individuals as ends in themselves rather than means to an end.
✓ Kantian ethics places a strong emphasis on rationality, duty, and moral autonomy, and it
emphasizes the inherent worth and dignity of individuals.
❖ Applied Ethics:
➢ Applied ethics is a field within ethics that focuses on the application of moral principles to specific
real-life issues and dilemmas.
➢ It involves the practical examination of ethical problems in various domains, such as business ethics,
medical ethics, environmental ethics, and bioethics.
➢ Applied ethicists analyze and offer guidance on how moral principles can be used to address complex,
concrete situations, providing practical solutions and recommendations for ethical decision-making in
specific contexts.
Applied Ethics: Guiding Right and Wrong in Practice
❖ Values: Applied ethics empowers individuals and organizations to make moral decisions aligned with their
core values.
➢ When faced with personal dilemmas, it aids in upholding honesty, integrity, and compassion, ensuring
choices resonate with deeply held principles.
❖ Institution: This branch assesses and directs ethical conduct within various institutions, including
governments, educational bodies, and healthcare organizations.
➢ Educational institutions utilize applied ethics to address academic integrity and student behavior. In the
realm of government, it shapes policies in harmony with societal values and principles.
❖ Business Ethics: Applied ethics plays a pivotal role in the corporate world.
➢ It offers a practical framework for making ethically sound decisions, from environmental responsibility
assessments to ethical marketing, fair labor practices, and corporate social responsibility, thereby
ensuring ethical business conduct.
❖ Descriptive Ethics:
➢ Descriptive ethics, often called comparative ethics, is concerned with the study of how people, societies,
and cultures perceive and practice morality.
➢ It does not prescribe what is right or wrong but aims to describe and analyze the moral beliefs, values,
and behaviors of different groups or individuals.
➢ Descriptive ethics often involves anthropological, sociological, or psychological research to understand
how moral norms and practices vary across cultures and change over time.
 6

❖ Metaethics:
➢ Metaethics delves into the philosophical foundations of ethics and explores questions about the nature
and meaning of moral statements.
➢ It goes beyond specific moral principles or issues and addresses more abstract, conceptual issues.
➢ Metaethics investigates the origin of moral values, the nature of moral language, and the status of moral
truths.
➢ Common topics in metaethics include moral realism (whether objective moral facts exist), moral anti-
realism (denying the existence of objective moral facts), and the analysis of moral language and concepts.
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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 11
How to write answer
 2

How to write answer

How To Write Answer Of Ethics:
 To write a comprehensive answer on ethics, considering the three important factors (Knowledge, Integrity,
and Aptitude) and the evaluation criteria (Knowledge, Consistency, Decision Making with a focus on Integrity
and Aptitude).
 Three Important Factors for Ethics Answer Writing:
 Knowledge:
 Understanding of Ethics: Begin by discussing the importance of a strong foundation in ethical
principles and concepts.
 Emphasize how a deep understanding of ethics informs decision-making.
 Application of Ethical Knowledge: Provide examples or scenarios where individuals apply their
ethical knowledge effectively.
 Discuss how this application contributes to ethically sound decisions.
 Consistency:
 Definition of Consistency in Ethics: Explain what consistency means in the ethical context.
 Discuss the importance of maintaining consistency in behavior and decision-making.
 Examples of Consistency: Present examples where individuals demonstrate consistent adherence to
ethical principles over time.
 Discuss how consistency builds trust and credibility.
 Decision Making:
 Integrity in Decision Making: Explore the role of integrity in decision-making.
 Discuss how decisions made with integrity contribute to ethical conduct and trustworthy
relationships.
 Aptitude in Decision Making: Examine the role of ethical aptitude in decision-making.
 Discuss how a moral and ethical aptitude guides individuals in navigating complex ethical
dilemmas.
Evaluation of Ethics Answers:
 Knowledge (Understanding of Ethics):
 Depth of Understanding: Evaluate the depth and breadth of the candidate's understanding of ethical
principles.
 Application of Knowledge: Assess the ability to apply ethical knowledge to real-world situations, as
demonstrated in examples or case studies.
 Consistency:
 Behavioral Consistency: Evaluate the consistency in the candidate's ethical behavior over time.
 Decision-Making Consistency: Assess whether the candidate consistently applies ethical principles in
decision-making situations.
 Decision Making (with a focus on Integrity and Aptitude):
 3

 Integrity in Decision Making: Evaluate how integrity influences the candidate's decision-making
process.
 Look for examples of decisions made with a commitment to ethical values.
 Aptitude in Decision Making: Assess the candidate's aptitude for making morally sound decisions in
complex or ambiguous situations.
 Consider their adaptability and ethical reasoning.
Question. What do you understand by Values and Ethics? In what way is it important to be Ethical along with
being professionally competent?
 Steps of Answer Writing:
 First Step: Understand the Demand of the Question.
 Part-01: Points or Definitions.
 Values: Values are fundamental beliefs or guiding principles that individuals or societies consider
important and desirable.
 They serve as the foundation for ethical behavior and decision-making.
 Ethics: Ethics refers to the moral principles and standards that govern conduct.
 It involves distinguishing between right and wrong and making choices that align with these
principles.
 Importance of Ethical Professionalism:
 Being ethical in conjunction with professional competence is crucial for maintaining integrity, trust,
and accountability in one's professional life.
 It ensures that individuals act responsibly, considering the impact of their actions on stakeholders
and society.
 Part-02: Arguments and Examples.
 Values and Ethics in Professional Competence:
 Integrity and Trust:
 Argument: Ethical behavior builds trust, a cornerstone of professional relationships.
 Example: An employee who consistently follows ethical guidelines gains the trust of colleagues
and superiors.
 Accountability and Responsibility:
 Argument: Ethical professionals take responsibility for their actions, contributing to a responsible
work environment.
 Example: A manager who owns up to mistakes and learns from them demonstrates ethical
accountability.
 Societal Impact:
 Argument: Ethical decisions consider broader societal implications, contributing to sustainable
and responsible professional practices.
 Example: A company adopting environmentally friendly practices showcases ethical
responsibility toward the community.
 Second Step: For Beginners-
 4

 Part-01: Facts or Information.

 What do we understand by values?
 Values are deeply held beliefs or principles that guide behavior and decision-making.
 They can include honesty, integrity, respect, responsibility, and fairness, among others.
 What is Ethics?
 Ethics involves the study of moral principles and standards, guiding individuals to distinguish
between right and wrong.
 It provides a framework for making decisions that align with these principles.
 Part-02: Argument and Examples.
 Why is it Important to be Ethical along with Being Professionally Competent?
 Trust and Credibility:
 Argument: Ethical conduct enhances trust and credibility in professional relationships.
 Example: Colleagues and clients are more likely to trust an accountant who follows ethical
accounting practices.
 Long-Term Success:
 Argument: Ethical behavior contributes to long-term professional success by building a positive
reputation.
 Example: A business that prioritizes ethical sourcing gains customer loyalty and sustainable
success.
 Legal Compliance:
 Argument: Ethical conduct ensures compliance with legal standards, preventing legal
complications.
 Example: Adhering to ethical advertising practices prevents legal issues and maintains the
company's reputation.

Additional Tips:
 Be specific in your examples and avoid generalizations.
 Use a balanced approach, giving attention to each of the factors and evaluation criteria.
 Ensure clarity and coherence in your response.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 12
Determinants of Ethics (Part 3)
 2

Determinants of Ethics (Part 3)

Determinants of Ethics:
Part 1: Determinants of ethical theory.
Part 2: Determinants of morality of any act.
Determinants of Ethical Theory:
❖ Causes:
➢ Cultural Evolution: Changes in societal values and norms over time can lead to the evolution of ethical
theories. As cultures develop and encounter new challenges, ethical theories may emerge or adapt to
address these changes.
➢ Philosophical Inquiry: The quest for understanding morality and human behavior through
philosophical inquiry is a significant cause of ethical theory. Philosophers explore fundamental
questions about right and wrong, contributing to the development of various ethical frameworks.
❖ Influences:
➢ Religious Beliefs: Religious doctrines often shape ethical theories by providing moral guidance and
principles. Many ethical systems are influenced by religious teachings, and adherence to these beliefs
can strongly influence ethical decision-making.
➢ Legal Systems: Ethical theories can be influenced by legal frameworks and regulations. The existence
of laws and their alignment with ethical principles can shape societal expectations and contribute to the
development of ethical theories.
❖ Components or Factors:
➢ Individual Values: Ethical theories are influenced by the values that individuals hold. Personal beliefs
about fairness, justice, and human rights contribute to the formulation and adoption of ethical
perspectives.
➢ Social Norms: Ethical theories are often embedded in societal norms. Individuals may adopt ethical
principles that align with prevailing social norms to gain acceptance and maintain social harmony.
❖ Sources:
➢ Philosophical Texts: Classical and contemporary philosophical works provide the intellectual
foundation for ethical theories. Texts by ethicists like Aristotle, Kant, and Rawls serve as sources for
various ethical frameworks.
➢ Cultural Narratives: Stories, myths, and cultural narratives can also serve as sources of ethical
theories. These narratives often contain moral lessons and shape the ethical outlook of individuals
within a particular culture or community.
List of Determinants:
❖ Epistemology: The branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge and belief systems. Epistemological
considerations can influence ethical theories by shaping how individuals perceive and acquire moral
knowledge.
 3

❖ Metaphysics: Metaphysical views about the nature of reality and existence can impact ethical theories. For
example, beliefs about the existence of objective moral truths or the nature of free will can shape ethical
perspectives.
❖ Nature of Human Psychology: Understanding human psychology, including moral emotions, cognitive
processes, and behavioral tendencies, is crucial for ethical theories. Theories may take into account aspects
like empathy, altruism, or self-interest based on psychological insights.
❖ Idea of an Ideal World: The concept of an ideal world can influence ethical theories by providing a vision
of the perfect moral order. Ethical frameworks may strive to guide individuals toward realizing this ideal or
navigating ethical challenges in a way that aligns with the envisioned perfection.
❖ Essence of Human Being: The philosophical exploration of what defines the essence of a human being,
whether it's rationality, consciousness, or other attributes, can shape ethical theories. The nature of humanity
often underlies moral considerations about rights, responsibilities, and dignity.
❖ Idea of the Good Life and Ultimate Aim of Life: Ethical theories often grapple with questions about the
ultimate purpose of life and what constitutes a good life. Views on happiness, fulfillment, and the ultimate
aim of human existence can influence the development of ethical principles.
Epistemology:
❖ Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge.
❖ It is concerned with questions related to the scope and nature of knowledge, the justification of beliefs, and
the rationality of belief systems.
➢ Theory of Knowledge: Epistemology is indeed the theory of knowledge. It examines the nature of
knowledge, how it is acquired, the criteria for justifying beliefs, and the distinctions between belief,
opinion, and true understanding.
➢ Science of Knowledge (Study of Facts about Knowledge): This definition captures the essence of
epistemology as the science or study of knowledge. It involves investigating the facts and principles
governing knowledge, including the methods and conditions under which knowledge can be considered
valid and reliable.
Knowledge:
❖ What is Knowledge?
➢ Knowledge refers to the understanding, awareness, or familiarity that one has acquired through learning,
experience, or information.
➢ It involves the awareness of facts, concepts, skills, and the ability to apply them in a meaningful way.
❖ Sources of Knowledge:
➢ Empirical Sources: Knowledge can be gained through direct observation and sensory experiences.
➢ Authority: Information obtained from experts, authorities, or reliable sources.
➢ Reasoning: Knowledge derived through logical reasoning and deduction.
➢ Intuition: Knowledge acquired through instinct, hunches, or innate understanding.
➢ Testimony: Knowledge gained through the statements or experiences of others.
 4

❖ Types of Knowledge:
➢ Explicit Knowledge: Knowledge that is codified, tangible, and can be easily communicated (e.g., facts,
information).
➢ Tacit Knowledge: Implicit, personal, and often difficult to articulate knowledge, rooted in personal
experience and intuition.
➢ Procedural Knowledge: Knowledge about how to do something, often involving skills and techniques.
➢ Declarative Knowledge: Knowledge about facts, information, and concepts.
❖ Process of Knowledge:
➢ Acquisition: The initial process of gaining knowledge through learning, observation, or experience.
➢ Retention: The ability to store acquired knowledge in memory for future use.
➢ Recall: The capacity to retrieve stored knowledge from memory when needed.
➢ Application: The practical use of knowledge in solving problems, making decisions, or creating
something new.
➢ Transfer: The ability to apply knowledge in different contexts or situations.
Sources of Knowledge:
❖ Empiricism (Knowledge from Experience): Empiricists argue that all knowledge is derived from sensory
experience and observation.
➢ Notable proponents include John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.
➢ Empiricists believe that the mind starts as a "blank slate" (tabula rasa), and all ideas are ultimately built
upon our experiences in the external world.
❖ Rationalism (Knowledge from Reason): Rationalists assert that reason and innate ideas are the primary
sources of knowledge.
➢ Prominent figures in this tradition include René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz.
➢ Rationalists argue that certain truths are known independently of experience, and reason serves as the
foundation for understanding the world.
Q1. What is Empiricism?
Q2. What are the important features of empiricism?
Q3. How does this empiricism influence ethical theories?
What is Empiricism?
❖ Empiricism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the role of experience and sensory perception as the
primary sources of knowledge. According to empiricism, knowledge is derived from sensory experiences,
observations, and experimentation. The statements you provided align with key aspects of the empiricist
perspective.
❖ Knowledge consists of general ideas including ethical ideas. Ethical ideas are also ever changing and values
are also ever changing.
 5

❖ Empiricists argue that knowledge is based on sensory experiences, which are inherently dynamic and subject
to change.
❖ Changes in sensations, sensory organs, and external conditions can all influence one's experiences and,
consequently, their knowledge.
❖ According to empiricism ethics are not constant, they change according to space, time and humans.
Empiricism:
❖ Secular Ethics: Empiricism, as a philosophical stance, is often associated with a focus on observable,
experiential phenomena.
➢ Secular ethics, which is concerned with ethical principles and moral values without relying on religious
beliefs, can align with empiricism by emphasizing the importance of observable consequences and
experiences in ethical decision-making.
❖ Changeable Values: Empiricism, as mentioned earlier, posits that knowledge, including ethical knowledge,
is subject to change based on experiences and observations.
➢ This includes the idea that values can evolve over time, influenced by varying circumstances, cultural
shifts, and individual perspectives.
❖ Subjectivity: Empiricism acknowledges the subjective nature of human experience.
➢ It asserts that knowledge is derived from individual sensory experiences, and thus, subjectivity plays a
significant role in shaping one's understanding of the world, including ethical considerations.
❖ Teleologies or Consequentialism: Teleology refers to the study of goals or purposes, and consequentialism
is an ethical theory that evaluates the morality of an action based on its outcomes or consequences.
➢ In the context of empiricism, the emphasis on experience aligns with a consequentialist approach to
ethics, where the consequences of actions are crucial in determining their moral value.
Rationalism:
❖ Source of Human Knowledge is Reason: Rationalism is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes the
role of reason as the primary source of knowledge.
➢ According to rationalists, certain truths can be known independently of experience through the use of
reason and intellect.
❖ Reasons Provide Rules: In rationalism, reason is considered the foundation for establishing principles or
rules that govern knowledge.
➢ These principles are often seen as innate or a priori, meaning they exist independently of specific
experiences and are accessible through the application of reason.
❖ Universal Rules: Rationalists argue that the principles or rules derived from reason are universal and apply
consistently across all contexts.
➢ This universality is often highlighted with examples from disciplines like mathematics and physics.
➢ For instance, mathematical principles, once discovered through reason, are considered universally
applicable and not contingent on specific empirical observations.
Nature of Ethics:
❖ Rule-Based: Ethics, when viewed from a rule-based perspective, involves the adherence to a set of
principles or rules that guide moral conduct.
 6

➢ Individuals following this approach consider certain actions as inherently right or wrong based on
established rules rather than solely on the consequences of those actions.
❖ Deontological: Deontology is a specific ethical approach that emphasizes the inherent nature of actions.
➢ In deontological ethics, certain actions are deemed morally right or wrong irrespective of their
consequences.
➢ This contrasts with consequentialist ethics, where the morality of an action is determined by its
outcomes.
❖ Universal Objective Values: Deontological ethics often posits the existence of universal and objective
moral values.
➢ This means that certain ethical principles are considered applicable to all individuals, cultures, and
contexts.
➢ The emphasis is on the inherent nature of ethical rules rather than on their variability based on
circumstances.
Theory of Knowledge (Epistemology):
❖ Determines Nature of Ethical Theory: The theory of knowledge, or epistemology, plays a crucial role in
shaping ethical theories. How we understand and acquire knowledge influences our approach to ethical
decision-making.
➢ For example, if knowledge is seen as primarily derived from sensory experience (empiricism), ethical
theories may lean toward consequentialism (teleology) that focuses on the outcomes of actions.
✓ On the other hand, if knowledge is viewed as rooted in reason (rationalism), ethical theories may
align with non-consequentialism (deontology), emphasizing the inherent nature of actions.
❖ Categorization into Two Types:
➢ Empiricism and Consequentialism (Teleology):
✓ Empiricism: This epistemological stance asserts that knowledge is primarily derived from sensory
experience.
▪ In the context of ethics, an empiricist approach might lead to consequentialist ethical theories,
where the morality of an action is determined by its consequences.
✓ Consequentialism (Teleology): This ethical theory holds that the morality of an action is
contingent on the outcomes or consequences it produces. The focus is on achieving the best overall
results.
➢ Rationalism and Non-Consequentialism (Deontology):
✓ Rationalism: This epistemological stance contends that reason is the primary source of knowledge.
▪ In the realm of ethics, a rationalist approach might lead to non-consequentialist ethical
theories, where the morality of an action is determined by its intrinsic nature.
✓ Non-Consequentialism (Deontology): This ethical theory posits that certain actions are inherently
right or wrong, regardless of their consequences.
▪ Deontological ethics emphasizes adherence to moral rules or principles.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 13
Determinants of Ethics (Part-4)
 2

Determinants of Ethics (Part-4)

Metaphysics:
❖ Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that deals with fundamental questions about the nature of reality,
existence, and the relationship between mind and matter.
➢ It explores questions that go beyond the physical sciences and delve into the underlying principles that
govern the nature of the universe.
❖ What is real and what is unreal?
➢ Metaphysics seeks to understand the nature of reality and distinguish between what is real and what might
be considered illusory or unreal.
➢ It delves into the nature of existence, perception, and the ultimate reality that underlies the appearances
we experience.
❖ What is the fundamental unit of reality?
➢ Metaphysics explores whether there is a fundamental substance or entity that constitutes the building
blocks of reality.
➢ This can range from examining the nature of physical particles at the subatomic level to more abstract
concepts like the ultimate substance or essence that gives rise to all phenomena.
❖ What is the nature of reality?
➢ Metaphysicians ponder the fundamental nature of reality, considering questions about the essence of
existence, the relationship between the material and immaterial, and the nature of time and space.
➢ Different metaphysical traditions and philosophers offer diverse perspectives on these fundamental
questions.
Nature of Reality:
❖ Materialism:
➢ Materialism is a philosophical stance that asserts the primacy of the material world.
➢ It posits that the fundamental substance of reality is physical or material in nature.
➢ According to materialism, everything that exists, including thoughts, emotions, and consciousness, can
be ultimately explained by the properties and interactions of material entities, such as particles and fields.
➢ In essence, materialism denies the existence of anything beyond the physical realm and holds that reality
can be understood through the scientific study of the material world.
❖ Spiritualism (Deontological):
➢ Spiritualism, particularly in a deontological context, is a perspective that emphasizes the significance of
non-material aspects in the understanding of reality.
➢ Deontological ethics, which is often associated with spiritual or religious frameworks, asserts that certain
actions are inherently right or wrong, independent of their consequences.
➢ In the context of spiritualism, the focus is on the existence of non-material entities, such as souls, spirits,
or divine forces, which are considered integral to the nature of reality.
➢ Unlike materialism, spiritualism suggests that there are aspects of existence that transcend the physical
realm and may involve moral or ethical dimensions beyond what can be observed empirically.
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Understanding of Human Psychology:

The understanding of human psychology is a complex and multifaceted topic, and different psychological theories
and perspectives offer varying explanations for human behavior.
❖ Psychological Selfishness:
➢ This idea is often associated with psychological egoism, which suggests that individuals are inherently
motivated by self-interest.
➢ According to psychological egoism, all human actions, whether seemingly altruistic or selfless, are
ultimately driven by a desire to maximize one's own well-being.
➢ This perspective has been criticized, and many argue that altruistic behavior and genuine concern for
others can exist independently of self-interest.
❖ Pleasure-Seeking:
➢ The concept of pleasure-seeking is related to hedonism, which asserts that the pursuit of pleasure and the
avoidance of pain are the central driving forces behind human actions.
➢ Hedonism suggests that individuals naturally seek pleasure and try to minimize discomfort.
➢ However, like psychological egoism, hedonism is a simplified view of human motivation, and other
factors, such as social and moral considerations, also play significant roles in shaping behavior.
❖ Egoism:
➢ Egoism, in a psychological or ethical context, emphasizes self-interest as a primary motivating factor.
➢ Psychological egoism, as mentioned earlier, asserts that individuals are inherently selfish in their
psychological motivations.
➢ Ethical egoism, on the other hand, is a normative theory that prescribes that individuals ought to act in
their self-interest.
➢ These perspectives have been critiqued, and various ethical theories argue for a balance between self-
interest and concern for others.
❖ Hedonism:
➢ Hedonism, as a psychological concept, focuses on the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain as
fundamental human motivators.
➢ This perspective suggests that individuals seek experiences that bring pleasure and avoid those that bring
discomfort.
➢ While hedonism captures an aspect of human motivation, it is often considered an oversimplified view,
as it doesn't fully account for the complexity of human values and goals.
Determinants of Morality of Conducts:
❖ The determinants of morality can be complex and multifaceted, involving a combination of individual, social,
cultural, and cognitive factors.
❖ Determinants of the Nature of Morality:
➢ Cognitive Development: Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that moral reasoning evolves
as individuals mature.
✓ Younger children may exhibit more concrete, rule-based moral thinking, while older individuals may
engage in more abstract, principled moral reasoning.
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➢ Cultural and Religious Influences: Cultural and religious beliefs play a significant role in shaping moral
values and norms.
✓ Different cultures and religions may have distinct moral frameworks, guiding individuals on what is
considered morally acceptable or unacceptable behavior.
➢ Individual Values and Beliefs: Personal values and beliefs, shaped by factors such as upbringing,
education, and personal experiences, contribute to an individual's moral perspective.
✓ People often make moral judgments based on their own ethical principles and worldview.
➢ Socialization and Family Environment: The family environment plays a crucial role in shaping moral
development.
✓ Early socialization within the family can instill moral values, ethical principles, and a sense of
empathy in individuals.
➢ Neurobiological Factors: Some research suggests that neurobiological factors, such as genetics and brain
structure, may influence moral decision-making.
✓ For example, certain brain regions are implicated in empathy and moral reasoning.
❖ Determinants of the Degree of Morality:
➢ Circumstances and Context: The circumstances and context surrounding a moral decision can impact
the perceived morality of an action.
✓ Situational factors, such as urgency or perceived threat, may influence individuals to make different
moral judgments.
➢ Social Norms and Peer Influence: Social norms and peer pressure can affect the degree of morality in
behavior.
✓ People may conform to societal expectations or peer group norms, which can influence the moral
choices they make.
➢ Personal Responsibility and Accountability: The degree of personal responsibility and accountability
for one's actions can influence the perceived morality of conduct.
✓ Individuals may weigh the consequences of their actions on themselves and others.
➢ Legal and Institutional Frameworks: Legal and institutional structures provide a societal framework
for defining and enforcing moral standards.
✓ The legal system plays a role in codifying certain behaviors as morally acceptable or unacceptable.
➢ Ethical Reasoning and Reflection: The degree of morality may also be influenced by an individual's
capacity for ethical reasoning and reflection.
✓ Individuals who engage in thoughtful consideration of the ethical implications of their actions may
exhibit a higher degree of moral behavior.
External Conditions are the Same:
❖ Moral Actions: A moral action is one that aligns with ethical principles and is considered morally right or
good.
❖ Examples:
➢ An IPS officer protected people during riots by using the best possible means.
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➢ An IPS officer orders subordinates to fire on the mob during rights to protect the property of the minority
community and in this act the five people die. In this situation the action taken by an IPS officer is deemed
to be a moral act because he or she is performing his duty.
❖ Immoral Actions: Immoral actions are those that violate ethical principles and are considered morally wrong
or bad. They cause harm, violate rights, or fail to fulfill moral obligations.
❖ Examples of immoral actions may include stealing, cheating, lying, or causing intentional harm to others.
➢ Example: An IPS officer meets students who are protesting and during the discussion the students
misbehave with an IPS officer and officer gets angry and he loses his control and orders subordinates to
fire on the students and 5 students die. This act of an IPS officer is Immoral because he or she could have
taken the path of discussion to sort out the issue , the action taken was out of revenge so it is considered
as an Immoral action.
❖ Non-moral Actions: Non-moral actions are those that do not possess a moral dimension. These actions are
morally neutral and typically involve personal preferences, choices, or actions that do not impact others' well-
being or violate ethical principles. For instance, choosing between two different flavors of ice cream or
deciding what color shirt to wear would be considered non-moral actions.
➢ Example: An IPS officer meets the farmer protesters, in the discussion the police officer car is attacked
by the criminals and IPS officer ask subordinates to fire on those criminals and five criminals get killed.
This act of an IPS officer is considered as non moral because he or she would have to act as per the duties
to protect himself or herself.
Depending on The Intentions:
❖ Moral Action: Intentions rooted in genuine concern for others' well-being, fairness, or the pursuit of virtuous
qualities tend to align with moral actions. For example, if someone donates money to a charitable organization
with the genuine intention of helping those in need, the action is likely to be considered moral.
❖ Non Moral Action: Engaging in routine activities that do not have ethical implications can be considered non-
moral acts. For instance, brushing your teeth, going for a walk, or taking a nap are actions that are generally
morally neutral. They may be guided by personal needs or habits but do not carry moral significance in
themselves.
❖ Immoral Actions: Deliberately taking someone else's property without their consent is considered an immoral
act. It involves violating the rights of others and causing harm by depriving them of their possessions. Theft is
generally seen as morally wrong in most societies and is often illegal.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 14
Essence of Ethics
 2

Essence of Ethics
Determinants of Ethics:
❖ The determinants of ethics, or factors that influence the degree of morality or immorality of human actions,
are complex and multifaceted.
❖ Various factors can contribute to the ethical or unethical nature of an act.
➢ Less Moral → More Moral:
✓ Personal Values: A shift towards more moral behavior may be influenced by an individual's values
and principles.
✓ Education: Increased knowledge and understanding of ethical principles can lead to more moral
decision-making.
✓ Social Influence: Positive role models and a supportive social environment can encourage moral
behavior.
➢ Less Immoral → More Immoral:
✓ Desensitization: Exposure to unethical behavior without consequences may desensitize individuals,
leading to a gradual increase in immoral actions.
✓ Cultural Norms: Changes in societal norms that tolerate or accept immoral behavior can contribute
to an increase in such actions.
✓ Personal Circumstances: Stress, desperation, or personal crises may drive individuals to engage in
more immoral acts.
➢ More Moral → Less Moral:
✓ Moral Fatigue: Constant adherence to high moral standards without proper support or recognition
can lead to moral fatigue and a potential decline in moral behavior.
✓ External Pressure: External influences, such as peer pressure or societal expectations, may lead
individuals to compromise their moral values.
➢ More Immoral → Less Immoral:
✓ Consequences: Experiencing negative consequences or facing accountability for immoral actions
may deter individuals from engaging in further unethical behavior.
✓ Personal Growth: Reflecting on past immoral actions and personal growth can contribute to a
commitment to making more ethical choices in the future.
Essence of Ethics:
❖ The essence of ethics lies in the study and application of principles or standards that govern human
behavior in terms of what is considered right or wrong.
❖ Clean Characteristics:
➢ Integrity: Ethical behavior often involves honesty, transparency, and consistency in one's actions and
decisions.
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➢ Accountability: Individuals with a strong ethical foundation take responsibility for their actions and their
consequences.
➢ Fairness: Ethical conduct involves treating others justly and impartially, without discrimination or
favoritism.
❖ Characteristics of Morality:
➢ Moral in Decisions: This refers to making decisions based on ethical principles, considering the impact
on oneself and others. Ethical decision-making involves a thoughtful process that takes into account the
consequences of actions.
➢ Moral in Acts: Acting morally involves aligning one's behavior with ethical principles and values. Ethical
actions are those that adhere to a standard of right conduct and respect for the well-being of others.
➢ Moral Laws: Moral laws are principles or guidelines that dictate what is morally acceptable or
unacceptable within a particular society or ethical framework. These laws provide a basis for evaluating
the ethical nature of actions and behaviors.
➢ Moral Rules: Moral rules are specific guidelines or directives that outline expected behavior in particular
situations. They often derive from moral principles and contribute to a shared understanding of right and
wrong.
Two Theories of Essence of Morality:
❖ Teleology:
➢ Teleological ethics, often associated with consequentialism, asserts that the essence of morality is tied to
the consequences or outcomes of actions. In other words, the morality of an action is determined by the
goodness or badness of its consequences.
➢ Teleological theories focus on achieving a particular end or goal. The most well-known version of
teleological ethics is utilitarianism, which suggests that actions are morally right if they produce the
greatest overall happiness or pleasure.
➢ In teleological frameworks, actions are judged based on their results, and the moral agent is concerned
with maximizing positive outcomes and minimizing negative ones.
❖ Deontology:
➢ Deontological ethics, in contrast, posits that the essence of morality is not solely dependent on
consequences but is associated with the inherent nature of the action itself and the rightness of the agent's
intentions.
➢ Deontological theories emphasize duty, moral rules, and principles. Immanuel Kant's deontological
ethics, for example, suggests that certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of their
consequences, and individuals have a duty to adhere to moral principles.
➢ Deontological frameworks consider the morality of an action based on whether it conforms to universal
principles or rules, and the emphasis is on the intention behind the action rather than the outcome.
The essence of Morality:
❖ The essence of morality is a complex and debated philosophical topic, and different ethical theories may
emphasize various aspects.
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❖ It is associated with:
➢ Right Intent: Having the right intent refers to the idea that the morality of an action is influenced by the
intentions behind it. In ethical theories like deontology (e.g., Kantian ethics), the motive or intent behind
an action is considered crucial in determining its moral worth.
➢ Universal Rules: The concept of universal rules suggests that certain moral principles or rules apply
consistently to all individuals and situations. Ethical theories such as deontology emphasize the existence
of universal moral laws that guide behavior, irrespective of specific circumstances.
➢ Value of Impartiality: Impartiality involves treating all individuals fairly and without bias. The value of
impartiality is often associated with moral theories that prioritize fairness and justice, such as
utilitarianism, which seeks to maximize overall happiness without favoring any particular individual or
group.
➢ Duties: Duties are obligations or responsibilities that individuals have within a moral framework.
Deontological ethics, for instance, asserts that individuals have certain moral duties or obligations that
they are obligated to fulfill, regardless of the consequences.
Essence of Ethics:
❖ Consequentialism or Teleology:
➢ Empiricism: This connection is somewhat relevant. Consequentialism, especially in the context of
utilitarianism, often relies on empirical observations and outcomes to assess the morality of actions. The
emphasis is on measurable consequences such as happiness or pleasure.
➢ Materialism: While consequentialism is not inherently tied to materialism, some versions of it might
consider material well-being or outcomes as criteria for assessing the morality of actions.
➢ Nature of Human Psychology as Determinant of Morality: This aligns with the consequentialist idea
that the consequences of actions, often related to human well-being or suffering, should determine the
moral value of those actions.
❖ Deontology:
➢ Rationalism: This is an accurate association. Deontological ethics, especially in the tradition of
Immanuel Kant, emphasizes rationality and the use of reason to determine moral principles. The emphasis
is on duty and adherence to universal rules derived through rational deliberation.
➢ Spiritualism or Metaphysics: While deontology, in its emphasis on rationality, doesn't necessarily rely
on spiritualism or metaphysics, these aspects might be present in some philosophical discussions but are
not central to deontological ethics.
➢ Global Perspective and Universal Rules: Deontology indeed often involves the idea of universal rules
or principles that apply globally, irrespective of cultural or individual differences.
Teleological Ethics:
❖ It is often associated with consequentialism, focusing on the consequences of actions in determining their
moral value. Here's how the concepts of good versus evil align with teleological ethics:
❖ Good v/s Evil:
➢ Consequences: In teleological ethics, the goodness or badness of an action is evaluated based on its
consequences. Actions that lead to positive outcomes are generally considered morally good, while those
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with negative consequences are deemed morally bad. The emphasis is on assessing the overall impact of
actions.
➢ Fulfillment of Self-Interest: From a teleological standpoint, actions that fulfill self-interest can be
morally good if they result in overall positive consequences. However, it's important to note that
teleological ethics doesn't necessarily endorse purely selfish actions if they lead to negative consequences
for others.
➢ Pleasure: Pleasure is often considered a relevant factor in teleological ethics, particularly in
utilitarianism. Utilitarianism posits that actions are morally right if they maximize overall happiness or
pleasure. Pleasure, in this context, is seen as a positive consequence and contributes to the moral
assessment of actions.
➢ Maximum Benefit for the Maximum Number of People: This concept aligns closely with
utilitarianism, a specific form of teleological ethics. Utilitarianism argues that the morally right action is
the one that produces the greatest overall benefit or happiness for the maximum number of people. The
emphasis is on maximizing the overall well-being of the community.
Egoism:
❖ What is Egoism: Egoism is an ethical theory that asserts that individuals ought to act in their own self-interest.
It suggests that the pursuit of one's own well-being, happiness, and fulfillment is the ultimate goal of moral
action. Egoism is often associated with consequentialist perspectives, as it focuses on the outcomes or
consequences of actions.
❖ Argument for Justification of Egoism:
➢ Self-Interest as a Motivator: Proponents of egoism argue that individuals are naturally motivated by
self-interest. They contend that it is both rational and ethical to prioritize one's own well-being, as it aligns
with human nature and the pursuit of personal happiness.
❖ Application of Ethics of Egoism:
➢ Theory of Organic Unity: The theory of organic unity within egoism emphasizes that individuals and
society are interconnected, and the well-being of the individual contributes to the overall health of society.
➢ Application: Advocates of egoism might argue that by individuals pursuing their own self-interest, they
contribute to the overall welfare of society through their productive and positive contributions.
➢ Social Justice Empowerment: Egoism, when applied to social justice, might argue that empowering
individuals to pursue their self-interest can lead to a society where everyone has the opportunity to thrive.
➢ Application: The focus may be on policies that promote individual liberties and opportunities for
personal development, with the belief that this benefits society as a whole.
➢ Property in Governance: Egoism may support the idea that individuals have a right to private property
as a means to secure their own well-being and self-interest.
➢ Application: This perspective might align with policies that emphasize the protection of property rights
and free-market principles.
 6

❖ Critics:
➢ Selfishness and Lack of Altruism: Critics argue that egoism promotes selfishness and lacks a genuine
concern for the welfare of others. It may be seen as neglecting altruistic values that emphasize helping
others without direct personal gain.
➢ Inconsistency in Long-Term Happiness: Some critics contend that the pursuit of immediate self-interest
may lead to long-term dissatisfaction or harm, as certain actions that benefit in the short term may have
negative consequences in the future.
➢ Challenges in Resolving Conflicts: Egoism may face challenges in providing guidance on how to resolve
conflicts of interest between individuals, especially when their self-interests clash.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 15
Essence of Ethics - Egoism
 2

Essence of Ethics - Egoism

Egoism:
What is Egoism?
❖ Egoism is a philosophical perspective that asserts, that individuals ought to prioritize their own self-interest
and well-being above the interests of others.
❖ It is a normative ethical theory that suggests people should act in a way that maximizes their own happiness,
pleasure, or self-fulfillment.
❖ It is a moral ideology advocating self-interest as the guiding principle for human actions. Rooted in teleology,
it asserts that individuals should always act to fulfill their own interests.
❖ Egoism encompassing both psychological egoism (which is descriptive, describing how people actually
behave) and ethical egoism (which is normative, prescribing how people ought to behave), contends that
pursuing one's well-being is inherently virtuous.
❖ While prioritizing individual needs and desires, egoism stands as a perspective within ethical discourse,
emphasizing personal agency and the pursuit of self-fulfillment as the primary moral imperative.
Arguments for Egoism (Arguments in favor of egoism):
❖ Why Should Egoism Be Considered Moral?
➢ Self-preservation is Natural: Proponents argue that a focus on self-interest is natural and instinctual.
From an evolutionary standpoint, individuals who prioritize their well-being are more likely to survive
and reproduce.
➢ Individual Autonomy: Egoism upholds individual autonomy, allowing people the freedom to pursue
their own goals and happiness without being obligated to prioritize the interests of others.
➢ Avoids Hypocrisy: Egoists argue that adhering to one's self-interest avoids hypocrisy, as individuals
are not advocating for a standard of behavior they themselves do not follow.
Theory of Organic Unity:
❖ The theory of organic unity is not directly associated with egoism, but it generally refers to the idea that
society functions as an organic whole, where each part plays a vital role in maintaining the health and well-
being of the entire system.
❖ It contrasts with individualistic perspectives that prioritize the interests of individuals over the collective.
Application of Egoism:
❖ Private or Personal Life: In personal life, egoism might manifest as individuals making decisions that
prioritize their own happiness, well-being, and long-term interests.
➢ This could include career choices, personal relationships, and lifestyle decisions.
❖ Public Life: In public life, politicians or policymakers adopting an egoistic approach might prioritize policies
that benefit themselves or their constituents, with the belief that the overall well-being of society will be
enhanced as a result.
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Critics:
❖ Lack of Moral Foundation: Egoism is criticized for lacking a solid moral foundation.
➢ Critics argue that it fails to provide a compelling reason for individuals to act morally when their
self-interest conflicts with the well-being of others.
❖ Social Consequences: Critics contend that an exclusive focus on self-interest can lead to negative social
consequences, such as exploitation, inequality, and a breakdown of social cooperation.
❖ Inconsistency with Moral Intuitions: Egoism is often seen as inconsistent with common moral intuitions that
emphasize the importance of altruism, empathy, and the well-being of others.
❖ Long-Term Consequences: Critics argue that a purely egoistic approach may not consider the long-term
consequences of actions and may ignore the benefits of cooperation and social harmony.
Why should self-interest be accepted as moral?
❖ The argument in favor of accepting self-interest as moral, particularly through the lens of psychological
egoism and moral egoism, relies on the idea that human beings are inherently selfish by nature.
❖ The premise of Psychological Egoism: Psychological egoism asserts that human beings are fundamentally
selfish in nature. This means that, according to this premise, all human actions are ultimately motivated by
self-interest.
❖ Moral Egoism: Moral egoism is the ethical theory that suggests individuals ought to always act in their own
self-interest. This is derived from the premise of psychological egoism.
❖ Supporting the Acceptance of Self-Interest as Moral:
➢ Descriptive Nature of Humans: Psychological egoism argues that, as a matter of fact, human beings
are naturally inclined towards self-interest.
✓ It observes human behavior and claims that people consistently act in ways that they perceive will
benefit themselves.
➢ Realistic Foundation for Morality: Proponents of moral egoism argue that accepting self-interest as
moral is realistic and pragmatic.
✓ They contend that moral systems should be based on an understanding of human nature, and
since humans are inherently self-interested, a moral system aligned with self-interest is more likely
to be effective and sustainable.
➢ Consistency with Human Psychology: Advocates of this perspective believe that acknowledging and
embracing self-interest as moral is consistent with human psychology.
✓ They argue that trying to deny or suppress self-interest may lead to internal conflict and moral
hypocrisy.
➢ Motivation for Cooperation: Some proponents argue that even actions that seem altruistic can be
explained as serving one's self-interest.
✓ For example, helping others might lead to social approval, reciprocity, or a sense of personal
satisfaction, all of which can be seen as ultimately benefiting the individual.
Egoism can be of two kinds:
❖ Crude Egoism:
➢ In crude egoism, the individual's self-interest is considered exclusive and primary.
 4

➢ The focus is on the pursuit of personal benefit without necessarily considering the interests of others.
➢ Crude egoists prioritize their own well-being and advantage over the well-being of others, and
cooperation or consideration for others may be minimal or absent.
❖ Enlightened Egoism:
➢ Enlightened egoism takes a more sophisticated and inclusive approach to self-interest.
➢ Individuals who adhere to enlightened egoism recognize that their self-interest is interconnected with
the interests of others.
➢ Key Features of Enlightened Egoism:
✓ Shared Interests: Enlightened egoists believe that the interests of individuals are not mutually
exclusive.
a) Instead, they see the potential for shared interests and cooperation.
✓ Inclusive Perspective: Unlike crude egoism, enlightened egoism acknowledges the importance of
considering the well-being of others.
a) While self-interest remains a central concern, it is not pursued at the expense of others.
✓ Theory of Organic Unity: The theory of organic unity is a concept associated with enlightened
egoism.
a) It suggests that individuals and their interests are interconnected, forming a unified whole.
b) In this view, the well-being of the individual is intertwined with the well-being of the
community or society as a whole.
Application of Egoism:
 5

Application of Egoism in Public Life and Public Institutions:

❖ Work Culture and Quality of Service Delivery:
➢ Bank: Egoism in the banking sector may manifest in employees striving for personal success and
financial gain.
✓ While individual employees may be motivated by personal incentives, a balance must be struck
to ensure the overall quality and integrity of banking services.
➢ Schools and Hospitals: In education and healthcare institutions, an egoistic approach might lead to
educators and healthcare professionals seeking personal recognition and advancement.
✓ However, there is a need to align personal goals with the broader objective of providing quality
education and healthcare.
➢ Private Sector: In the private sector, egoism can drive innovation, competition, and efficiency as
individuals work toward personal success and financial rewards.
➢ Public Sector: In the public sector, an enlightened egoistic perspective could involve public servants
recognizing that their success is intertwined with the well-being of the community.
✓ This might lead to a more service-oriented approach.
Application in Economy and Foreign Policy:
❖ Marketing Economy:
➢ In a market economy, businesses driven by egoistic motives may focus on profit-making as the primary
goal.
➢ This can lead to innovation, efficiency, and economic growth.
➢ However, ethical considerations and social responsibility should also be taken into account to avoid
negative consequences for society.
❖ Foreign Policy ("India First"-National Interest):
➢ A foreign policy guided by egoism, such as "India First," prioritizes the national interest.
➢ This approach involves safeguarding the well-being and prosperity of the nation, potentially
influencing decisions related to trade, security, and international relations.
❖ Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Model:
➢ In a PPP model, enlightened egoism may come into play as private entities and the government
collaborate for mutual benefit. Private companies seek profits, while the government aims to provide
better services or infrastructure.
➢ The success of the partnership relies on aligning individual interests with the broader goals of public
welfare.
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Application in Social Justice and Empowerment:

❖ Constitutional Objectives:
➢ Constitutional objectives related to social justice and empowerment may be pursued with an egoistic
perspective that recognizes the interconnectedness of individual and societal well-being.
➢ Public policies should aim at creating conditions where individual success aligns with societal
progress.
❖ Laws, Legislations, and Ideals:
➢ Legislation promoting social justice may be framed with the understanding that empowering
individuals from marginalized communities contributes to the overall stability and prosperity of society.
➢ This approach balances individual aspirations with the collective goal of a just and equitable society.
❖ Application in Reducing Corruption:
➢ Egoism can be harnessed in the fight against corruption by emphasizing personal and institutional
integrity.
➢ Enlightened egoists within public and private institutions may recognize that a corrupt environment
harms not only the larger society but also their own long-term interests.
➢ Anti-corruption measures can be framed to appeal to individuals' self-interest in maintaining a fair
and just system.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 16
Egoism and Hedonism
 2

Egoism and Hedonism

Application of Egoism:
❖ Constitutional Ideal of Social Justice: Egoism, when applied ethically, can contribute to social justice by
emphasizing individual self-interest within a constitutional framework.
➢ By fostering an environment where individuals pursue their well-being, egoism supports a society where
justice is achieved through the collective pursuit of personal fulfillment, thereby aligning with
constitutional ideals of fairness and empowerment.
❖ Empowerment of Weaker Sections: Egoism, when tempered with ethical considerations, can guide policies
that empower weaker sections.
➢ By recognizing and promoting the pursuit of self-interest among marginalized groups, egoism can
lead to initiatives that uplift and strengthen these sections, fostering a society where individual
empowerment contributes to the overall welfare and progress of the community.
Clan:
❖ Political Rights → Political Empowerment:
➢ Within the clan, individuals should have the right to participate in political processes.
➢ Political empowerment involves granting clan members the ability to engage in decision-making, voice
their opinions, and contribute to the governance of the clan.
➢ This ensures that political power is distributed among the members, fostering a sense of inclusivity and
shared responsibility.
❖ Religious Rights → Religious Empowerment:
➢ Recognizing and respecting diverse religious beliefs within the clan is crucial.
➢ Religious empowerment involves allowing individuals the freedom to practice their faith, participate in
religious rituals, and contribute to the spiritual well-being of the clan.
➢ This ensures that religious diversity is acknowledged and accommodated, fostering harmony and a
sense of belonging.
❖ Social Rights → Social Empowerment:
➢ Social empowerment in a clan context involves ensuring that all members have equal access to social
resources, opportunities, and benefits.
➢ This includes education, healthcare, and social services.
➢ By promoting social rights, the clan creates an environment where individuals can thrive collectively,
breaking down barriers and promoting a sense of solidarity and mutual support among its members.

Social Justice:
❖ Social Justice: Non-discrimination in the context of-
➢ Dignity of Human Beings:
✓ Social justice demands the elimination of discrimination based on factors such as race, gender, or
socioeconomic status, ensuring that every individual is treated with dignity and respect.
✓ This involves fostering an inclusive society where people are valued for their inherent worth,
irrespective of background, and are free from prejudice or bias that undermines their dignity.
➢ Rights:
✓ In the pursuit of social justice, non-discrimination is essential concerning the rights of individuals.
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✓ All members of society should enjoy equal rights and legal protections regardless of their
background.
✓ This principle ensures that everyone has the same access to justice, freedom of expression, and
other fundamental rights, creating a fair and just society.
➢ Opportunities:
✓ Social justice emphasizes providing equal opportunities for everyone, irrespective of their
background.
✓ Non-discrimination in opportunities ensures that individuals can pursue education, employment, and
personal growth without facing barriers based on factors such as race, gender, or socioeconomic
status.
✓ This fosters a society where talent and potential are recognized and nurtured regardless of origin.
➢ Social Status:
✓ Social justice aims to eradicate discrimination related to social status, class, or caste.
✓ It advocates for a society where one's social standing does not determine access to resources,
opportunities, or basic necessities.
✓ By promoting equality in social status, social justice strives to create a community where every
member has the chance to flourish and contribute to the collective well-being without facing unjust
hierarchies.
Case Studies:
❖ Case Study of two classes that were socially culturally historically oppressed or marginalized.
➢ Shudras →Social Injustice (Weaker Clan):
✓ Shudras, historically marginalized in the Indian caste system, faced social injustice.
✓ Denied privileges and subjected to menial tasks, they struggled against discrimination.
✓ Social reforms are essential to dismantle these barriers and ensure equal opportunities and dignity
for Shudras.
➢ Women → Gender Injustice:
✓ Women, globally oppressed, face gender injustice.
✓ Historically denied rights and opportunities, they contend with inequality.
✓ Empowering policies, education, and societal shifts are crucial to dismantling gender biases, and
fostering a world where women enjoy equal rights and opportunities.

Clan of Shudras:
❖ Population: The Shudra clan constitutes a significant portion (Approximately 17% to 20%) of the
population, facing historical marginalization within the caste system.
❖ Rights Reservation: Advocating for social justice, there are movements for reservation policies, ensuring a
fair share of opportunities for Shudras in education and employment, and countering historical discrimination.
❖ Exploitation by Higher Caste: Shudras historically faced exploitation by higher castes, leading to economic
and social disparities.
➢ Advocacy for equal rights and opportunities seeks to address this historical injustice.
❖ Diminished Class Violence: Through social reforms and awareness, efforts are made to diminish class-based
violence, fostering an environment of inclusivity and social harmony.
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❖ Diminished Use of Derogatory Languages: Initiatives promote respect by discouraging the use of derogatory
language, fostering a more inclusive and respectful society.
❖ Identity Politics and Self-Interest → Empowerment: Embracing identity politics and self-interest, the
Shudra clan advocates for policies that empower its members, ensuring their socio-economic upliftment and
dismantling historical prejudices.
❖ Clan Consciousness (Ethics of Self-Interest): Fostering a sense of clan consciousness, Shudras prioritize
collective well-being, applying ethics of self-interest to secure the rights and dignity of their community.
❖ Vote Bank Politics: Engaging in vote bank politics, the Shudra clan leverages its numerical strength to
influence policies and demand representation, ensuring its interests are considered in political decision-
making.
❖ Dalit Literature: Dalit literature emerges as a powerful tool for expression, highlighting the struggles and
aspirations of the Shudra community, fostering awareness and empathy while challenging societal norms and
biases.

Clan of Women:
❖ Population: Women constitute approximately 50% of the population, representing a substantial
demographic group.
❖ Rape, Molestation, and Sex Violence: Women face pervasive issues of rape, molestation, and sexual
violence, highlighting a critical need for legal and societal reforms to ensure their safety and well-being.
❖ Free Domestic Labour: Women often bear the burden of free domestic labor, contributing significantly to the
household without commensurate recognition or compensation.
❖ Exploitation by Men: Systemic gender inequalities result in the exploitation of women by men, manifesting
in various forms of discrimination and subjugation.
❖ Ethics of Sacrifice: Societal expectations often impose an ethics of sacrifice on women, limiting their personal
and professional aspirations for the sake of family and societal norms.
❖ No Political Reservation: Despite their significant population, women may lack political reservation, limiting
their representation in decision-making bodies.
❖ No Political Party: The absence of a dedicated political party addressing women's issues may hinder the
formulation and implementation of gender-sensitive policies.
❖ Continued Sex and Domestic Violence: The prevalence of ongoing sex and domestic violence underscores
the urgent need for legal, educational, and cultural interventions to break the cycle of abuse.
❖ No Land and Property Rights: Many women lack access to land and property rights, perpetuating economic
dependence and hindering financial autonomy.

NOTE:
❖ Clan of Shudras and Women:
➢ Neither are they asserting rights already legislated, nor are they experiencing their full realization.
➢ Despite existing legal frameworks, women endure persistent injustices such as sexual violence, lack of
property rights, and disproportionate domestic burdens.
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➢ Societal norms, deeply rooted in gender biases, continue to impede the complete implementation of
legislated rights, necessitating ongoing efforts to bridge the gap between legal provisions and the lived
experiences of women.
❖ Egoism and Clan Consciousness:
➢ Egoism, when channeled into clan consciousness, fosters a collective awareness of shared interests.
➢ This solidarity leads to organized resistance, manifested through angular strategies such as identity
politics and pressure groups.
➢ These dynamic movements exert influence to challenge systemic injustices.
➢ Through this collective effort, empowerment becomes a transformative force, dismantling barriers and
advocating for social justice.
➢ The journey from individual self-interest to clan solidarity forms a continuum where egoism, harnessed
for communal welfare, propels a resilient resistance, shaping a more equitable society through identity-
based advocacy and the strategic influence of pressure groups.
➢ (Egoism → Clan Consciousness → Resistance, Angular, Identity Politics, Pressure Groups→
Empowerment and Social Justice).

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 17
Critique of Egoism and Hedonism
 2

Critique of Egoism and Hedonism

Egoism:
❖ Egoism champions individualism by asserting that individuals should prioritize their self-interest above all
else.
❖ It contends that individuals are inherently motivated by their own well-being and happiness.
❖ This philosophy encourages a focus on personal desires and goals, emphasizing the pursuit of one's own
happiness and fulfillment.
❖ Egoism rejects the notion of altruism as the primary guiding principle, instead advocating for the pursuit of
one's self-interest as the foundation for a fulfilling life.
❖ In essence, egoism champions the autonomy and independence of individuals in shaping their own destinies.
Idea of Welfare State:
❖ The concept of a welfare state embodies distinctive justice by delineating entitlements for different social
classes.
❖ It emphasizes the state's responsibility to ensure the well-being of its citizens, addressing socio-economic
disparities.
❖ Through policies such as social security, healthcare, and education, a welfare state seeks to provide a safety
net, offering equal opportunities and resources to all citizens.
❖ This approach aims to promote a more just and equitable society, acknowledging and addressing various
social classes' diverse needs and entitlements to foster a more inclusive and balanced community.
Egoism as Sense of Entitlement:
❖ Egoism, when viewed as a sense of entitlement, may intersect with accountability and integrity through several
key principles:
➢ Transparency:
✓ Egoism, manifested as a sense of entitlement, can be tempered by promoting transparency.
✓ Clear and open communication about individual interests and actions fosters accountability.
✓ Transparency helps ensure that entitlements are not pursued at the expense of others, promoting a
more accountable and ethical approach to self-interest.
➢ Openness:
✓ An egoistic sense of entitlement can benefit from an open-minded approach.
✓ Being receptive to different perspectives and considering the collective well-being contributes to a
more responsible exercise of entitlement.
✓ Openness encourages a broader understanding of the consequences of one's actions on the
community, promoting ethical behavior.
➢ Robust Grievances Redressal System:
✓ To maintain accountability, a robust grievances redressal system is crucial.
✓ Individuals with a sense of entitlement should be held accountable for any perceived injustices.
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✓ A transparent and effective system for addressing grievances ensures that entitlements do not
lead to exploitation or unfair advantages, fostering a more equitable and just environment.
Personal Life Ethics:
❖ In personal life ethics, the interplay between care and egoism can shape an individual's values and behavior.
➢ Care:
✓ Emphasizing care as a foundational value underscores the importance of empathy, compassion,
and consideration for others.
✓ Caring for the well-being of those around you, fostering positive relationships, and contributing to
the welfare of others are key aspects of a care-oriented ethics.
➢ Egoism:
✓ Egoism in this context involves prioritizing one's self-interest and well-being.
✓ While care focuses on others, egoism recognizes the significance of individual happiness and
fulfillment.
➢ Synergy Between Care and Egoism (Care → Egoism):
✓ Balancing care with egoism means acknowledging personal needs and desires alongside a genuine
concern for the well-being of others.
✓ The synergy between care and egoism can be seen in a balanced ethical approach where individuals
prioritize their own needs without neglecting the importance of caring for others.
✓ It involves making decisions that align with personal values while considering the impact on
relationships and the broader community.
✓ Striking this balance fosters a healthy ethical framework that incorporates self-care without
sacrificing the values of empathy and consideration for others.
Criticism:
❖ Inconsistency with Ethics of Duty:
➢ Critics argue that egoism, which prioritizes self-interest, is inconsistent with ethical frameworks based on
duty and moral obligation.
➢ Ethical systems like deontology emphasize adherence to principles and duties, irrespective of personal
gain, whereas egoism places self-interest at the forefront.
❖ Wrong Understanding of Human Psychology:
➢ Some critics assert that egoism may oversimplify human psychology by assuming that individuals are
solely motivated by self-interest.
➢ They argue that humans possess a complex range of motivations, including altruistic and communal
tendencies, which egoism might neglect.
❖ Egoism Will Not Always Protect Self-Interest:
➢ Critics contend that solely pursuing self-interest, as advocated by egoism, may not always lead to
optimal outcomes.
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➢ Cooperation, empathy, and ethical behavior toward others are argued to be essential for long-term
well-being, and an exclusive focus on self-interest may hinder the development of meaningful
relationships and societal harmony.
❖ Inconsistency with Ideas of Justice and Higher Values:
➢ Egoism is criticized for being incompatible with notions of justice and higher ethical values that prioritize
the common good.
➢ Ethical systems emphasizing fairness, equality, and the greater good may clash with egoistic principles,
as they prioritize individual benefit over collective welfare.
Inconsistency of Egoism with Duty Ethics:
❖ Healthcare Worker ("Heart" System):
➢ Duty Ethics Perspective: A healthcare worker has a duty to prioritize the well-being of patients,
providing care based on professional and moral obligations.
✓ Duty ethics, such as deontology, emphasize principles and responsibilities, often requiring
individuals to act in the best interests of others.
➢ Egoism Perspective: An egoistic approach may prioritize the healthcare worker's self-interest, potentially
leading to decisions that maximize personal gain (financial or otherwise) rather than prioritizing the well-
being of patients.
✓ This conflicts with the duty to provide selfless and ethical care.
❖ Teacher:
➢ Duty Ethics Perspective: Teachers have a duty to educate and guide students, focusing on their
intellectual and moral development.
✓ Duty ethics in education emphasize the responsibility of educators to impart knowledge and foster
a positive learning environment.
➢ Egoism Perspective: Egoistic tendencies in teaching may lead to favoritism, neglect of certain students,
or prioritization of personal interests over the educational needs of the students. This conflicts with the
duty to provide equitable and effective education.
❖ Civil Servant:
➢ Duty Ethics Perspective: Civil servants are entrusted with serving the public interest, upholding laws,
and promoting the common good.
✓ Duty ethics in public service emphasize the responsibility to act impartially and prioritize societal
welfare.
➢ Egoism Perspective: An egoistic approach may lead a civil servant to prioritize personal interests, such
as gaining personal favors or benefits, over the fair and just execution of public duties. This conflicts with
the duty to serve the public interest impartially.
Criticism of Psychological Egoism by Hedonists:
❖ Human Beings as Pleasure-Seeking:
➢ Hedonist Perspective: Hedonists argue that humans are inherently pleasure-seeking beings, and actions
are motivated by the pursuit of pleasure or the avoidance of pain.
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✓ This perspective challenges psychological egoism's claim that all human actions are solely driven by
self-interest, as hedonists assert that self-interest is often pursued for the sake of pleasure.
❖ Distinction between Psychological and Moral Egoism:
➢ Critique: Critics argue that while psychological egoism asserts that individuals are motivated by self-
interest, it does not necessarily follow that moral principles are based solely on self-interest.
✓ Hedonists emphasize that pursuing pleasure is a psychological tendency, but moral considerations
can extend beyond individual self-interest to encompass broader ethical principles and the well-being
of others.
❖ Proper Object of Human Psychology and Moral Hedonism:
➢ Hedonist Perspective: Hedonists may critique psychological egoism by asserting that the proper object
of human psychology is pleasure.
✓ They argue that psychological hedonism, which posits that pleasure is the ultimate motivator, can
lead to moral hedonism, the ethical principle that the highest good is the attainment of pleasure and
the avoidance of pain.
✓ Critics may contend that this oversimplification neglects the complexity of moral decision-making.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 18
Hedonism
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Hedonism
Hedonism:
❖ What is pleasure or happiness?
❖ What is Hedonism?
❖ Types of Hedonism
❖ Applications of Hedonism
❖ Critics
Pleasure or Happiness:
❖ Bodily Beings → Bodily Pleasure:
➢ This suggests that beings primarily experience pleasure on a physical or bodily level.
➢ Examples of bodily pleasure might include sensations like taste, touch, or physical comfort.
➢ This could be associated with activities like eating, exercising, or engaging in physical activities that
bring joy or satisfaction.
❖ Mental Beings → Mental Pleasure:
➢ This category implies that beings experience pleasure more on a mental or psychological level.
➢ Mental pleasure can be associated with emotions, thoughts, and intellectual activities.
➢ Examples might include the joy derived from solving a problem, experiencing love and connection, or
engaging in creative and intellectual pursuits.
What is Hedonism ?
❖ Hedonism is a moral ideology which states that-
➢ Maximization of Pleasure:
✓ According to hedonism, individuals should aim to maximize pleasure and minimize pain in their
lives. This involves making choices and taking actions that lead to the greatest overall happiness or
well-being.
➢ Acting to Enhance Pleasure:
✓ Hedonistic principles suggest that individuals should actively seek out activities and make decisions
that enhance pleasure.
✓ This doesn't necessarily mean pursuing immediate, short-term pleasure but rather making choices
that contribute to long-term happiness and well-being.
➢ Fulfillment of Desires:
✓ Hedonism often considers the fulfillment of desires as a morally positive action.
✓ If an action or decision satisfies one's desires and brings about pleasure, it is generally viewed as
morally acceptable.
Arguments to Support Hedonism:
❖ Arguments on the Basis of Psychology:
➢ Psychological Hedonism:
✓ Human Nature and Motivation: Psychological hedonism argues that all human actions are
fundamentally motivated by the pursuit of pleasure or the avoidance of pain.
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▪ According to this view, people naturally seek pleasure and try to minimize discomfort or
displeasure in their lives.
✓ Observation of Behavior: Proponents of psychological hedonism might point to the observable
patterns of human behavior, suggesting that individuals consistently choose actions and behaviors
that they believe will bring about pleasure or happiness.
➢ Moral Hedonism:
✓ Utilitarianism: Moral hedonism is closely associated with utilitarianism, a consequentialist ethical
theory.
▪ Utilitarianism argues that the morally right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness
or pleasure and minimizes pain.
▪ This is based on the idea that the ultimate goal of morality is the well-being of individuals.
✓ Individual Autonomy: From a moral hedonist perspective, individuals have the autonomy to pursue
their own happiness, as long as it does not infringe upon the happiness of others.
▪ This emphasizes the importance of personal freedom and the right to make choices that lead to
pleasure.
❖ Arguments on the Basis of Metaphysical Arguments:
➢ Epistemological Simplicity:
✓ Some argue for hedonism on the basis of metaphysical simplicity.
✓ The idea is that pleasure and pain are the most basic and irreducible elements of human
experience.
✓ Therefore, a moral theory based on pleasure and pain is simpler and more straightforward than
theories that rely on more complex metaphysical concepts.
❖ Arguments on the Basis of Nature:
➢ Natural Inclinations: Hedonists might argue that the pursuit of pleasure is a natural inclination for living
beings.
✓ In the context of human nature, they may contend that our biological and psychological makeup is
geared toward seeking pleasure as a means of survival and reproduction.
➢ Evolutionary Perspective: From an evolutionary standpoint, hedonists might argue that behaviors
leading to pleasure are often associated with survival advantages.
✓ Evolutionary psychology could be invoked to explain why pleasure-seeking tendencies have been
naturally selected over time.
Determinants of Ethical Theory:
❖ Psychology:
➢ Human Nature and Motivation: Psychological factors play a significant role in ethical theories. The
understanding of human nature, motivation, and behavior informs ethical perspectives.
✓ For example, theories like psychological hedonism posit that human actions are driven by the
pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain, shaping the moral implications of those actions.
➢ Moral Development: Psychologists and ethicists often collaborate to study how individuals develop
 4

moral reasoning and ethical decision-making.

✓ The insights from psychology contribute to ethical theories that consider the stages of moral
development and the factors influencing moral judgments.
❖ Epistemology:
➢ Knowledge and Justification: Epistemology, the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge,
belief, and justification, is essential for ethical theories.
✓ How we come to know what is right or wrong, and how we justify ethical claims, form the basis of
ethical epistemology.
✓ For instance, deontological ethical theories may rely on a rationalist epistemology, emphasizing
principles and duties, while utilitarianism may draw on empirical evidence and consequences.
➢ Moral Epistemology: Epistemological considerations also extend to moral knowledge.
✓ Ethical theories often grapple with questions about the nature of moral truths, the objectivity or
subjectivity of moral claims, and how individuals can know what is morally right or wrong.
❖ Metaphysics:
➢ Nature of Reality: Metaphysical considerations shape ethical theories by influencing our understanding
of the nature of reality.
✓ For example, naturalistic ethical theories may be grounded in a metaphysical worldview that sees
the natural world as the ultimate reality, while religious ethical theories may have a metaphysical
foundation based on supernatural elements.
➢ Metaphysical Foundations of Morality: Some ethical theories derive their principles from metaphysical
foundations.
✓ For instance, virtue ethics often involves metaphysical considerations about the nature of virtues
and the good life. Similarly, deontological theories may be linked to metaphysical concepts of duty
and rights.
Hedonism (Premises and Conclusion):
❖ Premises:
➢ Psychology: Nature of Human Psychology
✓ This premise suggests an exploration of the nature of human psychology.
✓ Understanding the psychological aspects of human behavior and motivation is crucial for ethical
theories.
➢ Pleasure is the Only Proper Object of Human Psychology
✓ This premise asserts that, according to the exploration of human psychology, pleasure is identified
as the sole proper object or focus of psychological inquiry.
▪ This implies that the study of human psychology should center around the pursuit of pleasure.
❖ Conclusions:
➢ Moral Hedonism: We Should Always Seek to Promote Pleasure (Normative Statement)
✓ This conclusion draws a normative statement based on the preceding premises.
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✓ It suggests that, given the nature of human psychology and the centrality of pleasure, the morally
right course of action is to always strive to promote pleasure.
✓ This aligns with the ethical theory of moral hedonism, which posits that maximizing pleasure and
minimizing pain is the foundation of morality decision-making.
➢ Psychological Hedonism: Descriptive and Factual Statement
✓ This conclusion pertains to psychological hedonism.
✓ It posits that, as a descriptive and factual statement about human behavior, individuals naturally
and consistently seek pleasure and avoid pain.
✓ Psychological hedonism describes the observed tendency of human beings to be motivated by the
pursuit of pleasure.
Arguments from Nature:
❖ Nature Placing Mankind Under Sovereign Heads (Pleasure and Pain):
➢ Bentham's Utilitarian Perspective:
✓ Jeremy Bentham, a key figure in utilitarianism, posits that nature has essentially organized mankind
under two sovereign masters—pleasure and pain.
✓ According to this perspective, these are the fundamental aspects that guide human behavior and
decision-making.
➢ Utility Principle:
✓ Bentham's utilitarianism is grounded in the principle of utility, where the rightness or wrongness
of an action is determined by its ability to produce pleasure or prevent pain.
✓ The natural inclination toward pleasure and avoidance of pain becomes a guiding principle for
ethical decision-making.
❖ Pleasure as a Natural Indication of Morality:
➢ Alignment with Hedonistic Principles: Bentham's argument aligns with hedonistic principles,
suggesting that pleasure is a natural indicator of morality.
✓ From a hedonistic perspective, actions that lead to pleasure are morally favorable, while those
causing pain are morally unfavorable.
➢ Inherent Desire for Pleasure: The idea here is that humans, by nature, are inclined to seek pleasure.
✓ The pursuit of pleasure is seen as a natural and fundamental aspect of human behavior, and aligning
one's actions with this inclination is viewed as morally in tune with nature.
❖ Pain as a Natural Sign of Immorality:
➢ Negative Consequences of Pain: According to Bentham, pain serves as a natural sign that a particular
action or behavior is immoral.
✓ Pain is associated with negative consequences and suffering, and therefore, actions causing pain are
deemed contrary to the moral principles dictated by nature.
➢ Avoidance of Pain as a Moral Imperative: The natural instinct to avoid pain is presented as an inherent
moral guide.
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✓ If an action leads to pain, it is considered morally problematic because it goes against the natural
inclination to seek pleasure and avoid harm.
Metaphysical Arguments:
❖ Human Beings as a Combination of Mind and Body:
➢ Dualism vs. Monism: This statement touches on the philosophical debate about the nature of the self.
✓ Dualism posits that humans consist of both a physical body and a non-physical mind or soul.
✓ Monism, on the other hand, argues for a fundamental unity, suggesting that the mind and body are
ultimately inseparable or different aspects of the same substance.
➢ Holistic View of Humanity: Describing human beings as a combination of mind and body implies a
holistic understanding of the self.
✓ The interaction between mental and physical aspects is central to questions about identity,
consciousness, and the relationship between subjective experience and the physical world.
❖ Quality of Life Depends on Mental Happiness and Body:
➢ Holistic Well-Being: The argument suggests that the quality of life is contingent upon the well-being of
both the mental and physical aspects of an individual.
✓ Mental happiness, encompassing emotional and psychological states, is considered crucial for a
high quality of life.
✓ Simultaneously, the health and functioning of the body contribute to overall well-being.
➢ Balancing Mental and Physical Health: This perspective encourages a balanced approach to
understanding and enhancing the quality of life.
✓ It acknowledges that a focus on mental happiness alone may not be sufficient; physical health and
bodily experiences also play a significant role in determining an individual's overall satisfaction and
flourishing.
❖ Materialism:
➢ Philosophical Materialism: Materialism is a metaphysical position that asserts the primacy of the
physical world and matter.
✓ In the context of human beings, materialism would posit that everything about individuals, including
their minds and consciousness, can be explained in terms of physical processes.
➢ Reduction of Mind to Body: If the argument leans towards materialism, it implies a reductionist
perspective on the mind-body relationship.
✓ From a materialist standpoint, mental states and consciousness are ultimately reducible to physical
processes and can be explained entirely in terms of the body and its components.
Types of Hedonism:
❖ Quantitative Hedonism (Bentham):
➢ Focus on Quantity: Bentham is associated with quantitative hedonism, which emphasizes the quantity
of pleasure as the key factor in determining the moral value of an action.
➢ Felicific Calculus: Bentham introduced felicific calculus, a method for measuring pleasure and pain
quantitatively.
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✓ According to Bentham, pleasure and pain could be assessed based on factors like intensity, duration,
certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent.
➢ Utilitarianism: Bentham's hedonistic calculus laid the foundation for utilitarianism, where the ethical
principle is to maximize overall happiness or pleasure and minimize suffering or pain.
❖ Qualitative Hedonism (Mill):
➢ Focus on Quality: Mill, on the other hand, advocated for qualitative hedonism, which suggests that the
quality of pleasure is more important than mere quantity.
➢ Higher and Lower Pleasures: Mill distinguished between higher and lower pleasures. Higher pleasures
are intellectual, moral, and cultural, while lower pleasures are more physical and sensory.
✓ Mill argued that the higher pleasures should be given more weight in ethical considerations.
➢ Cultural and Intellectual Development: Mill's qualitative hedonism aimed to address concerns about
the potential shortcomings of a purely quantitative approach, acknowledging that not all pleasures are
equal and that some contribute more to human flourishing.
❖ The Core Debate:
➢ Nature of Pleasure: The core question in the debate between Bentham and Mill was whether pleasure is
a homogenous, measurable entity (quantitative) or whether there are qualitative differences in the nature
of pleasure.
➢ Bentham's Perspective: Bentham argued that pleasure is essentially the same in nature, differing only in
quantity. All pleasures can be compared and measured using felicific calculus.
➢ Mill's Perspective: Mill, while acknowledging the usefulness of Bentham's calculus, introduced the idea
that there are higher and lower pleasures with inherent qualitative distinctions.
✓ He argued that intellectual, moral, and cultural pleasures have a higher quality and should be
prioritized in ethical decision-making.
Bentham's Position (Quantitative Hedonism):
❖ Quantitatively: Some Pleasures Are Superior or Inferior:
➢ Bentham's Felicific Calculus: Bentham argued that pleasures and pains can be quantitatively measured
using his felicific calculus.
✓ This calculus considers factors like intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and
extent to determine the overall pleasure or pain produced by an action.
➢ Differential Measurement: Bentham did acknowledge that pleasures and pains could vary in intensity
and other dimensions, allowing for differential measurement of their quantitative value.
❖ Qualitatively: All Pleasures Are Alike:
➢ Homogeneity of Pleasure: Bentham's position, often characterized as gross or simple hedonism,
emphasizes that, qualitatively, all pleasures are alike.
➢ In other words, the intrinsic nature of pleasure is the same; the only relevant distinction is in the amount
or quantity of pleasure.
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Mill's Position (Refined or Qualitative Hedonism):

❖ Quantitatively and Qualitatively Different Pleasures:
➢ Higher and Lower Pleasures: Mill introduced the idea that pleasures can be both quantitatively and
qualitatively different.
✓ He argued that there are higher pleasures (intellectual, moral, cultural) and lower pleasures (physical,
sensory).
➢ Intellectual and Moral Development: Mill believed that higher pleasures, often associated with
intellectual and moral development, have a qualitative superiority.
✓ These pleasures contribute more to human well-being and are more desirable than lower pleasures.

Mill's Quotes:
❖ "It is Better to Be a Human Being Dissatisfied than a Pig Satisfied":
➢ This quote illustrates Mill's emphasis on the qualitative aspect of pleasure.
➢ Even if a human experiences dissatisfaction, the mere fact of being human and capable of higher
intellectual and moral pleasures makes that life superior to the contentment of a pig, which is only
capable of lower, sensory pleasures.
❖ "It is Better to Be Socrates Dissatisfied than a Fool Satisfied":
➢ In this quote, Mill extends the argument to the comparison between individuals.
➢ He suggests that even if Socrates were dissatisfied (experiencing some form of unhappiness or
discontent), his life, enriched by intellectual pursuits and moral considerations, would be superior to
the satisfaction of a fool who lacks the capacity for higher intellectual and moral pleasures.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 19
Hedonism (Part-2)
 2

Hedonism (Part-2)
Gross Hedonism (Bentham's Utilitarianism):
❖ Quantitative Approach: Bentham is often associated with a quantitative approach to pleasure.
➢ According to him, pleasures and pains can be measured in terms of intensity, duration, certainty,
propinquity (how soon it will occur), fecundity (its likelihood to produce more pleasure), purity (the
absence of pain), and extent (how many people it affects).
❖ No Qualitative Distinctions: Bentham is often interpreted as suggesting that there are no inherent
qualitative differences between pleasures; all pleasures can be considered on the same scale and can be
compared in terms of the criteria mentioned above.
➢ In other words, a unit of pleasure is a unit of pleasure, regardless of its source.
Refined Hedonism (Mill's Utilitarianism):
❖ Quantitative and Qualitative Approach: John Stuart Mill, on the other hand, introduced a more refined
version of utilitarianism.
➢ While he still considered the idea of quantifying pleasure, he introduced the concept of qualitative
differences between pleasures.
❖ Higher and Lower Pleasures: Mill argued that there are higher and lower pleasures. Higher pleasures are
those associated with the intellect, emotions, and imagination, while lower pleasures are more physical and
sensory.
➢ Mill famously stated that "it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to
be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."
Why is Mental Pleasure Superior?
❖ John Stuart Mill argued that mental pleasures are superior to bodily pleasures based on several key
principles:
❖ On the Basis of Decision by Competent Judges:
➢ Mill argued that individuals who have experienced both higher and lower pleasures are in the best
position to judge which is more valuable.
➢ He believed that those who are competent judges, often individuals who have cultivated their
intellectual and emotional capacities, would consistently choose higher pleasures over lower ones.
➢ This notion suggests that mental pleasures are superior because they are preferred by those who are
capable of appreciating both types of pleasure.
❖ On the Basis of Inclusiveness:
➢ Mill proposed that mental pleasures are more inclusive in nature.
➢ Higher pleasures, such as those derived from intellectual and emotional pursuits, can be enjoyed by a
wider range of people, including those who have experienced both higher and lower pleasures.
➢ In contrast, lower pleasures, which are more tied to physical sensations, may be limited to individuals
with specific physiological conditions.
 3

➢ The inclusiveness of mental pleasures contributes to their superiority in Mill's view.

❖ On the Basis of Sustainability:
➢ Mill argued that mental pleasures have an inherent quality of sustainability.
➢ Unlike some bodily pleasures that may be fleeting and followed by negative consequences, mental
pleasures, once attained, can endure and contribute to a more lasting sense of happiness and well-being.
➢ This sustainability factor adds to the overall superiority of mental pleasures in Mill's utilitarian
philosophy.
Competent Judges:
❖ In Mill's philosophy, competent judges are those who, due to their experiences and intellectual capacities,
are capable of making informed decisions about what contributes to true happiness or well-being.
❖ Great Social Reformers:
➢ Example: B.R. Ambedkar
✓ Ambedkar, as a key figure in the Indian independence movement and the chief architect of the
Indian Constitution, demonstrated a deep understanding of social issues.
▪ His work in advocating for the rights of marginalized communities and his intellectual
contributions make him a competent judge in Mill's framework.
❖ Great Leaders:
➢ Examples: Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar
✓ Gandhi, with his philosophy of nonviolent resistance and emphasis on moral values, and
Ambedkar, with his commitment to social justice and equality, can be considered competent
judges.
▪ Their leadership roles required a nuanced understanding of the well-being of society.
❖ Great Thinkers:
➢ Example: Socrates
✓ Socrates, the ancient Greek philosopher, is often regarded as one of the founding figures of
Western philosophy.
▪ His emphasis on the importance of self-examination, critical thinking, and the pursuit of
knowledge makes him a competent judge according to Mill's criteria.
❖ Great Civil Servants:
➢ Example: B. D. Sharma
✓ B. D. Sharma, an Indian civil servant and social activist, played a significant role in advocating
for the rights of tribal communities.
▪ His work in addressing social and economic inequalities demonstrates a commitment to the
well-being of society, aligning with the qualities of a competent judge.
 4

Inclusiveness:
❖ Democratic:
➢ Inclusiveness in Decision-Making: Democracy, as a political system, emphasizes inclusiveness in
decision-making.
✓ It allows for the participation of a diverse range of individuals in the political process.
✓ In a democratic society, policies and decisions are ideally shaped through the input of a broad
spectrum of citizens, contributing to a more inclusive consideration of diverse interests and values.
❖ Egalitarian:
➢ Equal Treatment and Opportunities: Egalitarian principles advocate for equal treatment and
opportunities for all individuals, regardless of their background or characteristics.
✓ In the context of inclusiveness, an egalitarian approach ensures that benefits and opportunities are
distributed more broadly, minimizing disparities and creating a more inclusive environment that
considers the well-being of all.
❖ Consistent with Constitutional Ideals - Socio-Economic Justice and Reservations:
➢ Reservation Policies: In the context of socio-economic justice, measures such as reservations are
designed to address historical and systemic inequalities.
✓ Reservations aim to ensure that individuals from marginalized or disadvantaged groups have equal
opportunities, particularly in areas such as education and employment.
✓ This aligns with the constitutional ideals of justice and equality, contributing to a more inclusive
society by providing access to resources and opportunities for those who may have been
historically marginalized.
If mental pleasures are superior to bodily pleasures then why do people or masses prefer it?
❖ Reasons:
➢ Addiction towards Bodily Pleasures and Ignorance about Mental Pleasures:
✓ Immediate Gratification: Bodily pleasures, such as those derived from certain addictive
substances or activities, often provide immediate and intense gratification.
▪ The human tendency to seek instant pleasure can lead to a preference for bodily pleasures over
the more nuanced and delayed gratification associated with mental pleasures.
✓ Lack of Awareness or Education: Ignorance about the nature and benefits of mental pleasures
may also contribute to the preference for bodily pleasures.
▪ If individuals are not exposed to or educated about the richness and the fulfillment that mental
pursuits can bring, they may default to seeking more immediate physical pleasures.
➢ Cultural Reasons - Anti-Rational and Exploitative:
✓ Cultural Influences: Cultural norms and values play a significant role in shaping individual
preferences.
▪ In some cultures, there may be an emphasis on immediate sensory gratification or anti-rational
tendencies that downplay the importance of intellectual or emotional pursuits.
 5

▪ Cultural factors can contribute to a mindset that prioritizes bodily pleasures.

✓ Exploitative Influences: Certain industries or aspects of society may exploit the human inclination
towards bodily pleasures for commercial gain.
▪ For example: Advertisements often target immediate sensory experiences to sell products,
contributing to a culture that reinforces the importance of bodily pleasures.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 20
Essence of Morality
 2

Essence of Morality
❖ The First application is on human life, virtues, and characters:
➢ Foundational values of civil services: By accepting hedonism you can inculcate those values that are
essential values of civil services. It helps in acquiring a character that is suitable for civil services.
✓ List of values:
▪ Integrity
▪ Impartiality
▪ Non-partisanship
▪ Empathy
➢ Application of hedonism in character-building values of civil services:
✓ Superior pleasures are mental pleasures:
▪ It asserts that the highest form of pleasure or happiness is derived from intellectual and
mental pursuits rather than mere physical or sensual experiences.
▪ Intellectual and mental pursuits are often deemed superior because they are thought to bring
about lasting and meaningful satisfaction.
▪ Engaging in activities that stimulate the mind, such as pursuing knowledge, critical thinking,
and creative endeavors, is believed to lead to a deeper and more enduring sense of well-being.
▪ Unlike fleeting physical pleasures, which may provide momentary gratification, intellectual
pursuits are seen as enriching and contributing to a fulfilling and purposeful life.
▪ The person who is interested in the mental pleasures develops a sense of sensibility (establishing
values of compassion and empathy) and rationality (establishing values of Justice and
impartiality).
✓ Good Life:
▪ Narrow meaning of good life: It includes bodily pleasures only. The aim is to increase
purchasing power. This leads to the development of greed, violence falsehood, and selfishness.
▪ JS Mill calls these types of individuals as ‘satisfied pigs’.
▪ Broader meaning of good life: It includes bodily pleasures, literary and artistic pleasures,
rational pleasures, pleasure from music, and pleasure from critical thinking.
▪ This leads to the emotive and rational development of the individual. Thus, the development of
morality and character.
 3

UPSC Question: The narrow meaning of a good life is the root cause of all moral problems.

❖ Second application: Probity in civil services, probity in governance, and probity in public
administration.
➢ Upholding probity ensures that these institutions operate with integrity, serving the public interest and
maintaining the credibility of their actions and decisions.
➢ "Probity in institutions" is the quality of having strong moral principles, integrity, and honesty within
organizations or systems. It emphasizes the adherence to ethical standards and the demonstration of
transparency, fairness, and accountability in the functioning of institutions.
➢ This includes avoiding corruption, bribery, and any form of unethical behavior.
➢ Institutions with a strong emphasis on probity are more likely to earn the trust and confidence of the
public or stakeholders they serve.
➢ It will result from corruption-free institutions, impartial decision making and supremacy of public
interests.
➢ All these objectives are achieved by inducting those human beings in institutions who prefer mental
pleasures and have the quality of aptitude in them and developing emotional intelligence in them.
➢ The means of achieving probity are linked by controlling the misuse of power and position. The root cause
of misuse of power and post is the greed that comes out of bodily pleasures.
 4

❖ Third application:
➢ For the betterment of the world, needs solutions to global problems such as environmental imbalance,
terrorism, etc.
➢ Ecological imbalance exists due to emission of greenhouse gasses. The root cause of this is the excessive
consumerism (narrow meaning of the good life) and over-exploitation of nature i.e. gross hedonism.
➢ The broader meaning of the good life heads toward less consumerism as supporters of the idea of a good
life believe that only consumption does not give pleasure.
➢ This idea will also help in achieving egalitarianism via judicial use of resources along with ecological
balance.
❖ Criticism of Hedonism:
➢ Hedonism is inconsistent with duty ethics.
✓ Example: A soldier suffering from mental and bodily pain still chooses to participate in war as a part
of his duty instead of going for pleasure.
➢ Paradox of Hedonism:
✓ Supporters of hedonism claim that the desire for pleasure precedes actual attainment of pleasure.
✓ Whereas, Henry Sidgwick claims that if you pursue any act with the desire of pleasure then pleasure
stops. You can get pleasure only when you forget the pleasure while in activity.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 21
Previous Year Question discussion
 2

Previous Year Question discussion

2014: Q.1b.
Q. What does ethics seek to promote in human life? Why it is all the more important in public
administration?
❖ Try to answer the question in two parts. One in points (the factual part) and the other in the paragraph.
❖ Answer the question via Facts and Arguments supported by examples.
❖ Divide the question into the following parts:
➢ What is ethics?
✓ Ethics is a normative science that guides human beings on what kind of acts, and decisions
should be considered moral.
✓ Ethics is the science of sustainable and inclusive happiness.
✓ Ethics is the science of values and virtues.
✓ Ethics is the science of a code of conduct.
➢ What ethics seek to promote in human life?
✓ Ethics promotes sustainable, refined, and inclusive happiness.
✓ For example, Buddha Gandhi, and Ambedkar had refined mental pleasures in their lives.
✓ Those countries that rank higher in ethical parameters also rank higher in the realm of happiness.
For example Scandinavian countries.
✓ It promotes or inculcates values and virtues in human life. Ethical people are just,
compassionate, impartial, honest, etc.
✓ For example, Nelson Mandela, Mother Teresa, etc.
✓ It seeks to promote the quality of life, well-being, and overall development of life.
➢ What is public administration?
✓ Ethics bring happiness in an individual’s life whereas in public administration it brings
maximum happiness to a maximum number of people’s lives who are deprived and marginalized
(Utilitarian argument or Gandhian sarvodaya).
✓ It promotes “sarve bhavantu sukhinah”
➢ Why is ethics more important in public administration than in any individual's life?
✓ It promotes values in public administration that are necessary components for achieving
constitutional ends.
✓ For example social and economic justice, equality, fraternity, democracy, or secularism.
✓ It will help in achieving social well-being, inclusive development (sabka saath sabka vikas), and
the ideal of welfarism.
 3

2014: Q.1a.
Q. All human beings aspire to happiness. Do you agree? What do you mean to you? Explain with examples.
❖ Divide the question based on demand.
❖ What is pleasure or happiness?
❖ What is pleasure or happiness for me?
❖ Do you agree that all human beings aspire to happiness?
❖ What is Pleasure?
➢ It is a feeling or an experience that arises after gratification of bodily and mental desires.
➢ Example: Eating, drinking, consumption of goods, etc are bodily pleasures
➢ Literature, art, music, etc are examples of mental pleasure.
❖ What is pleasure or happiness for me?
➢ I support the JS Mill Theory in this context which states that pleasure is both bodily and mental but
mental pleasures are qualitatively superior to bodily pleasures.
➢ Therefore, I will prefer mental pleasures over bodily pleasures. Because mental pleasures are
inclusive, and sustainable and have been preferred by all great persons like freedom fighters and
great leaders.
❖ Do you agree that all human beings aspire to happiness?
➢ The statement that all human beings aspire for happiness is not correct as this can not be treated or
supported as unconditional universal law because we have many examples where people from
various walks of life choose duty, justice, and equality over their happiness.
➢ Example: all brave soldiers who have sacrificed their lives for the security of the nation.
➢ Honest civil servants who choose honesty or integrity over personal happiness.
➢ Example IAS Ashok Khemka.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 22
Utilitarianism
 2

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism
❖ Utilitarianism and Hedonism are related ethical theories, but they have distinct focuses.
❖ Hedonism, in its simplest form, posits that pleasure or happiness is the highest good, and the moral worth
of an action is determined by the extent to which it produces pleasure or happiness.
❖ On the other hand, Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory that evaluates the morality of actions
based on their outcomes or consequences.
❖ It focuses on the outcomes or consequences of actions.
❖ It asserts that the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or pleasure and minimizes
suffering.
❖ Utilitarianism is an expansion or refinement of hedonism.
❖ While hedonism primarily emphasizes the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain as the ultimate criteria for
moral decision-making, utilitarianism introduces a more comprehensive framework.
❖ Utilitarianism is often associated with the principle of "the greatest good for the greatest number."
❖ An action is morally right if it produces the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure for the greatest number
of people.
 3

❖ The moral worth of an action is determined by the overall balance of happiness and suffering it produces.
❖ Utilitarianism considers the interests of all individuals equally. It seeks to strike a balance between individual
and collective happiness, ensuring that the overall well-being of the affected parties is taken into account.
❖ Maximum pleasure for the maximum number of people is the essence of morality.
➢ Moral act: Maximum pleasure for the maximum number of people.
➢ Immoral act: Maximum pain for the maximum number of people.
❖ Hedonism tends to focus exclusively on individual pleasure and pain without necessarily considering the
broader consequences of actions.
❖ Utilitarianism expands on this, where the morality of an action is determined by the overall balance of
happiness and suffering it produces for all affected parties.
 4

What is Utilitarianism?
❖ Utilitarianism is a moral theory that states that any decision or act would be moral when it produces
maximum good for the maximum number of people.
❖ It is a consequentialist morality and a teleological moral theory that states that the essence of morality is in
the maximum pleasure for the maximum number of people.
❖ Some believe that good is associated with pleasure, utilitarianism is a maximum pleasure for the maximum
number of people. While others say that it is associated with some kind of ideal (achieving any ideal for the
maximum number of people)
Types of Utilitarianism
❖ There are two types of Utilitarianism:
➢ Hedonistic Utilitarianism: Hedonistic utilitarianism is a type of utilitarianism that focuses specifically
on the pursuit of pleasure or happiness as the ultimate goal of moral decision-making.
✓ It is grounded in the idea that actions should be evaluated based on their ability to maximize
pleasure and minimize pain or suffering.
✓ Bentham and JS Mill are the two main propounders of this Utilitarianism.
➢ Ideal Utilitarianism: Ideal utilitarianism is a variation of utilitarian ethical theory that introduces the
concept of an idealized perspective when evaluating the moral worth of actions.
✓ Maximum benefit through any idea for a maximum number of people.
✓ Rashdell is the main propounder of this type.
❖ Hedonistic Utilitarianism is divided into two types:
➢ Gross hedonistic utilitarianism: Pleasures are only qualitatively different from each other and not
qualitatively different.
✓ Bodily and mental pleasures are qualitatively the same.
➢ Refined hedonistic utilitarianism: It argues that pleasures are quantitatively and qualitatively different.
✓ They believe that mental pleasures are qualitatively superior to bodily pleasures.
❖ Utilitarianism can also be divided as follows:
➢ Act Utilitarianism: Before every act, we will have to apply utilitarianism to know the morality of the
act. Act utilitarianism requires considering the consequences of each action separately.
➢ Rule Utilitarianism: Rule utilitarianism focuses on the moral correctness of adopting general rules or
principles that, when followed, would lead to the greatest overall happiness.
✓ This form of utilitarianism places importance on the general principles governing actions rather than
the consequences of each action.
✓ Actions are evaluated based on whether they conform to rules that, if consistently followed, would
maximize overall happiness.
 5

Application of Utilitarianism

❖ When we apply utilitarian ethics to identify moral and immoral things then we need to count the number of
people and the number and types of pleasure.
❖ But in the 19th century both Britain and India were characterized by patriarchy, monarchy, and feudalism.
❖ For deciding what is moral, counting is a must and when we count individuals then the principle of “each has
to be counted as one” would be applied.
❖ The principle of “each has to be counted as one” brought up the concept of equality.
❖ All human beings are of equal worth. Any counting must include slaves, women, and ordinary people
(everyone). Thus, it preserves non-discrimination and maintains social justice.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 23
Utilitarianism and Kant
 2

Utilitarianism and Kant

Application of Utilitarianism
❖ John Stuart Mill, a prominent 19th-century philosopher and utilitarian, made significant contributions to the
development and application of utilitarianism.
❖ Mill recognized the importance of protecting individual rights and liberties.
❖ He argued that certain individual rights should be considered inviolable because respecting these rights
contributes to the overall happiness of society.

❖ John Stuart Mill was a notable advocate for women's rights and gender equality.
❖ Mill was a strong proponent of the equality of the sexes.
❖ He argued that women should have the same legal and political rights as men.
❖ Mill believed that the subordination of women was a social injustice and an impediment to societal progress.
He also emphasized the importance of education for women.
❖ He advocated for equal educational opportunities, believing that women should have access to the same
intellectual and academic pursuits as men.
❖ Mill argued that education would empower women to contribute more meaningfully to society and develop
their full potential.
❖ Mill recognized the economic dependence of women on men in the prevailing societal norms of his time.
 3

❖ He argued for economic independence for women, stating that they should have the right to work and pursue
careers outside the domestic sphere.
❖ Economic independence, according to Mill, was essential for women to have autonomy and influence in
society.
❖ Mill extended his advocacy for equality into the realm of politics.
❖ He argued that women should have the right to vote and participate in political processes on an equal basis
with men.
❖ Mill believed that denying women the right to vote was a form of unjust discrimination.
❖ Mill's views on women can be seen as consistent with his utilitarian philosophy, as he applied utilitarian
principles to argue for gender equality and the advancement of women's rights.
❖ Utilitarianism, as developed by Mill, is centered around the idea that actions are morally right if they promote
happiness or pleasure and morally wrong if they result in unhappiness or pain.
❖ Mill argued that by granting women equal rights, opportunities, and access to education, society would benefit
from the increased happiness and well-being of both men and women.
❖ The removal of discriminatory practices against women would contribute to a more just and harmonious
society.
❖ By advocating for the rights and education of women, Mill considered the intellectual and moral development
of individuals, contributing to a higher quality of happiness in society.
 4

❖ Utilitarianism is directly proportional to the good life.

Probity of Institutions:
❖ The term "probity" refers to the quality of having strong moral principles, honesty, and integrity.
❖ When discussing the probity of institutions, it typically pertains to the ethical standards, transparency, and
trustworthiness exhibited by organizations, particularly in the public and private sectors.
❖ The probity of institutions can be threatened by various factors that compromise ethical standards,
transparency, and integrity.
❖ Identifying and addressing these threats is crucial for maintaining the trust of stakeholders and upholding the
institution's reputation.
❖ Corruption, including bribery and embezzlement, poses a significant threat to probity.
❖ When individuals within an institution engage in corrupt practices, it undermines the fairness, integrity, and
ethical standards of the organization.
❖ Causes of corruption include less sensibility underdeveloped sensibility, and more emphasis on bodily
pleasure.
❖ A person who has developed more sensibility is less corrupt.
❖ Development of sensibility depends on the importance given to mental pleasures.
❖ If we accept refined hedonistic utilitarian ethics then maximum refind mental pleasures for a maximum
number of people should be our goal or supreme objective.
❖ Refined happiness is directly proportional to developed sensibility and developed rationality.
❖ This leads to ethics of service leading to ethics of compassion. All these together lead to probity.
❖ Utilitarian ethics in decision-making will eliminate discretionary power and elimination of discretionary power
will reduce misues of office and thus will bring probity to the institution.
❖ Decision making on the basis of utilitarian ethics.
 5

Criticism:
❖ This ethics can lead to an anti-minority narrative.
❖ Its focus on maximizing overall happiness could lead to the marginalization or sacrifice of the well-being
of minority groups if it is deemed necessary for the greater happiness of the majority. This has been criticized
as potentially leading to unjust outcomes.
❖ It can be anti-multiculturalism or anti-pluralism.It may struggle to provide a universal ethical framework
that accounts for cultural diversity in values and priorities.
❖ Utilitarianism, in its pursuit of maximizing overall happiness, may face criticisms for potentially neglecting
the diverse values and cultural nuances within a multicultural or multi-pluralistic society.
❖ The emphasis on a singular metric for evaluating actions, based on an aggregate measure of happiness, might
overlook the importance of respecting and preserving the cultural and ethical pluralism that characterizes
diverse communities.
❖ It is argued that utilitarianism's universal approach could inadvertently lead to a disregard for the unique
perspectives and values inherent in multicultural societies, potentially fostering a form of cultural
homogenization.
❖ It is inconsistent with the values of impartiality and justice. The theory's emphasis on aggregating happiness
may overlook the protection of individual rights and fail to address concerns related to fairness and equity in
its pursuit of the greatest overall good.
❖ We can not get a definite answer to the question of what should do by applying utilitarianism.
❖ The practical application of utilitarianism involves calculating the consequences of actions to determine the
greatest overall happiness. This can be overly complex, impractical, and sometimes impossible, especially
when dealing with long-term (ignorance about future consequences) or indirect consequences.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 24
Kant
 2

Kant
Essence of ethics
In deontology, the essence of ethics is associated with right intent so the challenge in deontology ethics is “how to
identify what is right’’.

Kant says whenever you are in a dilemma and you need to know what is moral or immoral, you have to apply
three maxims:
Maxims of morality according to Kant:
❖ Maxim of Universality: Perform that particular act which in that situation can be treated as a universal rule.
➢ What is universal: Anything that is applicable in all space and time as well as for everyone in every
situation.
➢ Example: A candidate is going to appear for the UPSC interview, but witnesses an injured person in an
accident. The candidate faces a dilemma of whether to appear for an interview or to assist an injured
person. According to the universality maxim, the candidate needs to assist the injured person even at the
cost of not appearing to interview.
❖ Maxim of treating human beings as ends and never as means.
➢ Example: Mahatma Gandhi revoked the Non-cooperation movement after the Chauri Chaura violence as
it had violated the principle of non-violence.
❖ Maxim of autonomy: Any act duty or rule that is approved by someone who has complete autonomy should
be considered moral. otherwise, if a person lacks autonomy and he/she is claiming that he/she is treating
himself/herself as an end and is willing to accept that particular decision/act for himself /herself, therefore, it
is universal we should not consider their claim as the right claim.
➢ Example: Clinical trials on poor people in developing countries by developed countries for their interest
violate the third maxim of morality.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 25
Kant (Part 2)
 2

Kant (Part 2)
Features of Kant's theory:
❖ Ethics of categorical imperative
❖ Rigorous ethics
❖ Duty for the sake of duty
❖ Ethics of goodwill
❖ Comparison with ethics of Gita
Ethics of categorical imperative
❖ Why Kantian ethics is known as ethics of categorical imperative:
➢ There are various models of ethical theory some believe with the change in space and time theory change,
with the change in consequences, morality changes. but in kantian ethics with their consequence changing
with space and time these moral rules remains the same.
➢ It is binding duty ethics, it is not the ethics of should but the ethics of ought.
Rigorous Ethics
❖ Why Kantian ethics are considered rigorous ethics:
➢ Since Kantian ethics does not allow any kind of sentiment or emotions in morality it does not allow any
consequences to play any role in morality. It says that only acts which are performed with the sense
of duty and the consensus of duty are moral and since it is a big ask therefore kantian morality is
rigorous.
➢ Rigorous ethics followers, follow the duty for the sake of duty it's like the Niskama karma of Geeta
➢ A person who follows this ethics will suffer, face bad consequences, and will have to control his emotions
with reason. That is why this ethic is called rigorous.
Good Will
❖ According to Kant, there are only two wills that can perform moral acts:
➢ Goodwill
➢ Holy will
❖ Influencing factors of will:
➢ Emotions
➢ Consequences
➢ Pleasure
➢ Self-interest
They all are contingent features meaning they are not fixed but Kant's morality is universal and these factors, do
not follow Kant's morality. According to Kant, goodwill is the purest form of human will which is unadulterated.
It is a certain will and follows Geeta's concept of sthitapragya (A person with steady wisdom). Human beings
inevitably feel this Law as a constraint on their natural desires, which is why such Laws, as applied to human beings,
are imperatives and duties. In this, goodwill is governed by reasons and reasons control the emotions. Holy will is
governed by the divine will. The will is not governed by consequences, situations, space-time, and emotions.
 3

❖ If by being moral I will be having pain in my life and an immoral person will be having pleasure then
why should I become moral?
➢ There are two sources of moral motivation. The first source is self-interest or pleasure and the second
one is impartial evaluation and justice. For example in the UPSC exam every year 5 to 6 lacs people take
the exam and finally select only 800 to 900 but still they don't give up and give their 100 percent the
success is not certain but still they make their attempts. Because Upsc holds their trust and they are
confident that it will uphold fairness.
➢ According to Kant, the source of moral motivation is faith, hope, impartial evaluation, and justice.
An Immoral agent, a consequentialist, or a hedonist will always act for pleasure. Moral agents will
follow Universal rules but suffer pain by following the moral act.
➢ To enforce the moral act Kant introduced the concept of Justice and God. God is considered as
omniscient and omnipotent. According to Kant, God will act as a judge. God will act as an impartial
judge to evaluate human actions and accordingly, the rewards are distributed.
❖ Secular model of moral motivation:
➢ In secular states, the state acts as an impartial agent like God and hence the citizens follow the rules
in the developed countries.
➢ In India, duty ethics is not followed by bureaucracy because of political discretionary power.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 26
Kant and Rawls
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Kant and Rawls

Kant’s Critique
❖ The Kantian ethical model is so rigorous that if we follow it in every situation, it is bound to produce bad
consequences in many instances. For example, keeping promises in all situations can lead to the murders of
some innocent people.
❖ If Kant's universal rules are exceptionless then they leave no room for free will and voluntariness and thus
Kantian ethics becomes deterministic.
❖ In the case of two mutually conflicting universal duties or rules kantian ethics does not provide any solution
for knowing which rule should get preference over others.
Rawls:
Background:
❖ He talks about reconciliation between equality and liberty.
❖ To propose an ethical model after rejecting utilitarian morality.
❖ According to Rawls, utilitarianism lacks practicality, and the essence of morality is equal to fairness and
impartiality.
❖ The problem in identifying justice and fairness is that everyone has an embedded self.
❖ Rawl says that only those who possess an unencumbered self can or know what is moral or fair.
How did Rawls develop his moral theory?
Embedded Self / Biased Self / Presuppositions:
❖ Identities and interests associated with identities are embedded.
❖ Embedded self is impractical.
❖ Embedded self-person makes a judgment based on pre-conceived notions and this biased judgment is biased
and not morally correct.
Unencumbered Self:
❖ It is a pre-suppositionless self-biased free self or impartial self.
❖ The decisions taken by a biased free self person are moral.
❖ The decisions are made based on the veil of ignorance principle. It helps in impartially making the decision.
Transformation from Embedded Self To Unencumbered Self:
❖ According to Rawls, the rulemaking process should be
governed by the principle of least harm principle, and The Veil of Ignorance:
rule-implementing agencies should be separated from ❖ The Veil of Ignorance is a device for helping
the rulemaking process. people envision a fair society by pretending
❖ To ensure morality the veil of ignorance should be that they are ignorant of their circumstances.
implemented at the original position (the condition
before the development of the state). In this original position, the rules will be framed according to the least
harm principle. It will pave the way for an unencumbered self or impartial being. The resultant decision will
be moral.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 27
John Rawls
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John Rawls
John Rawls:
❖ John Rawls on Morality and Justice:
➢ Rawls highlights the intrinsic link between morality and justice, particularly in the context of fairness.
➢ He argues that decisions become unjust and biased when individuals are fully aware of their interests.
❖ Embedded Self vs. Unencumbered Self:
➢ The "embedded self" is a consciousness filled with knowledge of personal and class interests.
➢ This self tends to make biased and morally questionable decisions based on preconceived notions.
➢ Rawls introduces the concept of the "unencumbered self," devoid of identity and interests, achievable
through the "Veil of Ignorance."
❖ Transformation Process: Veil of Ignorance:
➢ The "Veil of Ignorance" is a thought experiment guiding the formulation of fair rules for society.
➢ Individuals imagine ignorance of personal details (gender, social status) when making decisions about
societal rules.
➢ The purpose is to encourage impartiality and fairness in social and political institutions.
➢ Rawls asserts that behind the veil, people would create a society with equal opportunities for all.
❖ Veil of Ignorance as a Tool for Just Society:
➢ The veil helps mitigate biases and self-interest in rule creation.
➢ Rawls believes people behind the veil would choose principles promoting fairness and equality.
❖ Guiding Principles for Rulemaking:
➢ Rulemaking should follow the principle of least harm, minimizing negative impact.
➢ Rule-implementing agencies should be separate from the rulemaking process.
❖ Implementation of Veil of Ignorance:
➢ Rawls suggests implementing the veil at the original position, before the development of the state.
➢ Rules framed under the least harm principle create an unencumbered, impartial self.
➢ The resultant decisions are considered moral and fair.
❖ Ensuring Morality and Impartiality:
➢ Moral and impartial actions are ensured through the equal distribution of basic liberties.
➢ The Difference Principle favors the least advantaged, ensuring maximum benefits for society's least
advantaged section.
➢ Resource distribution aligns with maximizing benefits for the least advantaged section of society.
Applying Rawls' Ethics Of Fairness In Case Studies:
❖ Applying Rawls' Ethics of Fairness in case studies entails a systematic examination of available options, with
a focus on minimizing harm and fostering justice for all parties involved in dilemmas.
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❖ Example: The Kaveri River water dispute between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, involves a thoughtful
process rooted in the principles of justice and impartiality.
➢ Identifying Identities: Recognize the distinct identities involved, such as the Tamil identity and Kannad
identity, to understand the unique perspectives and interests at play.
➢ Options Analysis: Assess available options using Rawls' principles:
✓ Allocating more water to Tamil people or Kannada people is deemed unfair.
✓ Distributing water solely based on population or area is also considered unfair.
✓ Opting for water distribution based on per capita availability and agricultural needs aligns with
Rawls' least harm principle, making it a fair option.
➢ Resolution in Line with Rawls' Ethics:
✓ Choose a solution that adheres to the principles of fairness and equality, addressing the concerns
of both Tamil and Kannada identities.
✓ Ensure that the selected option reflects the least harm principle, promoting justice and
minimizing adverse effects on any particular group.
Rawl’s Veil of Ignorance Application:
❖ Rule 1: Equity Principle
➢ Focus on distributing fundamental goods like rights, liberty, dignity, and status.
➢ Aligned with the ethics of liberalism, emphasizing equal consideration behind the veil.
❖ Rule 2: Distribution of Resources (Wealth, etc.):
➢ Enforces egalitarianism, striving for equality in resource distribution.
➢ Decision-makers, under the veil, must consider both principles to ensure fairness without knowledge of
their position.
➢ Rawls' vision integrates these rules, promoting a just society that addresses both fundamental rights and
equitable resource distribution.
❖ Generalization to Other Dilemmas:
➢ Apply the same approach to other dilemmas, such as the refugee crisis, by recognizing the distinct
identities involved.
➢ Seek solutions rooted in fairness, impartiality, and the principle of least harm to address complex and
sensitive issues.
Criticism of Rawls' Veil of Ignorance:
❖ Feminist Critique:
➢ Concern: Ignores gender-specific issues.
➢ Critique Points:
✓ Fails to account for the unique challenges women face.
✓ Does not address gender-based discrimination adequately.
✓ Overlooks the importance of diverse perspectives in shaping societal rules.
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❖ Critique by Supporters of Social Justice:

➢ Concern: Limited scope in addressing broader societal inequalities.
➢ Critique Points:
✓ Focus on primary goods may not sufficiently address complex social structures.
✓ Overemphasis on procedural justice may sideline substantive justice concerns.
✓ Critics argue for a more comprehensive approach to social justice.
❖ Nozickian Critique:
➢ Concern: Individual rights may be compromised.
➢ Critique Points:
✓ Nozick argues that Rawls' theory allows for the violation of individual liberties for the sake of
distributive justice.
✓ Veil of Ignorance may lead to excessive state intervention in individual lives, undermining personal
freedoms.
✓ Critique rooted in a libertarian perspective on justice.
❖ Amartya Sen Critique:
➢ Concern: Inadequate attention to real-world capabilities and functions.
➢ Critique Points:
✓ Sen emphasizes the importance of considering people's actual capabilities and opportunities.
✓ Argues that focusing solely on resources may neglect the ability of individuals to convert resources
into valuable functions.
✓ Advocates for a broader, capability-focused approach to justice.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 28
Gandhi
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Gandhi

Ethics of Gandhi (Deontological Ethics)

❖ How Gandhi identified what is moral: According to Gandhiji, the essence of morality lies in truth.
(Gandhian notion of truth).
❖ How can one know what is true: According to Gandhiji, one can know what is true with the help of the voice
of conscience.
❖ Gandhian Ethics:
➢ Satyagraha
➢ End-mean relationship
➢ Swaraj
➢ Sarvodaya
➢ Trusteeship
Identification of Truth:
❖ It is the Voice of conscience and is solved by the principal swaraj.
❖ Gandhi ji says only a swaraji person will have having voice of conscience and through this, he/she will be able
to identify what is truth.
Gandhi's good life concept: According to Gandhi there are two ideas of the good life
❖ Western idea of the good life:
➢ Came from post-industrial revolution
➢ Based on capitalism and the market economy
➢ It is based on the objective of growth and profit
➢ The idea of a good life is associated with pleasure and happiness
➢ It means the ultimate aim of human beings is to maximize pleasure
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❖ The Indian idea of a good life:

➢ It is based on non-consumerism.
➢ The ethics of Gandhiji are associated with the values of equality, eternalism, uniformity, and soul force.
➢ According to the Indian or Gandhian model of ethics, the idea of the good life is associated with the
ultimate aim or objective of
life i.e. spiritual
development spiritual well-
being, or refinement of
spirit or consciousness.
➢ Spiritual development:
✓ Spiritual development
starts with control
over desires. Gandhiji
called it Swaraj.
✓ Swaraj means self-
control. It means
control over desire or
bodily pleasures or self-discipline. With self-control desires are finite and resources are also finite.
✓ This finite desire will ensure the fulfillment of desires of all; it leads to the quality of non-possession
(Aparigraha), non-stealing (Asteya), and non-violence (Ahimsa). It will eventually result in truth.
It will help human beings to act as per the voice of conscience.
Critique of Western idea of the good life;
❖ Why hedonism should not be acceptable as a moral theory:
➢ Human desires are infinite whereas natural resources are finite therefore we can never fulfill infinite
desires through finite resources.
➢ This race will lead to ecological imbalance.
➢ Since desires are infinite a person who will follow this morality would become greedy, greed will lead
towards selfishness which will ultimately make a person violent. therefore this hedonistic model will ruin
the human ethical core in the long term.
➢ Infinite desires give infinite consumption and this will lead to greed, selfishness, violence, and
falsehood.
➢ The perpetual clash between limitless desires and limited resources breeds contention, class conflicts,
and a world centered around power dynamics, posing a substantial threat to global peace.
➢ Infinite desire and finite resources will create inequality in society.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 29
Gandhi (Part 2)
 2

Gandhi (Part 2)
Swaraj:
❖ According to Gandhi, swaraj is nothing but a developed spiritual core or selfless core and this can be
identified as universal and one truth. Swaraj is an essential pre-condition for understanding truth.
❖ Truth is like god and since god is one for all therefore truth is also one for all.
❖ Gandhian truth is associated with Swaraj. This Swaraj is associated with the Nishkam Karma of
Bhagavad Gita.
❖ It helps in spiritual development and to follow the voice of conscience. This will result in the truth and
Society will become moral. It is called society-led morality.
❖ Swaraj means self-rule or rule of consciousness over desires. It helps self-control over the body and it is
also called spiritual or inner Swaraj.
❖ Inner Swaraj:
➢ It means consciousness that understands the truth and also a developed spirit that divides violence,
falsehood, greed, and selfishness.
➢ Inner swaraj is also a consciousness that aims for spiritual development and a spirit that believes in
equality and oneness of humanity.
❖ External swaraj:
➢ It is a political swaraj also called self-rule swaraj.
➢ It means autonomous decision-making, decentralized decision-making, and decisions from the
inside.
➢ Economic swaraj means self-sufficient economy or called village economy.
Example:
❖ In case 1: The people of this village believe in the ethics of hedonism and to achieve a good life people of
that village will focus on increasing purchasing power. The peasant in the considered village will take cash
crops and would like to sell them at a Higher price.
➢ In the market, the traders world purchase cotton at less price to sell at higher prices for personal
benefit. The involution of agriculture would lead to the impoverishment of peasants, degradation of the
environment, etc.
❖ In case 2: In this village, the idea of the good life is associated with spiritual development. Here the farmers
focus on need-based agriculture. In agriculture, such techniques will be adopted, which will not deplete the
soil and pollute the environment.
➢ It will ensure adherence to the ethical values of Gandhiji Swaraj, truth, voice of conscience, and no
need for the state to regulate the economic activities.
➢ Applying Gandhian ethics of spiritual well-being to a village involves fostering a sense of
community, promoting self-sufficiency, and emphasizing moral and ethical values.
➢ By implementing these principles, a village can work towards creating a harmonious, self-reliant, and
morally conscious community.
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The idea of Trusteeship of Gandhi

❖ There are two parts of trusteeship:
➢ Refutation of ethics of capitalism and the idea of private ownership;
➢ His thesis on the distribution of wealth and resources
❖ Refutation of ethics of capitalism and the idea of private ownership
➢ Gandhian ethics refutes possessive individualism.
➢ According to possessive individualism every individual possesses a unique and personal bodily and
intellectual capability and by using this personal capability we create wealth and resources therefore all
wealth and resources should go to those whose capability has been used for its creation.
➢ Human beings have two capabilities, one is bodily capabilities and the second is intellectual
capability.
➢ The material growth due to bodily capabilities produces capital as a result of personal capital and it
becomes personal entitlement.
➢ Intellectual capabilities help in the creation of personal intellectual property rights.
➢ Free, fair, and global market helps to evaluate intellectual property rights.
❖ Refutation of possessive individualism by Gandhi
➢ Natural resources are not created by anyone's ability therefore all natural resources belong to present
and future generations.
➢ Our intellectual capability is created by a stream of knowledge that is not entirely ours therefore wealth
and property generated through it should not used by any individual as his/her personal property.
➢ According to Gandhiji, individual capabilities are the result of human civilization. This individual
capability is the outcome of contribution to society and training.
➢ Property is collective or society has collective ownership over all resources. Therefore, all property
owners are trustees of the resources.
➢ The capitalists should treat themselves as trustees not as owners of wealth and property.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 30
Gandhi (Part 3)
 2

Gandhi (Part 3)
Sarvodaya:
Rejection of the utilitarian model:
❖ Why Gandhi rejected the utilitarian model:
➢ The greatest happiness for the greatest number of people is a self-contradictory principle.
➢ Utilitarian ethics is inconsistent because, on one hand, it says that the greatest or maximum pleasure is
moral and on the other hand, it also says that this maximum pleasure should be achieved for a
maximum number of people.
➢ Gandhi says maximum pleasure will lead people towards maximum desire and maximum desire will
lead towards greed and selfishness.
➢ A greedy and selfish human being would become a supporter of egoism therefore he will never perform
any act for maximizing pleasure for the maximum number of people.
➢ Maximum pleasure and maximum number of people are mutually inconsistent.
❖ Utilitarian ethics promotes happiness and pleasure which a person gets through the gratification of desires
but desires are infinite and infinite desires of a maximum number of people will never be achieved. Rather, in
the long run, this pleasure-seeking attitude of human beings will lead to natural imbalance conflicts and
increased violence which will bring maximum pain to entire humanity.
❖ After rejecting this utilitarian ethics Gandhi propounded his theory of Sarvodaya.
His idea of Sarvodaya:
❖ Sarvodaya means upliftment of all. According to Gandhi upliftment means material development (equal
distribution of resources and upliftment of deprived sections of society), spiritual development, and moral
development.
❖ Sarvodaya comprises material needs and spiritual upliftment. The material will be ensured through the
equitable distribution of
resources and through the
village economy (Finite needs
will be fulfilled through finite
material resources). It is an
anti-capitalist theory and its
Guiding principle is equality.
❖ The Spiritual upliftment
through satyagraha for
spiritual welding will be
ensured through a change of
heart and it will help to act as
per voice of conscience.
End Mean Debate:
❖ End means the final objective and Mean means the instrument or medium through which objectives or
ends are achieved.
 3

❖ According to the Marxian perspective, the end justifies means.

❖ According to Gandhian ethics, end does not justify mean.
End Justify Means:
❖ Morality of mean is dependent upon morality of end. If the end is moral, the mean automatically becomes
moral.
❖ The Marxian perspective justifies this theory.
❖ It leads to violent dictatorship.
❖ According to Marx in theory class society and equality are the moral end.
End Does Not Justify Mean:
❖ Gandhian ethics supports this theory.
❖ End and mean both should be separately tested for consistency with moral principles.
Why Gandhi supports:
❖ According to Gandhi, ethics has two objectives:
➢ Ideal human beings and
➢ Ideal institutions.
❖ If we choose immoral means to achieve moral ends then our institutions may become good but the person
who chooses immortality becomes a bad human being.
❖ To support Gandhian claim we can give an example from
➢ Case 1: freedom of Pakistan through immoral means by direct action and India through hunger strikes to
end satyagraha.
➢ Case 2: Latin American countries or examples of Russia and China.
❖ According to Gandhi, the ideal world means Ramrajya, Swaraj, Sarvodaya, and spiritual development.
❖ To achieve the ideal world the instrument is ideal human beings. The violent dictatorship of human beings
will become their attitude and it will not result in the ideal world.
❖ Sustainability of moral end:
➢ Good world or institutions and bad human beings.
➢ The person who will always use violence to get justice will become violent once he becomes violent or
the society develops faith in violence. A violent society will reverse all kinds of moral goodness you have
achieved by accepting that the end justifies the means.
Satyagraha
Background
❖ According to Gandhi, external pressure, fear, punishment, coercion, and violence are immoral means, it is
a non-sustainable model of achieving moral ends.
❖ According to Gandhi, the Sustainable model for moral ends means a change in heart by accepting one's
evil deeds, generating a sense of repentance, and by generating a sense of guilt.
❖ Satyagraha is the only ethical means that can change the heart of a human being. This change of heart can
be achieved only through Satyagraha.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 31
Gandhi and Attitude
 2

Gandhi and Attitude

Revision From Last Class: Satyagraha

Background
❖ According to Gandhi, external pressure, fear, punishment, coercion, and violence are immoral means.it is a
non-sustainable model for achieving moral ends.
❖ According to Gandhi sustainable model for moral ends means a change in heart by accepting one's evil
deeds, by generating a sense of repentance, and by generating a sense of guilt.
❖ Satyagraha is the only ethical means which can change the heart of human beings. This change of heart
can be achieved only through Satyagraha.
Satyagraha
❖ Satyagrah is self-suffering for a truth.
❖ According to Gandhi there are two types of truth one is external and other is internal.
❖ External truth does not create any emotions, changes, commitment, or conviction in our lives.
❖ But when it comes to Internal truth, it can change our lives.
Objective of Satyagrah
❖ Change of Heart
❖ Sense of Guilt
❖ Sense of Repentance
❖ Spiritual Reforms
❖ Examples: Gautam Buddha, Jesus Christ, etc.
❖ They all did the creation of faith for moral truth.
Method to achieve satyagraha
❖ Credibility of messenger and trustworthiness- In order to be taken seriously, you must establish your
credibility.
❖ Suffering or self pain: From this you can communicate truths to others.
❖ Example: B.D. Sharma was a Bastar District Collector. He adopted a modest lifestyle in line with the Bastar
tribes, and he was the most well-liked District collector there. Later, B.D. Sharma was appointed as an advisor
on tribal policies by the Indian government.
Gandhi and Ambedkar Debate:
Gandhian Perspective
❖ Gandhi supported the varna system.
❖ Gandhi wanted removal of evil practices from the varna system.
❖ Gandhi intended an ideal society, that is Ram Rajya where duty based society was expected. These duties are
the reason for the creation of altruism (Swaraj) and collectivism (interconnectedness).
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❖ According to Gandhiji the varna system was the basis of division of duties. According to Gandhiji in the
Varna system, evil is the untouchability and degradation of dignity of labour.
❖ According to Gandhi, the evils in the varna system were due to the higher varna people. The higher caste
varnas are sinners and face moral degradation and experience animal spirits, which lead to their
dehumanization
❖ According to Gandhi the self-purification of higher caste varnas will purify the varna system.
❖ According to Gandhi, social reform should be based on consciousness-based reform.
Ambedkar Perspective
❖ Ambedkar did not support the varna system.
❖ Ambedkar wanted the removal of the Varna system.
❖ According to Ambedkar, the ideal world will be modern and democratic.
❖ In this ideal world, the state will give rights for material progress and mental progress.
❖ The Varna system is inconsistent with the concept of rights. According to Ambedkar, entitlement is the
basis of the Ideal world.
❖ According to Ambedkar varna system is the problem of Dalit empowerment. It is necessary to achieve self-
respect.
❖ The Varna system should be seen in social, political, and economic reality. Varna system obstructed Dalit
participation in institutions and the intellectual development of Dalits.
According to Ambedkar, the reforms should be state-laid through legislation, and the basis of reform should
be reasons.
Attitude
Why do we need an attitude in ethics?
What is the core function of ethics:
❖ To guide human beings about what is right and what is wrong, what is good and what is evil.
❖ Its objective is to make your choices and acts morally.
❖ To develop character and virtues.
Problem
❖ Ethics only provides knowledge of values, virtues, and righteousness, and it believes that by knowing what is
right, people will become moral, but this is an incorrect assumption.
❖ We know many such examples where people with knowledge and values don't act morally.
❖ To solve this problem, we need two components:
➢ Knowledge of values and morality, which will be supplied by ethics.
➢ Corresponding acts and corresponding habits.
❖ Example- Ravan, Duryodhana, and many corrupt civil servants.
❖ Knowledge is necessary, but not sufficient.
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Additional Information: Corruption in Civil Services

❖ The 2000-batch IAS officer Pooja Singhal, the secretary of Jharkhand Mines and Industries, was detained
by the Enforcement Directorate (ED) on suspicion of embezzling Rs 18 crore in MGNREGA funds in the
Khunti district between 2006 and 2010, while she served as deputy commissioner.
❖ The IAS couple in Madhya Pradesh, Arvind and Tinoo Joshi, have been dismissed from service by the
government four years after an income-tax search on their house led to the detection of disproportionate
assets worth Rs. 350 crores and the recovery of Rs. 3 crores in cash.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 32
Previous Year Question Paper
Analysis or Discussion:
 2

Previous Year Question Paper Analysis or Discussion:

The evaluation of the ethics paper is done based on the following parameters:
❖ Understanding ethics with the help of facts and definitions.
❖ Explaining the integrity and core values of civil services through the use of ethical reasoning, values, and
justification of the decisions.
❖ Attitude of the candidate.
Important Steps to Write an Answer:
❖ In ethics answers, try to write the factual things in a point format.
❖ Write arguments with the help of examples.
❖ In ethics answers, write contextual information and link it with your arguments to explain through examples.
Q. “The good of an individual is content in the good of all’. What do you understand by this statement? How
can this principle be implemented in public life? (UPSC-2013)
Approach:
Break questions in different parts-
❖ What is the meaning of “good of all” in ethics?
❖ What is good for an individual?
❖ What are the implications of these statements?
❖ What is public life?
❖ How can the above statements be implemented in public life?
 3

Can explain how good an individual is in the good of all through the following ways:
❖ There are shared interests of individual interest and interests of all in global, national, community, and
institutional contexts.
❖ This statement is supported by the Theory of Organic Unity, which is a prominent theory of enlightenment
egoism that states that the good of an individual is like the goodness of an organ and the good of all is like
the goodness of the body.
Supporting arguments:
❖ Ecological standpoint: The interests of all living beings, including all human beings, is dependent upon
ecological balance and environmental protection.
❖ From a national standpoint: economic growth, security, law, and order.
❖ From the institutional point of view: robust judiciary, probity in civil services, good health care, and good-
quality educational institutions.
How can this principle be implemented in public life?
❖ In the economy, choosing a model in which growth should be aligned with inclusive development.
❖ Reforms in public institutions.
❖ Strengthening of constitutional values.
❖ Emotional intelligence helps in inculcating empathy and compassion, and it ensures the good of all.
❖ By nurturing democratic and egalitarian attitudes.
Q.2 It is often said that politics and ethics do not go together. What is your opinion in this regard? Justify your
answer with illustrations. (UPSC-2013)
Start with
❖ What is politics?
➢ Management of political affairs and management of lawmaking.
➢ Example-government formation, election, and forming public opinion.
❖ What is ethics?
➢ Science of values and virtues,science of inclusive happiness and it is also science of right ends and right
means.
❖ What is the end objective of politics?
 4

Approach
❖ Who believes that politics and ethics cannot go together?
❖ Do you support the above position?
❖ If you support, then tell why?
❖ If you don't support it, then state why?
Who believes that politics and ethics cannot go together?
❖ Those who believe that the core objective and end of politics is to win elections, or those who equate police
with electoral politics, are the people who believe that to win elections, we need to leave ethics.
❖ Winning elections needs a vote bank on the basis of communal polarization.
❖ Winning elections needs money and power
❖ To win elections, we need muscle power.
❖ This belief is not correct because it is based on the narrow meaning of politics.
❖ Politics is associated with ends and means.
❖ The ends of politics are:
➢ to achieve constitutional ideals.
➢ Social justice
➢ Upliftment of marginalized sections of society.
➢ Welfarism in society.
➢ Inclusive development
❖ These objectives cannot be achieved through unethical means.
❖ Example: the politics of Nelson Mandela, Politics of Gandhi, politics through freedom struggle
 5

Q. Integrity without knowledge is useless and weak.

Approach:
❖ Part 1
➢ How is knowledge without ethics useless and weak?
❖ Part 2
➢ Knowledge with integrity is dangerous or dreadful.
➢ Arguments and examples.
Q. What is environmental ethics? Why is it important to study and discuss any one environmental issue from the
perspective of environmental ethics?
Part
❖ What is environmental ethics?
❖ It is an applied ethics which studies:
➢ To solve a dilemma regarding environmental and ecological problems.
➢ To propose a code of conduct for human beings that they should follow in their acts towards ecology.
❖ Why is it important to study?
➢ Ethics is a science whose goal is to ensure development, well-being, and well-being, enhanced quality
of life for all human beings since ecological balance is necessary for achieving all these goals; therefore,
the study of environmental ethics is important.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 33
Attitude
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Attitude
What is Attitude?
❖ Attitude is our mental disposition towards any object and our favorable or unfavorable evaluation of any object.
❖ Attitude is our positive or negative perspective about any object.
❖ Example: According to a few, homosexuality is bad or immoral. In this case, the people have a negative
attitude towards homosexuality. People who support homosexuality are mostly those who have a positive
attitude towards homosexuality.

Content and structure of Attitude

Tripartite model of attitude:
❖ Cognitive aspect of Attitude: It is about knowledge or belief or opinion. It is about knowledge, study,
scientific facts, or religious beliefs.
❖ Affective aspects of attitude: It is an emotive component. It is about emotions towards any object.
❖ Conative/behavior aspect of attitude: It is about the act or behavior of conduct.
➢ Example: For example, a person who is Shaivite would worship a snake. This person would have
believed that the snake is the incarnation of God and he has a revered emotions towards the snake and he
would put his folded hand before the snake as a matter of his behavior.
❖ In case of snake charmer, his belief is that snakes is a means of livelihood. He would enjoy by catching the
snake and for this his behavior would be to catch the snake.
❖ A person having a negative attitude towards snakes
believes that snakes cause harm, watching snakes
this person would fear and run away from the snake.
Probable relationship between these three
components:
There can be two possible or probable kinds of
relationships between these three components:
❖ Harmonious/Consistent
❖ Dissonance/Inconsistent
➢ Example: When thoughts, opinion, emotions and
behaviors are inconsistent with each other.
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❖ Two female students pursuing philosophy at Miranda House share a positive attitude toward love marriage.
Both are committed to their relationships, with the first opting for a love marriage with her boyfriend and the
second choosing an arranged marriage. While the first girl's family was happy with her decision for a love
marriage, the second girl, despite informing her family about her relationship, faced resistance, ultimately
leading to her entering into an arranged marriage.
❖ Cognitive dissonance theory postulates that an underlying psychological tension is created when an
individual's behavior is inconsistent with his or her thoughts and beliefs. This underlying tension then
motivates an individual to make an attitude change that would produce consistency between thoughts and
behaviors.
❖ When an individual engages in behaviors that are inconsistent with their attitude or belief (example: arguing a
counter-attitudinal position on a topic), a change in attitude is produced that is consistent in the direction of his
or her behavior. This mechanism of thought or attitude change is the same mechanism used to produce changes
in negative, irrational thoughts that are involved in the maintenance of depression and related disorders.
❖
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES

Lecture - 34
Attitude Part-II
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Attitude Part-II
Attitude Formation Process:
The following processes are involved in the formation or modification of the attitude of the person.
❖ Classical conditioning: In this condition, a person is exposed to a positive and neutral stimulus repeatedly
and after some time the response to neutral stimuli becomes the same as response to positive stimuli.
➢ Examples: Religious attitude, Cultural attitude , the process of socialization, etc.
❖ Operant conditioning: It is a process in which a positive behavior when rewarded has more chances of
repetition than a negative behavior, which, if repeated, would lead to punishment and thus less chances of
repetition.
➢ Examples: The first child receives praise from teachers and is rewarded with their favorite toys by
parents, motivating them to continue such positive behavior. In contrast, the second child, receiving
negative comments about their behavior, is scolded by parents, leading them to realize the need for
better conduct.

Observation: This involves learning from our social environment such as family, school, media and its
expression.
➢ Examples: The media and advertising play a significant role in shaping attitudes by influencing what
information is presented and how it is framed.
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Function of Attitude:
❖ Adjustive function or utilitarian function.
❖ Knowledge function
❖ Value expressive function
❖ Ego defensive function.
Adjective or Utilitarian Attitude:
❖ The utilitarian function exists in attitudes that maximize rewards and minimize punishments obtained
from attitude objects. If a person holds or expresses a socially acceptable attitude, other people will reward
them with approval and social acceptance. The utility of attitude helps in decision-making.
➢ Case 1: A 10-year-old child, living in the city with wealthy parents who worked from morning until
evening, developed a habit of not opening the door without using the magic eye. One day, a thief
knocked on the child's door, but the child, following the instructions, did not open it. Instead, the child
promptly called their mother, who, in turn, contacted the police. Consequently, the thief was
apprehended.
➢ Case 2: On the other side, the child's grandfather, a knowledgeable and respected headmaster, visited
their house. Unfortunately, a thief approached, and despite not checking through the magic eye, the
grandfather opened the door. The thief, brandishing a knife, proceeded to loot everything from the
house.
➢ The child, lacking knowledge and experience, successfully protected his home from a significant loss
because his parents instilled in him the right attitude toward urban life. In contrast, his knowledgeable
grandfather, despite having wisdom, fell victim to a thief due to a lack of an urban life attitude.
➢ This highlights that in life, success or failure is not solely determined by one's knowledge but by their
attitude towards life.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 35
PYQ || Extra Lecture
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PYQ || Extra Lecture

Q 1. “Human beings should always be treated as ̳ends‘ in themselves and never as ̳means.” Explain the
meaning and significance of this statement, giving its implications in the modern techno-economic
society. (UPSC 2014, 150 words, 10 Marks)
Approach of the Answer:
Introduction:
Immanuel Kant's ethical philosophy, encapsulated in the statement "Human beings should always be treated
as 'ends' in themselves and never as 'means'," serves as a foundational principle in Kantian deontology.
The essence lies in recognizing the intrinsic value and dignity of every individual, emphasizing autonomy in
moral decision-making.
Part I: Meaning and Significance:
Meaning:
❖ 'Ends' in Themselves: Individuals possess inherent worth, autonomy, and the capacity for rational
moral decisions.
❖ 'Means': Using individuals as tools for achieving ends, disregarding their autonomy, is considered
ethically unacceptable by Kant.
Significance:
❖ Value of Equality in the Indian Constitution: Aligns with constitutional values, evident in Articles
14, 15(1), and 16(1).
❖ Non-Discrimination Across Identities: Rejects bias based on caste, creed, religion, ethnicity, or
nationality.
❖ Ethics of Humanism: Embodies an ethics of humanism, emphasizing intrinsic value and dignity.
❖ Justice and Denial of Objectification: Advocates justice, condemning objectification and exploitation.
Implications:
❖ Respect for Individual Autonomy: Encompasses recognizing and safeguarding people's rights to make
informed choices about their lives.
❖ Dignity and Equality: Entitles every person, irrespective of socio-economic status or technological
expertise, to dignity and respect.
Part II: Characteristics of Modern Techno-Economic Society:
❖ Ethics in Technology:
➢ Privacy and Data Use: Kantian ethics condemns treating individuals as mere data points for
economic gain, emphasizing the ethical use of personal data.
❖ Workplace Ethics:
➢ Employee Treatment: Kantian ethics discourages exploiting workers as mere 'means' for profit,
emphasizing fair wages and safe working conditions.
❖ Social Justice:
➢ Digital Inclusion: Kantian ethics may advocate policies ensuring equal access to technological
advancements, preventing the marginalization of certain groups.
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❖ Artificial Intelligence (AI) Ethics:

➢ Autonomous Decision-Making: Kantian ethics underscores the need for accountability and
transparency in AI development, ensuring AI systems respect human autonomy.
Way Forward:
❖ Welfarism: Promoting policies that prioritize the well-being of individuals, aligning with Kantian
principles.
❖ Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Encouraging businesses to act responsibly and ethically,
respecting human dignity.
❖ Minimum Wages: Ensuring fair compensation for work, reflecting Kant's emphasis on fair and
respectful treatment.
❖ Positive Discrimination: Implementing policies addressing historical inequalities, consistent with
Kantian principles of justice.
❖ Economic Justice: Promoting equitable economic systems, resonating with Kant's vision of justice and
respect for human dignity.
Conclusion: Hence, Kant's philosophy, advocating the treatment of individuals as 'ends' in themselves, holds
profound implications in modern techno-economic society. From shaping workplace ethics to influencing
Artificial Intelligence (AI) development and guiding policies for social justice, Kantian principles offer a
moral compass. The way forward involves embracing welfarism, CSR, fair economic practices, positive
discrimination, and a commitment to economic justice, creating a society where individuals are treated with
the respect and dignity Kant envisioned.

Q 2. Some people feel that values keep changing with time and situation, while others strongly believe that
there are certain universal and eternal human values. Give your perception in this regard with due
justification. ( UPSC 2013, 150 words, 10 marks)
Approach:
Introduction:
Understanding the nature of values involves recognizing them as indicators of excellence, influencing both
individual lives and institutional quality. Values contribute to the components of quality of life, acting as
sources of pleasure and happiness. The debate on whether values are dynamic or eternal is multifaceted, with
perspectives varying based on epistemological, metaphysical, and ethical considerations.
Meaning of Value:
❖ Indicator of Excellence: Values serve as benchmarks for excellence, guiding human behavior and
societal norms.
❖ Components of Quality of Life: Values significantly contribute to the quality of life, influencing
personal satisfaction and happiness.
❖ Component of Excellence of Institution: Institutional excellence is often measured by the adherence
to and promotion of core values.
Classification Based on Epistemology:
❖ Empiricism: Scholars like Locke, Bentham, Mill, and William James argue for the dynamic nature of
values. They believe that values evolve based on empirical experiences and changing circumstances.
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❖ Rationalism: Philosophers such as Plato, Hegel, and Kant argue for the static nature of values. They
maintain that certain values are enduring and rooted in rational principles.
Classification Based on Metaphysics:
❖ Materialism: Materialistic perspectives, as seen in Karl Marx's ethics of market economy, posit that
values are subject to change. Economic, social, and political shifts influence the evolution of values.
❖ Spiritualism: Spiritual perspectives, embraced by Jainism, Gandhi, and Swami Vivekananda, argue for
the eternal nature of values. Values are considered reflections of timeless spiritual truths.
Classification Based on Essence of Ethics:
❖ Teleology: Consequentialist ethics, including hedonism, utilitarianism, and egoism, imply a dynamic
view of values. Values are contingent on the outcomes or consequences they produce.
❖ Deontology: Non-consequentialist ethics, exemplified in the Gita, Gandhi's philosophy, Rawls, and
Kant, advocate for the static and eternal nature of values. Values are seen as principles that transcend
situational outcomes.
Dynamic Nature of Values:
❖ Contextual Evolution: Values evolve in response to changing societal, cultural, and economic contexts.
➢ Example: Shifting attitudes towards individual rights with advancements in civil rights
movements.
❖ Cultural Relativity: Different cultures may manifest distinct values, suggesting a dynamic and context-
specific nature.
➢ Example: Varied perceptions of individualism and collectivism in Western and Eastern cultures.
❖ Adaptation to Technology: Technological advancements may influence the emergence of new values
and ethical considerations.
➢ Example: Ethical dilemmas surrounding data privacy in the age of digital technology.
Eternal Nature of Values:
❖ Foundational Moral Principles: Certain values are rooted in foundational moral principles that remain
constant.
➢ Example: The enduring value of truthfulness as a virtue across cultures and epochs.
❖ Intrinsic Human Nature: Some values align with intrinsic aspects of human nature, persisting across
diverse contexts.
➢ Example: The pursuit of happiness and well-being as universal human aspirations.
❖ Moral Consistency: Deontological ethics emphasize the importance of moral consistency, implying
enduring and consistent values.
➢ Example: Principles of justice and fairness as consistent moral foundations.
Synthesis of Perspectives:
❖ Dynamic-Static Synthesis: Recognizing the dynamic and eternal aspects of values allows for a nuanced
synthesis. Values may evolve in response to changing contexts while being anchored in enduring moral
principles.
❖ Ethical Stability and Adaptability: Acknowledging the eternal dimension provides ethical stability
while recognizing the dynamic aspect allows for adaptability to societal progress.
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Conclusion: Thus, the nature of values is a complex interplay between the dynamic, ever-changing aspects
influenced by contextual shifts, and the eternal, timeless principles grounded in moral foundations.
Recognizing this duality offers a comprehensive understanding of the role values play in shaping individual
and societal ethics.

Approach II:
Constitutional Framework:
❖ Doctrine of Basic structure: eternal in nature
❖ Prone to amendments: non-eternal

Q 3. Analyse John Rawls‘s concept of social justice in the Indian Context.

(UPSC 2016, 150 words, 10 Marks)
Approach:
Introduction:
John Rawls's theory of justice, articulated in "A Theory of Justice," establishes two fundamental rules: equal
basic liberties for all and the arrangement of social structures to benefit the least privileged. In the Indian
context, this framework faces challenges due to cultural diversity, patriarchal norms, and the need to address
the rights of marginalized groups.
Part I: Two Rules of Rawls's Theory of Justice:
❖ Rule (1): Equal Rights for All:
➢ Rawls emphasizes equal basic liberties for all individuals, ensuring that everyone has the same
fundamental rights and freedoms.
➢ This principle includes political liberties, freedom of speech, and the right to participate in the
political process.
❖ Rule (2): Maximizing Benefits for the Least Privileged:
➢ Rawls introduces the difference principle, aiming to arrange social and economic structures to
benefit the least advantaged.
➢ This rule ensures that inequalities are permissible only if they lead to the improvement of the least
privileged in society.
Part II: Groups Denied Social Justice in the Indian Context:
❖ LGBTQ+ Community: Discrimination against the LGBTQ+ community has persisted, denying them
equal rights and subjecting them to social stigmatization.
➢ Challenges include legal recognition, societal acceptance, and protection against discrimination.
❖ Transgender Individuals: Transgender individuals face societal marginalization, limited employment
opportunities, and inadequate legal protection. The denial of equal rights hampers their social integration
and overall well-being.
❖ Minorities: Religious and ethnic minorities often experience discrimination, hindering their access to
equal opportunities. Challenges include communal tensions, unequal resource allocation, and limited
political representation.
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❖ Women: Despite constitutional guarantees, women face challenges such as gender-based violence,
unequal pay, and limited representation in decision-making roles. Achieving social justice requires
addressing deep-rooted patriarchal norms.
Challenges in Implementing Rawls's Structure in the Indian Context:
❖ Diversity of Indian Society: India is a diverse society with multiple cultural, linguistic, and religious
communities. Implementing a uniform structure based solely on Rule (1) faces challenges in
accommodating different cultural and familial norms.
❖ Cultural Pluralism: Rule (1) may not be sufficient as it focuses primarily on equal rights, neglecting
the importance of cultural diversity. Alternative family structures, relationships, and cultural practices
need consideration.
❖ Patriarchal Culture: Rule (2) may face resistance in the context of a deeply ingrained patriarchal
culture. Gender-based inequalities persist, posing a challenge to the maximization of benefits for the
least privileged, particularly women.
Conclusion: Analyzing John Rawls's concept of social justice in the Indian context reveals the significance
of equal rights and maximizing benefits for the least privileged. While Rule (1) emphasizes equal basic
liberties, it becomes apparent that it is necessary but not sufficient in a diverse society like India. The
challenge lies in integrating cultural pluralism and recognizing alternative family structures. Rule (2), aimed
at benefiting the least privileged, faces resistance due to deeply embedded patriarchal norms. To address
these challenges, a nuanced approach is required, considering the diverse nature of Indian society, promoting
cultural pluralism, and addressing gender-based inequalities. By incorporating these considerations, India
can move towards a more inclusive and socially just society, aligning with Rawls's principles.

Q 4. What does ethics seek to promote in human life? Why is it all the more important in Public
Administration? (UPSC 2014, 150 words, 10 Marks)
Q 5. It is believed that adherence to ethics in human actions would ensure the smooth functioning of an
organization/system. If so, what does ethics seek to promote in human life? How do ethical values assist
in the resolution of conflicts faced by him in his day-to-day functioning?
( UPSC 2022, 150 words, 10 Marks)
Q 6. The crisis of ethical values in modern times is traced to a narrow perception of the good life. Discuss.
(UPSC 2017, 150 words, 10 Marks)
Approach:
Introduction:
The concept of the "good life" varies across philosophical traditions, encompassing theories such as egoism,
hedonism, and Gandhianism. The crisis of ethical values in modern times is often attributed to a narrow
perception of the good life, particularly when it revolves around exclusive self-interest. This narrow
perspective leads to conflicts, a lack of integrity, insatiable desires, and undesirable traits like greed and
selfishness.
Part I: Meaning of the Good Life
❖ Egoism:
➢ Definition: The good life is seen as the fulfillment of one's self-interest.
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➢ Critique: Exclusive focus on self-interest can lead to a lack of consideration for others, fostering a
sense of competition and conflict.
❖ Hedonism:
➢ Definition: The good life is equated with a life filled with pleasure.
➢ Critique: A sole pursuit of pleasure may neglect moral considerations and long-term well-being.
❖ Gandhianism:
➢ Definition: The good life is embodied in the principles of swaraj and selfless service.
➢ Critique: While altruistic, it may face challenges in a modern, complex society.
Part II: Narrow Meaning of Good Life
❖ Exclusive Self-Interest:
➢ Conflict of Interest: Narrow pursuits of self-interest can lead to conflicts when individual interests
clash.
➢ Absence of Integrity: Ethical values may be compromised when solely driven by self-interest.
❖ Infinite Desires:
➢ Endless Greed: The pursuit of infinite desires fosters greed, making individuals insatiable and
perpetually dissatisfied.
➢ Selfishness: Narrow definitions often result in selfish behavior at the expense of others.
❖ Violence and Competition:
➢ Competitive Culture: An exclusive focus on individual success fosters a competitive culture,
leading to cutthroat competition.
➢ Potential for Violence: Intense competition may lead to unethical practices and even violence.
Part III: Broader Meaning of Good Life
❖ Interest Contained in the Good Life of All:
➢ Common Welfare: A broader perspective entails considering the well-being of all, recognizing
the interdependence of individual and collective well-being.
➢ Ethical Living: Embracing ethical values contributes to a society where the good life is shared,
fostering cooperation and solidarity.
Implications for Ethical Values:
❖ Altruism and Cooperation:
➢ Shared Values: Ethical values gain prominence when the good life is perceived as a shared
endeavor.
➢ Mutual Benefit: Cooperation and altruism become essential components for mutual benefit.
❖ Sustainable Fulfillment:
➢ Long-Term Well-Being: A broader understanding emphasizes the importance of sustainable
practices for the well-being of current and future generations.
➢ Balance and Moderation: Pursuits are guided by principles of balance and moderation to avoid
excess and imbalance.
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❖ Social Harmony:
➢ Reduced Conflict: Considering the common good minimizes conflicts arising from competing
self-interests.
➢ Peaceful Coexistence: A society where the good life is shared promotes peaceful coexistence and
collaboration.
Conclusion: In conclusion, the crisis of ethical values in modern times is intricately linked to a narrow
perception of the good life, characterized by exclusive self-interest and infinite desires. However, a broader
understanding that encompasses the well-being of all offers a path to ethical living, cooperation,
sustainability, and social harmony. Ethical values play a pivotal role in shaping a society where the pursuit
of the good life is not individualistic but a collective endeavor.

Q 7. Without commonly shared and widely entrenched moral values and obligations, neither the law, nor
democratic government, nor even the market economy will function properly. What do you
understand by this statement? Explain with illustration in contemporary times.
(UPSC 2017, 150 words, 10 Marks)
Approach:
Introduction:
The statement underscores the indispensability of commonly shared and widely entrenched moral values and
obligations for the proper functioning of law, democratic government, and the market economy. It posits that
in the absence of a collective moral framework, there is a risk of interests becoming exclusive, leading to
detrimental consequences across various societal domains.
Part I: Shared and Inclusive Interest
❖ Definition:
➢ Shared Interest: Represents the collective well-being and common good of the entire society.
➢ Inclusive Interest: Encompasses the diverse needs and aspirations of individuals within the social
fabric.
❖ Collective Prosperity:
➢ Illustration: A society that prioritizes education, healthcare, and social welfare fosters collective
prosperity.
➢ Significance: Shared interests contribute to the overall well-being and progress of the society.
Part II: Exclusive Interest
❖ Definition:
➢ Crude Egoism: An approach driven solely by individual self-interest without consideration for
others.
➢ Exclusive Interest: Narrow pursuits that prioritize the well-being of specific groups at the expense
of the broader population.
❖ Political Consequences:
➢ Illustration: Crude egoism in politics leads to divisive ideologies, fostering caste and communal
politics.
➢ Significance: Political systems may deteriorate, eroding the foundations of democracy.
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❖ Economic Monopoly:
➢ Illustration: When a few industrialists control the entire economy, it results in a monopoly.
➢ Significance: Economic systems fail to function properly, leading to inequality and skewed
resource distribution.

Part III: Failed Bureaucracy

❖ Bureaucratic Dysfunction:
➢ Illustration: Bureaucratic entities that prioritize personal interests over public service lead to
inefficiency.
➢ Significance: Public services suffer, and governance becomes ineffective.
❖ Democratic Government Challenges:
➢ Illustration: Exclusive interest in politics can lead to the practice of vote-bank politics.
➢ Significance: Democratic principles are compromised, hindering genuine representation and
policy formulation.
Part IV: Contemporary Illustrations
❖ Market Economy and Monopolies:
➢ Illustration: Exclusive interest in business may result in the domination of a few corporations.
➢ Significance: Market economies face distortions, hindering fair competition and innovation.
❖ Environmental Exploitation:
➢ Illustration: Industries exploiting natural resources without ethical considerations.
➢ Significance: Environmental degradation occurs, impacting the long-term sustainability of the
economy.
❖ Social Media and Exclusive Narratives:
➢ Illustration: Social media platforms amplifying exclusive interests and polarizing narratives.
➢ Significance: The democratic exchange of ideas is compromised, leading to information bubbles
and social division.
Conclusion:
Hence, the statement highlights the necessity of commonly shared and widely entrenched moral values and
obligations for the proper functioning of law, democratic governance, and the market economy. The contrast
between shared and inclusive interests versus exclusive pursuits underscores the potential consequences of
neglecting a collective moral framework. Contemporary illustrations further emphasize the importance of
fostering shared values to ensure the equitable and ethical functioning of societal institutions.
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DAILY
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ETHICS

Lecture – 36
Attitude (Part-III)
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Attitude (Part-III)
Functions of Attitude
❖ Ego Defence: It refers to holding an attitude that protects our self-esteem or that justifies an action that makes
us feel guilty. Attitude helps to protect us from ourselves and others and to explain why we have done
something that could be seen as
undesirable.
➢ Example: It includes denial of
our wrong projection,
Rationalization of repression to
protect our self-esteem, the
attitude of women towards
patriarchal society, etc.
❖ Four means through which a person or group defends his or her self-esteem or ego:
➢ Repression: It involves pushing distressing or threatening thoughts, memories, or emotions into the
unconscious mind. It operates as a protective mechanism to prevent these thoughts or memories from
surfacing into conscious awareness, as they may be too painful or anxiety-inducing to confront directly.
Repression can manifest in forgetting traumatic experiences or suppressing unwanted feelings.
✓ For example, a victim of sexual exploitation might unintentionally block out certain details or
feelings related to the abuse as a way for the psyche to cope with the distressing nature of the events.
➢ Denial: It is a defense mechanism in which individuals refuse to acknowledge them existence of an
uncomfortable reality or an unpleasant aspect of themselves. It allows them to avoid facing difficult
truths or emotions, creating a psychological barrier to protect their self-esteem.
✓ For example, a person diagnosed with a serious illness may deny the diagnosis and its implications
as a way to alleviate the anxiety and fear associated with the illness.
➢ Projection: It involves attributing one's undesirable thoughts, feelings, or characteristics to others.
By projecting these negative traits onto others, individuals can avoid confronting their unconscious
feelings, making it easier to maintain a positive self-image.
✓ For instance, a person who harbors feelings of jealousy may project those feelings onto a friend,
accusing the friend of being jealous instead.
➢ Rationalization: It involves creating logical excuses or explanations to make an event or decision more
acceptable to oneself.
✓ For example, imagine a student who fails an important exam despite having ample time to study.
Instead of acknowledging that they did not put in enough effort, the student might rationalize their
failure by saying, “The exam was poorly designed, and the questions were unclear. Even if I had
studied more, I wouldn't have done well because the material was presented confusingly’’.
✓ In this example, the student is rationalizing their poor performance by attributing it to external
factors, such as the quality of the exam, rather than accepting personal responsibility.
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❖ Knowledge Function:
➢ Broadening of knowledge and bringing consistency between arguments trying to achieve consistent
evaluation.
➢ Attitude helps us to understand the overwhelming amount of information in the world. They are
shortcuts, helping us to simplify our perception of the world so that it becomes more manageable,
controllable, and safer. However, in the absence of knowledge about a person, we may use a stereotyped
attitude to judge them.
✓ Example: People who are not familiar with nuclear energy may develop an attitude that it is
dangerous and should not be used as an energy source.
❖ Value Expression:
➢ Attitudes are manifestations of our values. Attitude helps us to relate to ourselves and to others,
presenting a fairly unified image that helps to establish our identity for both ourselves and others. The
attitude we express helps communicate who we are and may make us feel good because we have asserted
our identity.
✓ Example: Consider an individual with a deeply held attitude endorsing gender equality. This attitude
reflects the person's core values of fairness and justice. To express this value, they may actively
engage in behaviors such as promoting equal opportunities in the workplace, advocating for policies
that address gender disparities, or participating in events supporting women's rights.
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DAILY
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Ethics

Lecture - 37
Persuasion
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Persuasion
Persuasion:
❖ Persuasion means to convince someone to change his or her attitude.
❖ Persuasion is a combination of methods tools and means which are used to change someone's attitude.

Components of Persuasion
❖ Characteristics of target audience:
➢ Qualities of the target audience, such as emotive, rational, persuasibility, strong prejudices, self-
esteem, and intelligence, influence the likelihood and extent of attitude change.
➢ People with more open and flexible personalities change more easily.
➢ People with strong prejudices are less prone to any attitude change than those who do not hold strong
prejudices.
➢ Persons who have low self-esteem, and do not have sufficient confidence in themselves change their
attitudes more easily than those who have high self-esteem.
✓ Example: A fashion brand may create a sense of scarcity by promoting a limited-edition collection,
suggesting that only a limited number of items are available. This scarcity tactic can persuade
fashion enthusiasts to purchase a unique and exclusive item.
❖ Characteristics of the message:
 3

➢ Attitude will change when the information in the message is enough, but neither too extreme nor too
low. Also, whether the information has a rational or emotional appeal matters.
✓ Example 1: An advertisement for cooking food in a pressure cooker may point out that this saves
fuel, such as cooking gas (LPG), and is economical (rational appeal). Alternatively, the
advertisement may say that pressure cooking preserves nutrition and that if one cares for the family,
nutrition would be a major concern (emotional appeal). The motives activated by the message
also determine attitude change.
✓ Example 2: Political parties during elections.
➢ There are four types of messages:
• Appeal to emotions (includes emotive contents);
• Appeal to reasons (related to logic);
• Appeal to ethics (related to the normative message);
• Appeal to situations ( related to situations).
❖ Characteristics of Messenger: Source having authority (logos, Pathos); credibility with moral image
(Ethos); clean empathy and role model (emotions) affect attitude change. Attitudes are more likely to
change if a message comes from a highly credible source.
➢ Example: A dentist advocating for using a particular toothpaste.
❖ Routes of Spreading the Message:

➢ The mode of spreading the message plays a significant role. Face-to-face transmission of the message
is usually more effective than indirect transmission, such as for instance, through letters and pamphlets
or even through mass media.
✓ Example: A positive attitude towards Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS) for young children is more
effectively created if community social workers and doctors spread the message by talking to people
directly, than by only describing the benefits of ORS on the radio.
Theories of Persuasion:
❖ Foot-in-the-Door Technique: The foot-in-the-door technique is a persuasive strategy based on the idea that
if someone agrees to a small request, they are more likely to comply with a larger request later. The name
comes from the idea of getting a foot in the door, gaining initial compliance, and then gradually increasing the
size or complexity of the requests. This technique works on the principle of consistency, as people tend to
align their behaviors with their past actions to maintain internal harmony. as
 4

➢ Example: A charity organization may start by asking individuals to sign a petition or join a mailing list
for a cause. Many people may agree to this small initial request.
➢ After a few weeks, the same individuals may be contacted again, this time with a larger request for a
monetary donation. The chances of them donating money are higher because they have already shown a
commitment to the cause by agreeing to the initial, smaller request.
❖ Door-in-the-Face Technique: Unlike the foot-in-the-door technique, the door-in-the-face technique involves
making a large, unreasonable request that is likely to be rejected, followed by a more reasonable, target request.
The target request is what the persuader intended all along, and compared to the initial extreme request, it
seems more acceptable, leading to greater compliance. This technique is based on the principle of reciprocity
and the tendency for people to feel a sense of obligation after declining a big favor.
➢ Example: A salesperson might first propose a premium package or a high-priced product to a potential
customer.
❖ After the customer expresses reluctance or refuses the larger offer, the salesperson then suggests a more
affordable alternative or a scaled-down version of the product. The smaller request seems more reasonable
compared to the initial, larger propos.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 38
Attitude and Emotional
Intelligence
 2

Attitude and Emotional Intelligence

Routes of persuasion

 LOGOS: It is a persuasion method that appeals to logic or reason. In this, we do either inductive reasoning
or deductive reasoning with the use of data information.
 Example: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's ideas are connected with logos in persuasion through his emphasis on
reason, logic, and evidence-based arguments.
 PATHOS: It is a persuasion method that appeals to emotions. It seeks to evoke an emotional response that
can influence attitudes and decision-making.
 Example: A charity commercial featuring heartwarming scenes of needy children, coupled with
emotional music, to elicit sympathy and encourage viewers to donate.
 ETHOS: It centres around the credibility, trustworthiness, and moral character of the source.
 Example: Mahatma Gandhi's concept of "Swaraj" is deeply connected to the ethos through its emphasis
on moral authority, ethical principles, and the power of nonviolent communication.
 KAIROS: It related to appeal based on the situation. It involves considering the context, circumstances, and
timing to make a persuasive appeal more effective.
 Example: A politician delivers a speech on environmental conservation just after a major natural disaster,
using the urgency of the moment to call for immediate action and policy changes.
Types of Attitude:
 Political Attitude: Our favorable perspective towards any political ideology, law, or form of government is
known as political attitude.
 Political attitude is the feeling of an individual/group/society about certain political issues, political
affairs, and political development.
 Political attitude is the belief of an individual, group, or society about any particular political
attitude, political affairs, or political development.
 3

 Political attitude is the tendency to evaluate political issues, political affairs, and political
development.
 Passive people towards politics, reformists, radicals, conformists, etc. impact the formation of political
attitudes by shaping perceptions and beliefs.

 There are two types of political attitudes:

 Positive attitude: enthusiasm, hope, patriotism, and love for any political ideology or political
party.
 Negative Attitude: Resentment, Hatred, Distrust, Apathy, Anxiety, and Fear for any political
ideology or party.
 Moral Attitude:
 Moral attitude refers to an individual’s evaluation, belief, and disposition towards moral principles,
values, and ethical standards.
 Moral attitudes are influenced by moral ideology, spirituality, materialism, utilitarianism, personal
values, social norms, cultural factors, and philosophical perspectives.
Emotional Intelligence:

 Emotional intelligence is defined as the ability to understand our own emotions and other’s emotions and use
them constructively to guide one’s thinking and actions.
 Emotional intelligence is the application of intelligence to emotions.
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
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 39
Attitude and Emotional
Intelligence (Part 2)
 2

Attitude and Emotional Intelligence (Part 2)

Why we need Emotional Intelligence in Ethics
❖ We need Emotional Intelligence in Ethics because there are two ways by which one can become Ethical:
➢ Through Ethics of Kant: Kantian Ethics states that, by understanding the universal duty, one can become
moral and there is no need for emotions. This kind of ethical progress in entire humanity seems impossible
as not everyone can work based on Kantian Ethics.
➢ Through Ethics of Geeta (Gandhian Ethics): Gandhian Ethics such as Swaraj or Nishkaam Krama. It
is also problematic because, for the implementation of Gandhian Ethics one has to change the society or
economic model of the nation, and also to change the rule of law which also seems impossible by this
time.
➢ Through Compassion or Empathy: In this, there is a need to develop some kind of compassion and
Empathy within the human mind. There is a need to understand the pain of others to help each other.
❖ Hence, Emotional Intelligence is necessary in Ethics because it will develop a sense of understanding, to
know about someone’s feelings, someone’s pain, and also develop the Ethics of Service in one’s life. So for
Ethics of Care, Ethics of Compassion, and Ethics of Empathy, we need Emotional Intelligence.
Components of Emotional Intelligence
❖ Self-awareness
❖ Self-regulation
❖ Self-motivation
❖ Empathy
❖ Social skills
 3

Self-awareness
❖ It means “understanding of self”, or it means understanding and identification of Emotions.
❖ Self-awareness is used in:
➢ Understanding of emotions.
➢ Identification of emotions like anger and anxiety.
➢ Labeling of emotions as positive or negative emotions.
➢ Knowing the rules of emotions in success and failure.
❖ For Example: A candidate who is aware of himself or herself and then adopts the career according to the
requirements of the future work, will help to succeed the candidate in the career.
Self-regulation
❖ Self-regulation means the control or regulation of negative emotions like selfishness, greed, and anger and
the strengthening of positive emotions.
❖ This is also known as “Emotional Management”.
❖ To identify the positives of negatives in one’s life, one should know:
➢ Identification of Goals
➢ Sources of Pleasure
➢ Happiness = Source of Motivation.
❖ A man with positive emotional management should always analyze themselves and do self-talk.
❖ Example: Delaying one’s decisions while being angry.
Empathy
❖ Empathy means to understand and feel the emotions of others. It helps in understanding feelings and
labeling the emotions of others.
❖ It is also the control and regulation of negative emotions such as selfishness, and greediness, and it leads
to the Development of Sensibility which builds the understanding of emotions and pain others and develops
the sense of Empathy.
❖ For example,
Mother’s love
for their
children.
❖ Feeling the
emotions of
others increases
the capability of
managing the
emotions of
others.
 4

❖ Empathy comes in two ways:

➢ By enhancing positive emotions such as love, and care.
➢ By controlling negative emotions such as greed, jealousy anger, etc.
Self-motivation:
❖ Self-motivation means the management of distress or disappointment.
❖ Source of Motivation: Motivation comes from the
➢ Fulfillment of Emotional needs: These emotional needs are related to Respect Recognition Acceptance
Reward and Democratic Affairs.
➢ Empathy/Sensibility: Empathy gives Compassion, Compassion gives service and service gives
motivation.
❖ It is necessary for success.
❖ Benefits of self-motivation
➢ It gives a positive outcome.
➢ It helps in maintaining a stable relationship is required in teamwork.
➢ Self-motivation helps in maximization of efficiency.
➢ It helps in realistic goal setting.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 40
Emotional Intelligence (Part-03)
 2

Emotional Intelligence (Part-03)

Advantages of Emotional Intelligence:
❖ It brings peace and happiness.
❖ Emotional intelligence brings a sense of security.
❖ It creates sound mental health.
❖ It eliminates the possibility of depression.
❖ It cures mental stress.
❖ These things develop the ability to make sound and strong relationships with others.
❖ It enhances the possibility of success and reduces the possibility of failures.

Social skills:
❖ Emotional Intelligence helps in the development of:
➢ Democratic attitude: An emotionally intelligent person always gives respect to others' opinions. He can
accept a different perspective or plurality of views. So an individual becomes diversified and becomes a
leader by having relations with every other individual and giving space to them.
➢ Tolerance: Here an individual develops as an accommodative individual by showing tolerance.
➢ Inclusive attitude: A person becomes egalitarian by adopting the character of inclusive attitude. This
also helps him to get the best solution by participation of all stakeholders in decision making.
➢ Positive attitude: An individual with this character always possesses optimism. because, here he is
aiming for the best result with a positive attitude.
 3

❖ Significance of Social Skills:

➢ Enhance problem-solving skills: Social skills can enhance problem solving skills because he has all the
qualities that are required to solve a complex problem.
➢ Quality of conflict resolution: An individual acquires a quality of conflict resolution.
✓ Example: An IPS officer who has the best relationship with every other person in the society, and
with all the constables. He can resolve the conflict because of his bond with every stakeholder.
➢ Effective Communicator: An emotionally intelligent person has the fusion of body language, facial
expression, and emotions. So he becomes an effective communicator.
❖ Buddha’s acceptance is more in society because of his compassion, empathy, care, love, etc. and he feels bad
for the other sufferings.
❖ Example: During the CAA protest and COVID-19 lockdown, many civil servants handled situations
effectively through their social skills.
Implications and Importance of Social Skill:
❖ Its role in developing foundational value of civil services:
➢ Integrity: Absence of conflict of interest is called integrity. There are two conflicts of interest called Self
interest and Public interest.
➢ Self interest comes because of greed, anger, selfishness, hatred etc. these emotions confines an individual
to a narrow bonding. So this individual does not carry a public interest. These all control and regulate
negative emotions which are not good for a civil servant.
➢ Empathy and compassion are also required for increasing the importance of public interest. A civil servant
carries supremacy of public interest in their persona if he is not having these negative emotions.
➢ Emotional intelligence is a healer of the heart. Due to this, a bureaucrat becomes a person with integrity
and a public interest-oriented person.
➢ Compassion towards the weaker section of society: Emotional intelligence develops a bureaucrat to
have the attitude of compassionate service towards the weaker section of society.
❖ Probity of institutions: EI brings empathy, compassion, service ethics, care, and Integrity. And all these
characters will make a virtuous personality. And a virtuous person will be less prone to corruption. So
Emotional Intelligence can build corruption-free institutions.

Value:
❖ The indication of excellence is called value.
❖ If we bring value to society, it is called social value. If we bring value to human character, then it is human
value.
❖ If we bring value in politics then it is political value.
❖ Compassion, empathy, tolerance, and integrity are the values because these can enhance the value of a
person.
❖ Example: A student even after studying basic science and engineering, still follows superstitions and they
do not have a scientific temper. So in many instances, a person does not carry forward the value that is
required for his life.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 41
Aptitude and Integrity
 2

Aptitude and Integrity

Attitude:
Here we study,
❖ What is Aptitude?
❖ What is the role of aptitude in ethics?
❖ What is the relationship of aptitude with skills, excellence, etc?
❖ What role does it play in achieving a self-goal and institutional goal?
Aptitude:
❖ Aptitude is a set of innate abilities of a person to acquire a certain kind of skill, or competence if given training.
It indicates aptness/suitability to succeed in a particular field.
❖ Aptitude is innate mental and physical capabilities.
➢ Example: Mohammud Rafi and Lata Mangeshkar are good in singing but not experts in other fields.
❖ Aptitude can decide the field of interest.
➢ Example: Teachers can enjoy teaching, and upsc aspirants can enjoy the preparation.
➢ Aptitude is necessary for self-success and the success of the Institution.
❖ Aptitude is an innate ability that can convert into excellence through acquiring the skills.
❖ ‘Free Will’ enables choice of interest to harness aptitude for excellence.
❖ Aptitude with training generates superior skills, superior ability, competence or excellence, and mental
pleasure.
➢ For Example: Good mechanics, Good surgeons.
❖ Absence of aptitude and training will lead to low-level skill, inferior skills, mediocrity and it is hard to
succeed.
Core and Primary Functions of Ethics:
❖ To make a person happy, enhance and increase the quantity and degree of pleasures.
❖ To achieve a goal of well being.
❖ To make our world better.
❖ To bring probity and excellence in institutions.
Note: All these objectives of ethics are clearly related to aptitude.
Society:
❖ It can be religious, it can be patriarchal.
❖ It can be feudal.
❖ It can have a caste system.
❖ In it there will be a strong parental control over decision making.
❖ In it there will be punishment by teachers and parents.
❖ In this kind of social setup, a person follows the goals and objectives decided by the society and parents.
When a person is choosing his career goals through parental decisions or career decisions by society then people
are coming into institutions without a particular aptitude which is essential for the institution. This is the reason
we need to devise a test to check whether they possess the required aptitude or not.
 3

Identification of the Aptitude in the Person:

❖ Observation: Observe how the person performs in different activities. Look for areas where they excel
effortlessly and show enthusiasm and interest.
❖ Feedback: Seek feedback from teachers, mentors, or supervisors
who have closely worked with the person. It can provide valuable
insights into the person's strengths and weaknesses.
❖ Interest and Passion: Identify subjects, hobbies, or activities the
person is genuinely interested in and passionate about. Aptitude
often aligns with enthusiasm.
❖ Problem-solving skills: Assess the person's problem-solving
abilities. Aptitude is often reflected in how they approach
challenges and find innovative solutions.
❖ Learning Style: Understand the person's learning style. Some
individuals may be visual learners, while others may prefer
auditory or kinesthetic methods. Aligning their learning style
with their interests can enhance their aptitude.
❖ Psychometric Tests: Consider using psychometric tests
specifically designed to measure aptitude in various fields. These
tests can provide objective insights into a person's cognitive
abilities.
Foundational Values of Civil Services:
❖ Meaning of integrity: What is integrity?
❖ Examples of integrity (favorable example and examples of violation of integrity)
❖ What are sources of integrity?
❖ What are the contemporary challenges to the value of integrity and probable solutions?
❖ Relevance of integrity in civil services: Why it is the most important value for civil servants?
❖ Integrity versus honesty.
❖ Integrity versus probity.
What is Integrity?
❖ Integer or integras means ‘Whole’ or ‘Complete’.
❖ Integrity means adherence to a single moral principle or consistent moral principles.
❖ Integrity means unwavering or uncompromising loyalty to ethical principles or consistent ethical ideas.
❖ Integrity means unity of thought (ethical principle), speech, and action.
❖ Integrity means walking the talk.
❖ Integrity means an uncompromising ethical attitude or personality.
❖ Integrity means the absence of conflict of interest.
❖ Civil servants following Supreme ethical principles like the values of the constitution would give importance
to public interest over self-interest in case of conflict between them.
 4

❖ Integrity means Supreme loyalty to truth or ethical principles. The ethical principles may involve-
Nishkama Karma, Categorical imperative, Absence of conflict of interest, Compromising attitude,
Completeness, or consistency.
Integrity Versus Honesty:
❖ Integrity and honesty are both important ethical traits, but they have distinct meanings and applications.
❖ Integrity refers to the consistency between one's values, principles, and actions. It involves being true to
oneself and upholding moral standards, even in challenging situations.
❖ On the other hand, honesty is the quality of being truthful, sincere, and transparent in communication
with others.
❖ While integrity is an inner commitment to moral values, honesty pertains to how one interacts with the external
world.
❖ For Example: A person with integrity would refuse to engage in corruption, even when tempted with a bribe,
due to their unwavering commitment to honesty and fairness. In contrast, honesty would manifest in admitting
a mistake or confessing a wrong doing to someone else without deceit or manipulation.
Example of Violation of Morality:
❖ Zakaria was suspended for a week in August 2012 while Time and CNN investigated an allegation of
plagiarism involving a 20 August column on gun control with similarities to a New Yorker article by Jill
Lepore. In a statement Zakaria apologized, saying that he had made "a terrible mistake."
❖ Rajat Gupta, a former managing director of McKinsey & Company and board member of Goldman Sachs,
was involved in a high-profile insider trading case. In 2012, he was convicted of passing confidential
information about Goldman Sachs to hedge fund manager Raj Rajaratnam, who used the information to make
illegal trades. Gupta was found guilty of securities fraud and conspiracy, making him one of the most
prominent figures to be convicted in the U.S. government's crackdown on insider trading. The case raised
concerns about ethics and integrity in the financial industry and resulted in a significant prison sentence for
Gupta.
❖ The Satyam Computer Services scandal, also known as India's Enron, was a corporate fraud case that shook
the Indian corporate world in 2009. Satyam's founder and chairman, Ramalinga Raju, confessed to inflating
the company's profits and fabricating its balance sheets to the tune of billions of dollars over several years. The
revelation of the accounting fraud led to a loss of investor confidence, and the company's stock value
plummeted. The Indian government intervened and appointed a new board to manage the crisis. Eventually,
the company was acquired by Tech Mahindra. The case exposed serious lapses in corporate governance and
raised questions about the credibility of financial reporting in India.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 42
Integrity
 2

Integrity
Relationship between Integrity and Honesty:
❖ Integrity as a Larger Framework: Integrity encompasses a broader set of values and principles that guide
an individual's actions and decision-making. It involves being honest, but it also includes other virtues such
as accountability, consistency, and adherence to moral and ethical standards.
❖ Honesty as a Component of Integrity: Honesty is a specific virtue within the framework of integrity. It
refers to the quality of truthfulness and sincerity in communication and actions. A person with integrity will
inherently prioritize honesty as one of their core values.
❖ Consistency in Behavior: Both integrity and honesty emphasize consistency in behavior. A person with
integrity will consistently act honestly in various situations, regardless of the circumstances.
Features of Integrity:
❖ Being Honest and Principled: Integrity involves being truthful and upright in one's actions and
communications. It means standing firm on a set of moral principles and not compromising them, even when
faced with challenges or temptations.
❖ Demonstrating Strong Moral Principles and Values: Individuals with integrity showcase a clear set of
moral values that guide their behavior. These principles serve as a moral compass, helping them make
decisions that align with their beliefs and values.
❖ Consistently Adhering to Ethical Standards: Integrity is marked by consistent adherence to ethical
standards in all situations. It means acting ethically not just when it is convenient but as a fundamental aspect
of one's character.
❖ Acting with Honesty, Transparency, and Responsibility: Integrity requires being honest and transparent
in all dealings and taking responsibility for one's actions. It means being accountable for the consequences of
one's choices.
❖ Staying True to Oneself and Beliefs: Individuals of integrity stay true to themselves and their beliefs, even
when it might be easier to go along with the crowd or compromise their values. They dare to stand up for
what they believe in.
Probity:
❖ Probity is characterized by individuals adhering to a set of unwavering moral principles and being truthful
and sincere in their actions and communications. It involves a commitment to doing what is right, regardless
of personal interests or external pressures.
❖ It is especially relevant to those in public service, governmental roles, or positions of authority. As these
individuals wield power and influence, their actions have a significant impact on society, making integrity
and ethical behavior essential for upholding the public's trust.
❖ Those with probity exhibit a high level of integrity and are resistant to corruption or unethical practices.
They maintain a strong stance against bribery, favoritism, and any form of dishonesty, thereby ensuring
fairness and impartiality in their interactions.
❖ Public officials and individuals with probity handle public resources, such as finances and assets, with
utmost honesty and responsibility. They prioritize the public interest over personal gain, ensuring that
public funds are used transparently and for the benefit of society.
 3

❖ Probity plays a pivotal role in establishing and preserving trust between the government, public
institutions, and the citizens.
Relationship between Integrity and Probity:
❖ The relationship between integrity and probity lies in their interconnectedness, especially in public service
and governance contexts.
❖ When individuals in positions of authority demonstrate integrity, they naturally exhibit probity in their
actions:
➢ Public Officials: Leaders with personal integrity are more likely to display probity in their official
duties. For instance, a government official with strong personal integrity will be less susceptible to
corruption and more committed to serving the public interest honestly and responsibly.
➢ Corporate Governance: In business organizations, leaders who prioritize integrity will establish a
culture of probity. Employees will be encouraged to follow ethical practices, and the company's
reputation for honesty will be reflected in its business dealings.
➢ Trust and Credibility: Integrity and probity are essential for building trust and credibility. Whether
it's a public servant or a corporate executive, individuals who consistently act with integrity and probity
earn the trust of their stakeholders and the public.
➢ Ethical Decision Making: When faced with difficult decisions, individuals with strong integrity are
more likely to make ethical choices that prioritize the greater good. Probity ensures that these
decisions are executed transparently and responsibly.
➢ Long-term Impact: Institutions and organizations led by individuals with integrity and probity are
more likely to have a positive and lasting impact on society. They are less susceptible to corruption,
scandals, and ethical breaches.
Source of Integrity:
❖ Use of Reason (Universal Laws) and Emotion:
➢ Marxist ideological ethics: Adherence to moral principle by using the method of scientific socialism.
➢ Kant's deontological ethics: Adherence to moral principles through reason and the categorical
imperative.
➢ Rawls' theory of justice: Development of principles through reason, ensuring fairness and equality.
➢ Empathy and Understanding: Emotional connection fostering empathy and treating others with
dignity and respect.
➢ Utilitarian Values: Emotional recognition of consequences, promoting actions for the greater good.
❖ Control and Regulation of Self-Interest, Sensitivity, and Compassion Development:
➢ Control of Self-Interest: Gautam Buddha's renunciation of desires and worldly attachments,
prioritizing enlightenment and helping others. For a country, national interest comes first.
➢ Sensitivity and Compassion Development:
✓ Mother Teresa: Selfless service to the poor, driven by compassion and empathy for the suffering.
❖ Indian Philosophical Tradition:
➢ Spiritualism and Control over Desire:
✓ Hinduism and Jainism: Emphasis on spiritual growth, detaching from material desires.
➢ Non-Materialism Worldview and Idea of the Good Life:
 4

✓ Mahatma Gandhi: Adherence to truth (Satyagraha) and non-violence (Ahimsa), promoting the
welfare of all.
❖ Faith and Use of Scriptures:
➢ Christianity:
✓ Moral guidelines for integrity, promoting honesty and compassion.
✓ Jesus' Teachings: Love for others and selfless actions based on faith.
➢ Islam:
✓ Quranic Guidance: Encouraging integrity through honesty, fairness, and pursuit of justice.
Challenges of Integrity:
❖ Conflict between State and Society: The state's policies and actions may clash with the interests and values
of the wider society, putting individuals in a dilemma between loyalty to the state and standing up for
societal integrity.
➢ Examples: Government decisions that favor certain industries or groups at the expense of the
environment may force citizens to question their loyalty to the state's decisions versus their
responsibility to protect the common good.
❖ Conflict between State and Individual: Individuals may face pressure from the state to compromise their
values or principles for the sake of the greater good as perceived by the government.
➢ Examples: A citizen might be asked to withhold crucial information that could expose government
misconduct, leading to a conflict between loyalty to the state and individual integrity.
❖ Narrow Meaning of Good Life (Greed and Selfishness): Good life is essentially a life of bodily pleasures
with a narrow meaning. These pleasures are non-inclusive, that’s why they become inconsistent.
➢ Modern societies often emphasize material wealth and individual success, leading people to prioritize
personal gain over ethical considerations.
➢ Examples: Individuals engaging in corrupt practices to accumulate wealth or gain power, even at the
expense of others' well-being, demonstrate a narrow understanding of the good life centered on personal
gratification.
❖ Political Corruption and Separation of Ethics and Politics: Corruption in political systems can erode
integrity by undermining the ethical foundations of public service.
➢ Examples: Politicians accepting bribes or using public resources for personal gain demonstrate a lack of
integrity and ethical misconduct.
❖ Partiality and Non-Partisanship ( Identity Politics): Identity politics can lead to biased decision-making
and lack of impartiality, where loyalty to one's identity group takes precedence over objective ethical
considerations.
➢ Examples: If a public servant or judge favors individuals from their identity group over others in the
provision of services or the application of the law, it raises questions about their integrity and
commitment to fair treatment.
❖ Market Economy: Some market economies are driven by consumerism but some economies are driven by
capitalism, here the market economy loses integrity based on their interest rather than societal good.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 43
Case Study
 2

Case Study
How to solve case studies?
Norms or Parameters of evaluation for case study:
 Through Case Study, the Examiner tries to evaluate.
 The Following Parameters:
 It is a test of ethical understanding.
 It is a test of understanding of ethical dilemmas or issues.
 It tests ethical reasoning.
 It tests ethical premises.
 It is a test of ethical justification.
 Case study tests the aptitude of candidates which is required for civil services aptitude.
 It tests values, virtues, or characters.
 It tests the integrity of candidates.
 It tests the sensibilities of the candidate.
Steps involved in solving the case studies:
 The first step is the identification of dilemmas or moral issues.
1. Justice versus liberty
2. Duty versus right
3. Self-interest versus public interest
4. Duty-related dilemma:
 Duty Versus Duty.
 Duty of a person as manager, citizen,
and human being.
 Duty of a UPSC aspirant to save a
man who had an accident while going
to an interview.
5. Rights Issues:
 Rights versus Rights.
 For Example: In the case of Muslim
women the practice of Nilikha halal is
as per personal law which is a part of
cultural rights, but it violates the
fundamental rights of the women.
6. Dilemma Justice:
 Substantive justice versus Formal
procedural justice. Write like, In this
case study, the moral issue of substantive justice and welfarism conflicts with individual liberty.
7. Individual rights versus group rights.
8. National security versus Human rights and individual rights.
9. National interest versus Human rights and Refugee rights.
 3

10. Dilemma of conflict of values: Ends justify means versus end doesn't justify means.
11. Compassion Versus Impartiality.
12. Rules versus Consequences.
13. Short-term consequences versus long-term consequences.
 The second step is the identification of options like moral standards or values moral theories or moral
premises. This step tests virtues and values in your personality. Use the following in the second step:
 Constitutional morality of fundamental rights especially article 21, article 39 (b) (c).
 Ethics of humanism and liberalism.
 Rawl’s idea of justice and Rawlsian veil of ignorance.
 Kant’s maxim of universality.
 Mill’s refined hedonism.
 Ideal utilitarianism.
 Theory of organic unity.
 Value of compassion, empathy, and Impartiality.
 The third step is the Identification of stakeholders: Use the following in this step:
 Judiciary: Case study of interest of company and interest of person lying injured hit by manager’s car. A
strong robust judicial system involves the statement of eyewitnesses. As an eye witness in this case you
have to take care of the injured person's interest.
 State
 Society
 Both the managers
 Both the companies
 Identification of available options: The fourth step is testing options based on values or ethical ideas. It also
means analysis of the options. Always follow the integrity and constitutional methods while testing the options
involved. Totally this case study is a test of integrity, value of civil service, etc.
 Analysis of options for identification of merits and demerits:
 Analysis of option A: Write the 3 merits and 3 demerits of this option. Writing like this is consistent with
the Kantian maxim that every human being should be treated as an end and never as an end. Write like, I
will save the life of a biker and give my testimony.
 Analysis of option B: Write the 3 merits and 3 demerits of this option.
 After this, writing like option A is consistent with five moral ideas.
 Option B is consistent with two moral ideas.
 Option C is consistent with one moral value.
 Option D is consistent with three moral values.
 The fifth step is a conclusion or decision.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 44
Case study (Part-02)
 2

Case study (Part-02)

Qn.14: You are the Executive Director of an upcoming InfoTech Company which is making a name for itself in
the market. Mr. A, who is a star performer, is heading the marketing team. In a short period of one year, he has
helped in doubling the revenues as well as creating a high brand equity for the Company so much so that you are
thinking of promoting him. However, you have been receiving information from many corners about his attitude
towards the female colleagues; particularly his habit of making loose comments on women. In addition, he regularly
sends indecent SMS to all the team members including his female colleagues. One day, late in the evening, Mrs. X,
who is one of Mr. A’s team members, comes to you visibly disturbed. She complains about the continued
misconduct of Mr. A, who has been making undesirable advances toward her and has even tried to touch her
inappropriately in his cabin. She tendered her resignation and left your office.

(20 marks, 250 words, PYQ-2013)

1. What are the options available to you?
2. Evaluate each of these options and choose the option you would adopt, giving reasons.

Approach:

A. Identification of Dilemma or Moral Issues:

 Gender Justice vs. Profit of the Company:
 Dilemma: Balancing the need for gender justice and creating a safe workplace against the
potential impact on the company's profitability.
 Evaluation: Prioritizing gender justice is essential for ethical and legal reasons, and it also
contributes to a positive work culture, potentially enhancing the company's long-term success.
 Value of Empathy vs. Interest of the Company:
 Dilemma: Weighing the value of empathy towards the victimized employee against the overall
interests and growth of the company.
 Evaluation: Demonstrating empathy and taking action against harassment aligns with ethical
standards and can foster a healthier work environment, positively impacting the company in the
long run.
 Work Culture vs. Good Consequence for the Company:
 Dilemma: Maintaining a positive work culture versus achieving positive consequences for the
company, given the star performer's misconduct.
 Evaluation: Upholding a healthy work culture is crucial for employee satisfaction and
retention, which ultimately contributes to the company's success.
 Right to Dignified Life vs. Business Growth:
 Dilemma: Balancing the employee's right to a dignified life with the company's growth and
employee interests.
 Evaluation: Ensuring the dignity and safety of employees should be a priority, as it aligns with
constitutional rights and ethical principles.
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 Treating Human Beings as Ends vs. Profit and Benefit:

 Dilemma: Prioritizing the ethical treatment of individuals versus focusing on the company's
profit and benefit.
 Evaluation: Respecting the dignity of individuals is fundamental; this approach contributes to
long-term employee satisfaction and loyalty, positively affecting the company.
B. Stakeholders:
 Society: The company's actions influence societal perceptions and expectations regarding workplace
ethics and gender justice.
 State: Adherence to laws, especially those related to sexual harassment, is essential. Legal
consequences may follow if the issue is not appropriately addressed.
 Company: The company's reputation, culture, and employee morale are at stake.
 CEO: The CEO must make decisions aligning with ethical principles and legal obligations,
considering the company's long-term success.
 Mr. A: His actions have consequences for his career, and the company's response will affect his
future within the organization.
 Mr. X (the victim): Her well-being and justice for the harassment she faced are crucial
considerations.
 Employees of the Company: The overall work environment and employee satisfaction are impacted
by how the company handles such cases.
C. Moral Standards:
 Maximum Benefit for the Maximum Number of Stakeholders (Utilitarian Ethics): Maximizing
benefit for the maximum number suggests removing Mr. A to enhance the company's image and
employee well-being.
 Theory of Refined Hedonism: Balancing pleasure (success and profit) with ethical considerations
to avoid harm.
 Kantian Maxim of Morality: Considering actions that are ethically universalizable and treat
individuals with respect and dignity.
 Constitutional Morality (Fundamental Rights): Adhering to constitutional principles, including
the right to a dignified life.
 Visakha Guidelines (Supreme Court 1997): Following legal guidelines on preventing and
addressing sexual harassment in the workplace.
 Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition Act 2013): Complying
with legal obligations to prevent and address workplace harassment.
 Ethics of Indian Tradition (Yatra Naryastu Pujyante): Incorporating cultural values that
emphasize the respect and worship of women.
 Business Ethics (Code of Conduct and Work Culture): Ensuring that business practices align with
ethical standards and contribute to sustainable success.
 Emotional Intelligence: Recognizing and managing emotions to handle interpersonal relationships
effectively.
 4

D. Identification of Possible Options:

 Initiating Department Enquiry and Asking Mr. X to Withdraw Her Resignation:
 Positive: Addresses the issue internally.
 Negative: May not provide a strong deterrent against future misconduct.
 Asking Mr. X to Lodge a Public Complaint and Initiate a Department inquiry:
 Positive: Promotes transparency.
 Negative: Publicity may harm the company's reputation.
 Asking Mr. X to Compromise and Offering Cash Incentive:
 Negative: Compromising on ethical principles and sets a wrong precedent and may not address
the root issue.
 Doing Nothing and Waiting for Issues to Settle Down:
 Negative: Ignores the victim's rights and may lead to a toxic work environment.
 Asking Mr. A to Apologize and Mr. X to Take Back the Resignation:
 Positive: Promotes resolution and potentially maintains a positive work relationship.
 Negative: This may not adequately address the severity of the misconduct.
E. Decision Based on Ethical Considerations:
 Utilitarian Ethics: Removing Mr. A from his position aligns with maximizing overall benefit, considering
the positive impact on employee morale, company reputation, and societal perception. It addresses the
immediate issue and promotes a safer work environment, aligning with the principle of maximum benefit
for the maximum number of stakeholders.
Business Ethics: The goal of business ethics is sustainable profit and a positive brand image. Removing Mr. A
demonstrates a commitment to ethical conduct, fostering a healthy work culture, and ensuring long-term success
by preserving the company's reputation and employee well-being.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 45
Case Study (Part-03)
 2

Case Study (Part-03)

Q 9. UPSC CSE (2013)
A Public Information Officer has received an application under the RTI Act. Having gathered the information, the
PIO discovers that the information pertains to some of the decisions taken by him, which were found to be not
altogether right. There were other employees also who were party to these decisions. Disclosure of the information
is likely to lead to disciplinary action with the possibility of punishment against him as well as some of his
colleagues. Non-disclosure or part disclosure or camouflaged disclosure of information will result in lesser
punishment or no punishment. The PIO is otherwise an honest and conscientious person but his particular decision,
on which the RTI application has been filed, turned out to be wrong. He comes to you for advice.
1. The following are some suggested options. Please evaluate the merits and demerits of each of the options:
2. The PIO could refer the matter to his superior officer seek his advice and act strictly by the advice, even though
he is not completely in agreement with the advice of the superior.
3. The PIO could proceed on leave and leave the matter to be dealt with by his successor in office or request for
transfer of the application to another PIO.
4. The PIO could weigh the consequences of disclosing the information truthfully, including the effect on his
career, and reply in a manner that would not place him or his career in jeopardy, but at the same time, a little
compromise can be made on the contents of the information.
5. The PIO could consult his other colleagues who are party to the decision and take action as per their advice.
Approach:
❖ First step: The first step is to identify dilemmas or ethical issues:
➢ Duty of PIO Versus To safeguard the interests of my colleagues.
➢ Objectivity, impartiality, integrity Versus good consequences for maximizing the interest of stakeholders
including my colleagues.
➢ Rule or right Versus good consequences for maximizing the interest of stakeholders including my
colleagues.
➢ Self-interest versus probity and integrity.
❖ Second step: The second step is the identification of moral standards or ethical ideals or theories or values
that can help or be applied in solving the above dilemma.
➢ Utilitarianism.
➢ Probity in governance.
➢ Constitutional morality.
➢ Values of public administration: Duty ethics, which is a maxim of universality.
➢ Code of conduct and code of ethics.
➢ Ethics of integrity, transparency, openness and accountability.
➢ Moral standard of rule of law.
➢ Morality of individual rights.
➢ Ethics of values of RTI.
 3

❖ Third step: The third step is the identification of stakeholders:

➢ I and my colleagues
➢ My department.
➢ State, RTI law, probity, RTI applicant, Constitutional ideals.
❖ The Fourth Step: The fourth step is the identification of available options.
I) The PIO could refer the matter to his superior officer seek his advice and act strictly by the
advice, even though he is not completely in agreement with the advice of the superior.
❖ This option is ethically not acceptable as it contains a violation of the values of Public Administration and
duty ethics.
➢ Merit: The Locus standi of decision and accountability will be the same, if I would be held accountable
for a decision then a decision should be taken by my voluntary choices.
➢ The principle of my options and my duties also contradicts this option.
➢ In this case there is no scope of advice as I am not supposed to tell my opinion or anybody's opinion. I am
supposed to disclose information that is already there.
➢ It is against the code of conduct.
➢ Demerit: Seeking advice is a valid option only when someone is asked for an opinion in the case and
context of information.
➢ In this option PIO and his boss would use their discretion whereas information is objective and it has
nothing to do with discretionary powers.
II) PIO could proceed on leave and leave the matter to be dealt with by his successor in office or
request for transfer of the application to another PIO.
❖ Merit: It is consistent with the values of integrity, objectivity, and impartiality. It can avoid conflict of interest
which upholds the value of integrity.
❖ Demerit: The decision will remain the same as the information will remain the same.
III) The PIO could weigh the consequences of disclosing the information truthfully, including the
effect on his career, and reply in a manner that would not place him or his career in jeopardy,
but at the same time, a little compromise can be made on the contents of the information.
❖ Merit: Short-term benefit.
❖ Demerit: It is against the ethics and spirit of the Right to Information.
❖ It is against the constitutional norms. It is inconsistent with my duty as PIO.
❖ It violets the value of impartiality and integrity.
❖ It is against the will of the public or parliament.
❖ It is inconsistent with the ethics of probity.
IV) The PIO could consult his other colleagues who are party to the decision and take action as per
their advice.
❖ Merit: Short-term benefit.
 4

❖ Demerit: It is against the constitutional norms. It is inconsistent with my duty as PIO.

❖ It violets the value of impartiality and integrity.
❖ It is inconsistent with the code of conduct.
❖ It is against the will of the public or parliament.
V) I will disclose the information in the same form and content as it is.
❖ This option is consistent with values of enlightened egoism, openness, impartiality, integrity, transparency,
values of constitutional norms, and duty ethics.
❖ When I am an enlightened egoist then my interests are contained in the interest of all and the interests of all
are contained in the rule of law. This is the theory of organic unity.
❖ Based on refined hedonism, the enemy of mental pleasure is insecurity, fear, and lies. Option this shows that
intent was good.
❖ This option is consistent with aptitude for public services and it is also consistent with a positive attitude.
❖ It will generate good consequences for all.
Q 10. UPSC CSE (2013)
You are working as an Executive Engineer in the construction cell of a Municipal Corporation and are presently in
charge of the construction of a flyover. There are two Junior Engineers under you who have the responsibility of
day-to-day inspection of the site and are reporting to you, while you are finally reporting to the Chief Engineer who
heads the cell. While the construction is heading towards completion, the Junior Engineers have been regularly
reporting that all construction is taking place as per design specifications. However, in one of your surprise
inspections, you have noticed some serious deviations and lacunae which, in your opinion, are likely to affect the
safety of the flyover. Rectification of these lacunae at this stage would require a substantial amount of demolition
and rework which will cause a tangible loss to the contractor and will also delay completion. There is a lot of public
pressure on the Corporation to get this construction completed because of heavy traffic congestion in the area. When
you brought this matter to the notice of the Chief Engineer, he advised you that in his opinion it is not a very serious
lapse and may be ignored. He advised for further expediting the project for completion in time. However, you are
convinced that this was a serious matter which might affect public safety and should not be left unaddressed.
What will you do in such a situation? Some of the options are given below. Evaluate the merits and demerits of
each of these options and finally suggest what course of action you would like to take, giving reasons.
(20 marks 250 words)
1. Follow the advice of the Chief Engineer and go ahead.
2. Make an exhaustive report of the situation bringing out all facts and analysis along with your own viewpoints
stated clearly and seek for written orders from the chief Engineer.
3. Call for explanation from the Junior Engineers and issue orders to the contractor for necessary correction
within targeted time.
4. Highlight the issue so that it reaches superiors above the Chief Engineer.
5. Considering the rigid attitude of the Chief Engineer, seek transfer from the project or report sick.
 5

Approach:
❖ Dilemma: short-term gains versus long term loss.
❖ Consequences versus integrity.
❖ Good consequences versus treating human beings as an end.
❖ Short term ability and credibility versus long term ability and credibility.
Moral standards:
❖ Refined hedonism.
❖ Consequentialist ethics.
❖ Integrity.
❖ Kantian maxim.
❖ Attitude.
❖ Right to life under article 21.
❖ Environmentalism.
Stakeholders:
❖ Public
❖ State
❖ Junior engineer
❖ Chief engineer
❖ Me
❖ Contractor
❖ First Option: Follow the advice of the Chief Engineer and go ahead.
➢ Merit: Superior knowledge, expertise and more experience should be followed for taking good or right
decisions and this option is consistent with these standards.
➢ It will maintain a happy and better environment of work in the office.
➢ Demerit: Only decision making is transferred to seniors but not the accountability. I will be held
accountable if the flyover collapses in future.
❖ Second Option: Make an exhaustive report of the situation bringing out all facts and analysis along with your
own viewpoints stated clearly and seek for written orders from the chief Engineer.
➢ Merit: This option is consistent with values of public services like objectivity, openness, and impartiality.
➢ Locus of both decision-making and accountability will be the same.
➢ Decision-making is clear and factual.
➢ Demerit: Adverse impact on work culture.
➢ Group Cohesiveness and rivalries develop in the work culture.
❖ Third Option: Call for explanation from the Junior Engineers and issue orders to the contractor for necessary
correction within targeted time.
➢ Merit: Effective accountability, change in attitude, long term good consequences for contractors.
 6

➢ Demerit: Adverse impact on work culture.

➢ Group Cohesiveness and rivalries develop in the work culture.
❖ Fourth Option: Highlight the issue so that it reaches superiors above the Chief Engineer.
➢ Merit: This option has merit when the chief engineer is not willing to give written orders and he is not
asking the contractors to correct the mistake. Then there will be more scrutiny and objectivity and
openness will increase.
➢ Demerit: Adverse impact on work culture.
➢ Group Cohesiveness and rivalries develop in the work culture.
❖ Fifth Option: Considering the rigid attitude of the Chief Engineer, seek transfer from the project or report
sick.
➢ Merit: Friction will end at the workplace.
➢ Demerit: The problem will never end and the newly appointed officer will face even more difficulty in
solving the problem. So the gravity and intensity of the problem will increase even more.
Course of Action:
❖ I will conduct a joint meeting with a junior engineer, me and senior engineer, and contractors and convince
them that my point of view is correct.
❖ Third-party audits can be done by the chief engineer.
❖ Making a report and raising a question regarding all of my issues.
❖ If all the meeting people are not aligned with your viewpoint then I won't become part of decision making.
❖ My decision is based on the sole judgment that there won't be any serious issues in the future.
❖ Rawls ‘theory of the veil of ignorance is consistent with my view.
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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 46
Impartiality and Non-Partisanship
 2

Impartiality and Non-Partisanship

Relevance of Integrity:
❖ The objective of civil services or the objective of the state:
➢ Empowerment of weaker sections of society.
➢ Entitlement of marginalized sections, socio-economic justice, and egalitarianism.
❖ Hurdles in the achievement of the objectives of the civil services or the objectives of the state:
➢ The self-interest of civil servants.
❖ To achieve the objectives of the state, integrity plays a very important role.
➢ Integrity ensures the unity of the state.
➢ Integrity ensures a state of internal security.
Impartiality: (To study)
❖ Meaning of impartiality.
❖ How to develop impartiality.
❖ Relevance of impartiality in civil services.
❖ Challenges of impartiality.
❖ How to overcome these challenges.
What Is Impartiality?
❖ Impartiality means non-discrimination based on identity.
❖ It means an Egalitarian perspective or attitude.
❖ It also means presuppositions or bias-free consciousness.
❖ Fairness is called impartiality.
❖ It is near to two values called equality and justice. So Articles 14, 15(1), and 16 (1) promote impartiality.
Ideas that make Impartiality:
❖ Humanism
❖ Liberalism
❖ Democracy
❖ Egalitarianism
❖ If a person possesses these ideas then he/she would be impartial.
Sources of Preposition:
❖ Identity: The more narrow the Identity (caste, religion) the more partial (ethnic, linguistic) a person would
become.
❖ Egalitarian attitude.
❖ Non-discrimination.
 3

Impartiality:
❖ Impartial psychology talks in terms of primary and secondary identity.
❖ Primary identity is a narrow identity like I am a Muslim, I am a Hindu, I am a Tamil etc.
❖ Secondary identity is a broad identity.
❖ Impartiality means consciousness, even-handedness, prejudice-free attitude, fairness, non-discrimination,
equal for equal and unequal for unequal, and principle of Justice.
❖ How to inculcate impartiality:
➢ Liberalism promotes individualism (individual rights) and it promotes egalitarianism (non-
discrimination) which is the basis of impartiality.
➢ Emotional intelligence helps in development of empathy towards marginalized or weaker or oppressed
sections of the society.
➢ By the development of scientific temperament and secular temperament.
➢ By promoting and following philosophical ideas like Vasudeva kutumbakam (It means expansion of
the domain of human sensibility.)
Contemporary Challenges:
❖ Historical Baggage: Judging the history based on modern yardsticks can lead to polarisation so this won't
create impartiality in the mind of an individual. This can create conflict between us versus them in society. So
this leads to biassed psychology and narrow primary identity.
❖ Identity politics: This can lead to casteist politics, communal politics and regionalism. Identity politics
promotes polarization for the sake of vote banks.
❖ Colonial legacy: Britishers created a narrow identity in the colonial legacy and they also followed the policy
of divide and rule. Ex: Jat regiment, Sikh regiment, Mahar regiment etc.
❖ Cultural structure: Partiality is ingrained in the culture of India and it also created an inegalitarian culture.
Culture in India is discrimination-based. Socio-cultural norms like patriarchy, casteism, and such attitudinal
challenges.
❖ Personal standards: The narrow meaning of a good life promotes conflict of interest.
Inculcation by Impartiality:
❖ It can be done by adopting constitutional morality.
❖ By developing empathy and compassion we can adopt impartiality. So an individual becomes just and
impartial.
❖ Stopping discrimination against lower sections of the people and promoting them by giving value in the
society.
Relevance of Impartiality:
❖ Impartiality helps in upholding the objectives of civil services which are upliftment of weaker sections,
providing justice and fairness.
❖ Impartiality is the basis of Duty Ethics of the Civil servants.
❖ Impartiality is the basis of Justice which provides equal treatment by giving fair opportunities.
 4

Non Partisanship:
❖ Non-partisanship is a quality of being politically neutral. Non-partisanship entails that the civil servant will
serve the government of the day faithfully irrespective of his own political views, preferences and beliefs.
❖ In a parliamentary democracy Political executive is temporary but Bureaucracy is permanent. Therefore,
civil servants are to work with different political parties during their career. They should not have any political
ideology professionally. The only political freedom they enjoy is voting in elections. They should be
completely non-partisan and impartial.
❖ Non-partisanship means political neutrality, party neutrality or ideological neutrality. The Constitution should
be an ideology for a civil servant. Non allegiance to any political party of any political ideologies.
❖ It talks about equal distance from equal political parties and ideology.
❖ It means anonymity. Civil servants should always work behind the curtain and should be away from
popularity.
Suggestions to overcome the challenges to Non-partisanship:
❖ Establishment of a civil services board for impartial transfer of civil servants.
❖ They were cooling off period for retired civil servants to join any political party or to accept any post in post-
retirement or post-retirement.
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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 47
Tolerance, Objectivity and
Empathy
 2

Tolerance, Objectivity and Empathy

Tolerance:

Tolerance

Relationship
Method of of tolerance Challenges in Relevance and
Meaning of Solution to
tolerance with other practicing importance of
Tolerance tolerance
development values of civil tolerance tolerance
services.

❖ Meaning of tolerance.
❖ Method of tolerance development.
❖ Relationship of tolerance with other values of civil services.
❖ Challenges in practicing tolerance.
❖ Relevance and importance of tolerance.
❖ The solution to tolerance.
Meaning of Tolerance:
❖ In static knowledge, there is no scope of opinion. In the knowledge of opinion, the scope of opinion is present
in culture, politics, society, economy, and development ethics.
❖ Tolerance is defined as acceptance of the possibility of multiple perspectives in the domain of politics, culture,
religion, ethics, etc.
❖ Tolerance is a democracy of truth. It is the acceptance of diversity of truth.
❖ Co-existence of divergent perspectives.
❖ Psychology of acceptance of diversity.
❖ It is the acceptance of relativism, and also the acceptance of plurality.
❖ Equality of perspectives.
❖ Tolerance is equal to a democratic attitude.
❖ Subjective perspectives towards faith or emotions.
❖ Tolerance means testing and deliberation over all possible perspectives. Tolerance helps in making
objective decisions.
❖ Tolerance is the basis of integrity and consistency.
Importance and Relevance of Toleration:
❖ In the constitutional ideals: A civil servant should use the preamble, fundamental rights, and DPSPs as a
basis to practice toleration.
❖ Articles 29 and 30 give minority rights to prevent minorities from the cultural hegemony of the majority.
❖ Article 19 of free speech is not possible without toleration. Free speech includes critical opinion and divergent
views.
 3

❖ Core objective of civil services: These include

➢ To uphold constitution norms
➢ Welfare and well-being (Inclusive development) of the marginalised section of the society and
depressed section of the society.
❖ Empowerment and social justice to these people is done through the efficient delivery of services. This can
be achieved only if a civil servant has integrity, impartiality and tolerance.
❖ Probity in Governance: Without having civil service values and tolerance probity in governance is not
achieved.
❖ Obstruct Free Speech: Without tolerance free speech is not maintained in society and there is no scope for
better debate and dissent on a particular issue.
Challenges to the practice of tolerance and strengthening:
❖ Identity politics: Identity politics in politics decrease tolerance in society because due to vote bank tools in
politics, polarisation is promoted and people become emotive about their identity. Polarisation creates us
versus them in society. Polarisation also creates negative emotions like hatred, anger. So identity politics
erodes public tolerance.
❖ Partisanship in Bureaucracy: Committed bureaucracy becomes committed to a particular political party. So
it can also lead to intolerance in society.
❖ Cultural and Religious nationalism: It gives rise to debate about racial supremacy, original inhabitants.
Primary religion, primary culture, and secondary religion are created as a result of this. It leads to hegemony
of one over another.
❖ Mixing of religion and culture with politics.
❖ Strengthening of narrow identities.
Strengthening of Value of Tolerance:
❖ By strengthening constitutional values and by giving preference to constitutional values over cognitive social
values.
❖ By developing emotional intelligence and compassion towards others.
❖ Through social reforms.
❖ By applying the idea of aptitude for giving membership of any institute.
❖ Through the development of scientific temperament and rationality.
Sympathy, Empathy, and Compassion:
❖ Sympathy: Sympathy involves a feeling of pity and sorrow for the suffering of others. It involves
understanding pain. It is a cognitive understanding of the suffering or pain of others.
❖ Empathy: Empathy is about experiencing the feelings and emotions of others and an active desire to help
(Contingent). It is about understanding the pain and feeling of pain. It is the combination of cognitive and
affective components of emotions.
❖ Compassion: Compassion can understand others' sufferings and be actively involved to help others. This is
an action part of empathy. It is a cognitive, affective, and behavioral part of emotions.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 48
Probity in Governance
 2

Probity in Governance
Values:
 Anything that can bring excellence to the institution or a person is called value.
 Nonviolence, benevolence, and honesty are the values of a person and social, political, and economic values
are the values of a state.
Objectivity:
 Decision based on facts and information is called objectivity.
Meaning of Probity:
 It is an idea and purity. Probity means institutional integrity.
 It is a consistency between values professed and values practiced.
Probity Syllabus:
 Idea of Probity
 Crisis of Probity
 Solutions
Probity:
 Probity means purity of Institutions.
 Generally, the crisis of probity causes corruption.
 The elimination of causes of corruption can be achieved through:
 Right to Information.
 Citizen charter.
 Legal construct.
 Personal standards.
 Institutional mechanisms.
Cause of Crisis of Probity:
 Corruption means corrupt conduct. If an individual is not following the values of the institution, then there
will be a breakdown of institutional integrity, so it can lead to corruption in the institution which is a greater
threat to the institution at large.
Philosophical basis of Probity:
 Normative idea of Probity: This philosophy can be derived from the norm and standard set by the institution:
 Ideology which determines the norms of institutions.
 Western Idea: In the western idea liberalism is considered as one of the core area and central philosophy
of probity.
 Indian Context: In the Indian context, constitution is the basis of the philosophy of probity. A civil
servant has to always withhold the constitutional values to protect the probity in bureaucracy.
 Social contract theory: It was given by John Locke which held that a nasty and brutish man came together
to form a contract state from the natural state.
 Limitation and allied concepts: There are many limitations like corruption which can create a crisis of
probity. Many allied concepts like transparency, openness, objectivity, and impartiality are also associated
with probity.
 3

 Good Governance: Probity in governance acts as a game-changer tool which can create institutional
credibility.
Social Contract Theory by John Locke:
 Before a social contract state, the state was a part of the natural state. But as man is brutish and short they
created a state through a social contract.
 According to John Locke, a state was created to secure the right to liberty, property, and life.
 The State is a democratic state now and it takes into account the individual first.
 These all lead to a Western philosophy called liberalism.
 Democracy, natural rights, and liberalism formed the features of an ideal state.
 Liberal economy, liberal values, and liberal culture became the objective of the state.
 Institutions must be created out of these ideals and must be consistent with these ideals.
 Through these accountability, openness, and transparency will be achieved.
Indian Context:
 Constitution-making was a basis in place of social contract in India.
 Through this ideal of the state and objective of the state was implemented. And to achieve these ideals we
created institutions like legislature, executive, and judiciary.
 Constitutional ideals became the norms of the probity.
 Constitutional values and ideals of good governance combined with ideals of probity will become values
professed.
 Eight ideals of good governance Noolan values and the Sevottam model form the ideals of institutions.
 Constitutional ideals are derived from the Preamble, Fundamental Rights, and Directive Principle of State
Policy (DPSP) for the institution.
 “We the people of India” in the preamble denote the power lies in the people of India.
 Legislation, decision-making, and fund/expenditure are all borrowed from the people and bring two values
accountability and responsibility.
 The Public is the master, and members of every institution are public servants.
 Through this ethics of service will be achieved.
 Allied values that can be achieved are:
 Transparency
 Openness
 Decentralised decision making
 Social audit
 Information sharing
 Efficiency
 Code of conduct
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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 49
Probity in Governance (Part-02)
 2

Probity in Governance (Part-02)

Corruption:
❖ Corruption is equal to corrupt conduct in the following conditions if:
➢ Any conduct which violates the code of conduct of the institution.
➢ Any conduct which is inconsistent with the ideals and values of the institution.
➢ Any conduct which is inconsistent with the objectives and ends of the institution.
➢ Misuse of post or position of authority.
❖ Example of Corruption:
➢ Primary teachers should use the education sector as a tool to provide social justice, empowerment, and
equality. He will get a salary of 50k, but he should contribute well to society as per his merit. He should
not get involved in corrupt activities by not teaching, and by sitting at home and simply taking a salary
without working.
➢ Efficient teacher should use their ability to provide good education and should help the deprived section
of the society.
➢ Teachers should not use casteism in the school environment and in recruiting some posts in school like
employing cooks based on caste.
❖ Causes of Corruption:
➢ Social Attitude in favor of corruption: Lack of motivation for becoming moral is coming from the
society. It will lead to social acceptance in favor of corruption. For example,
✓ Dishonest officers are more accepted in society than honest and sincere officers. As a result, this
honest officer loses morality. So this leads to the acceptance of dishonest officers and is causing
corruption.
✓ Social acceptance of dowry culture especially in the context of government servants groom.
✓ Society chooses an IAS officer over an ethics associate professor who has done a Ph.D. in gender
justice and is humble and anti-dowry. Here the IAS officer gets a salary of 70k and the professor has
a salary of 1.9 lakh. The Indian father chose an IAS officer as a groom for her daughter. This is a
perfect example of promoting status, and prestige and exhibiting power in society.
✓ Likewise, society chooses a corrupt IAS officer over an honest IAS officer. Society is accepting
of corrupt officers, so honest officers start thinking why should I become moral? And would think
Why should I be moral? Furthermore, he is facing frequent transfers and suspensions. Whereas the
corrupt officer here is being rewarded.
➢ Hegelian Idea of Bureaucracy: This idea is responsible for the crisis of probity and this is the root cause
of the corruption in the institution. This idea is mentioned in the ARC report.
➢ Political Process and Election: This is also mentioned in the ARC report where the political process
itself leads to corruption in the country.
➢ Nature of Economy: The Economy of the country should not run based on corrupt activities and the
crisis of probity otherwise it can be destroyed. This is also mentioned in the ARC report.
 3

➢ Narrow Meaning of Good Life: An individual tends to seek short-term pleasure rather than long-term
gain as a part of the narrow meaning of good life. So it leads to corruption in the society.
➢ Cultural Contrast of Society: Contrast in the society like VIP culture and the mindset of the people
where they respect the law violators more than the law followers are the common cause of corruption.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
ETHICS

Lecture – 50
Probity in Governance and
Challenges of Corruption
 2

Probity in Governance and Challenges of Corruption

Causes of Corruption:
❖ Hegelian model or ideal of colonial Bureaucracy: This idea is responsible for the crisis of probity and this
is the root cause of the corruption in the institution. This idea is mentioned in the Administrative Reforms
Commission (ARC) report.
➢ Hegel says that real is rational and rational is real. This means every reality is associated with rational
ideas.
➢ In our mind, if we get any rational idea then it is reality.
➢ Rational idea of democracy turned into reality. This went in every aspect like law, rules, politics, idea of
god, etc.
➢ This proves that reason is the bedrock of decision making.
➢ This also determines that more rational is more real.
➢ Superior reason will take all decisions for an inferior reason. Example: Britishers possess superior reason
and Indians are inferior in reason, therefore Britishers have this moral duty to take all decisions.
➢ Civil servants are the most rational people, therefore they should govern or rule over the less rational
public. Bureaucrats are masters and parents and the public is slave and child. So bureaucrats possess
absolute power. They possess more discretionary power.
❖ This idea of Hegelian bureaucracy is:
➢ Non-accountable to the public.
➢ Possess absolute discretionary power.
➢ Secrecy in decision-making.
➢ Non-transparent decision.
❖ These all will create colonial bureaucratic attitudes. The same bureaucracy continued to function after
independence with different names and norms.
➢ Colonial work ethics was dominated by values like non-democratic, secrecy, discretionary power, and
non-accountability. This created a bureaucratic attitude and bureaucratic work culture.
➢ The post-independence era adopted or inherited the same Hegelian Bureaucracy. Along with it the
bureaucratic inherited bureaucratic work culture and training pattern. The discretionary powers are
misused by the bureaucracy.
➢ After independence and the adoption of constitutional morality for civil services our value professed is
the public who is master and civil servant who is basically a servant. According to these constitutional
norms bureaucrats are accountable to the public.
➢ Whereas, Value practised is colonial and hegelian where bureaucrats are treating themselves as rulers
and masters.
➢ So absolute power without accountability is equal to misuse of power and position which leads to
corruption in the bureaucracy. So power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely.
 3

❖ Nature of Economy: There are two types of economy, closed economy and open economy.
➢ Closed economy is a state controlled economy, it is also called as Quota-permit raj and licence raj and
inspector raj and an open economy is a market economy and liberal economy.
➢ The objective of a closed economy is economic justice and equality.
➢ In this state controlled economy, there was monopoly over the essential goods and services. Here the state
has its primary function of distributing essential goods and services.
➢ Due to this, citizens became dependent upon the state for their basic needs.
➢ Bureaucrats became powerful and it controlled all the resources and its distributions.
➢ So citizens lost their power of resistance and protest.
➢ In a Socialist economy free will is absent and there is absence of multiple choices, So a culture of bribery
and culture of corruption emerges.
➢ Due to this, in the socialist economy, there will be centralisation of power and non-transparent power.
And this will lead to corruption.
➢ Socialist economy gives absolute power to bureaucrats.
❖ Narrow meaning of Good Life:
➢ Idea of a good life is related to the market economy and hedonism.
➢ Western consumerism promotes needs and desires which increases the demand for bodily pleasures.
This is the most dominant aspect of good life in contemporary society.
➢ The other aspects of a good life include a democratic attitude, liberal values, a sense of entitlement, and
an empowered citizenry. These values are lacking in society.
   
 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 51
Probity in Governance and
Challenges of Corruption
(Part - 02)
 2

Probity in Governance and Challenges of Corruption (Part - 02)

Challenges of Corruption or Probity:
❖ Nature of Culture or Society:
➢ Value of service, value of compassion and value of empathy is essential for the upliftment,
empowerment of deprived sections of the society.
➢ These values are essential for the civil servants.
➢ But the source of these values are training, emotional intelligence and developed sensibilities. Source
of these factors is the culture of society.
➢ And only societies which are egalitarian in nature can nurture these values.
➢ But the nature and structure of Indian society is non egalitarian.
➢ Indian society is hierarchical, non-egalitarian and oppressive.
➢ Patriarchy, caste system, discrimination against transgenders and homosexual are the non egalitarian
character in India.
➢ Indian society is also dominance based and exploitative.
➢ This cultural structure is detrimental in the development of emotional intelligence, compassion and
values of services.
❖ Democratic Politics and Elections:
➢ There is a nexus between political parties and Industrialists, Contractors, Builders, etc. This quid-pro-
quo leads to violation of rules and use of discretionary powers by bureaucracy.
➢ Due to this nexus, wrong people enter the parliament and it will lead to breakdown of probity in the
society because they legislate the wrong rules and regulations in the country.
➢ Political process should persuade people to make public opinion in favour of a political party to persuade
people to vote for the party. Means needed are advertisement, rally, public contact programme and
various political activities. These means need a mammoth or huge amount of money.
➢ The money needed for political elections is coming from industrialists, builders, contractors and
business houses.
➢ And by selling political party tickets to aspiring candidates, through recruitments or government jobs,
and by giving contracts and tenders. Most of it is a black money.
How to remove these challenges of Corruption and Probity:
❖ This can be done by the following methods:
➢ Right To Information (RTI)
➢ Citizen Charter
➢ Work Culture
➢ Code of Conduct and Code of Ethics
➢ Utilisation of Public Fund
 3

Right to Information (RTI):

❖ Here we study: How RTI can bring probity in governance?
➢ By bringing the method of dialectics and decision-making, and by strengthening the foundational
values of civil services and by strengthening the constitutional values.
➢ By bringing the transparency in public administration.
➢ So RTI values are: Attitudinal change, Value strengthening, effective accountability, dialectics and
transparency.
❖ Why did RTI not achieve desirable consequences?
❖ What steps or reforms should be taken to achieve desired consequences through RTI?
➢ Pre RTI Accountability Model: Public mandate or public will elect public representatives, therefore
public representatives will legislate and will ensure the accountability of government. So the
government will ensure accountability of bureaucrats.
➢ Here the public will ensure the accountability of representatives and legislature and through this
accountability will be created in the government and bureaucracy. But this idea of indirect
accountability was not able to establish the probity in governance.
❖ Causes for its Failure:
➢ Weakening of inner party democracy: The lack of internal freedom in the party will create corruption
because even an honest legislature cannot against the mandate of the party.
➢ Political parties are giving tickets to non-popular people: Political parties give tickets to people like
businessmen, industrialists, builders and contractors. They are non popular leaders and they don't even
care about the welfare of the people. So they remain unaccountable to the public.
So RTI questions the legislature, Government and Bureaucrat and public can raise direct questions for all 365
days to bureaucrats and government. So direct accountability is created by RTI.
❖ This can generate attitudinal change by questioning government and bureaucracy.
❖ The public will become empowered and by developing this habit of answering bureaucrats will become
servants.
❖ The Hegelian and colonial attitude of bureaucracy will change.

 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 52
Probity in Governance (Part 3)
 2

Probity in Governance (Part 3)

Means:
❖ Right To Information (RTI): RTI is a fundamental right that allows citizens to request information from
public authorities. It promotes transparency and accountability in government functioning by enabling citizens
to access information about government policies, decisions, and actions.
❖ Citizen Charter: This is a document that outlines the commitments, services, and standards of service delivery
that citizens can expect from government agencies. It serves as a bridge between the government and the
citizens, providing clarity on the services offered and the expectations from both sides.
❖ Code of Conduct: It is a set of rules and principles that guide the behavior and actions of individuals within
an organization. In the context of government, it outlines the ethical standards expected from public officials
in their interactions and decision-making processes.
❖ Work Culture: It refers to the values, attitudes, and behaviors that characterize the work environment within
an organization. In the government context, a positive work culture is crucial for promoting efficiency,
collaboration, and dedication among public servants.
❖ Code of Ethics: A Code of Ethics outlines the moral principles and values that individuals within an
organization, in this case, public servants, are expected to uphold. It guides ethical decision-making and
behavior.
❖ Utilization of Public Funds: This involves the responsible and efficient use of funds allocated from the public
treasury for various government programs and services.
End Goals:
❖ Corruption-Free Government: A government that is free from corruption, where public officials act with
integrity, and there is no misuse of power or public resources for personal gain.
❖ Probity in Governance: Probity refers to the quality of having strong moral principles and honesty. The end
goal is to establish a governance system characterized by the highest standards of integrity, accountability, and
ethical conduct.
Right to Information (RTI)
Hurdles to RTI:
❖ Colonial Attitude of Bureaucracy: Some elements within the bureaucracy may exhibit a colonial mindset,
where there is a reluctance to share information with the public, viewing it as a departure from traditional
secrecy.
❖ Use of Discretionary Powers: Officials often have discretionary powers, which can be misused to withhold
information or manipulate the system for personal or vested interests.
❖ Lack of Effective Accountability: Inadequate mechanisms for holding officials accountable for their actions
may result in a lack of responsiveness to RTI requests and a failure to provide information in a timely and
accurate manner.
❖ Lack of Objectivity in Decision-Making: Decision-making processes may lack objectivity, leading to biased
or subjective outcomes that do not serve the public interest.
 3

How RTI can address these hurdles and bring probity in governance:
❖ Weakening of Discretionary Powers: RTI empowers citizens to seek information, reducing the scope for
arbitrary use of discretionary powers. When officials know their decisions can be scrutinized, they are likely
to exercise their powers more judiciously.
❖ Transparency and Openness: The core principle of RTI is transparency. By making information accessible
to the public, it promotes openness in governance. This transparency acts as a deterrent against corrupt
practices and fosters a culture of accountability.
❖ Strengthening Values of Objectivity and Impartiality: As information becomes more readily available
through RTI, decision-makers are encouraged to base their judgments on objective criteria rather than
subjective considerations. The scrutiny of the public promotes adherence to fairness and impartiality.
❖ Enhancing Accountability: RTI creates a system where officials are answerable to the public. The fear of
being held accountable for their actions encourages officials to act in accordance with established rules and
regulations, reducing the likelihood of corruption and enhancing probity.

Discretionary Powers in Bureaucracy:

❖ Eliminate Culture of Discriminatory Powers:
➢ Discretionary powers refer to the authority given to officials to make decisions based on their
judgment and interpretation of laws or rules. The culture of discriminatory powers implies that officials
may use these discretionary powers in a biased or discriminatory manner, favoring certain individuals
or groups over others.
➢ To eliminate this culture, it is essential to establish clear guidelines and criteria for the exercise of
discretionary powers. Transparency and accountability mechanisms should be put in place to ensure
that decisions are made objectively and without discrimination.
❖ Culture of Confidentiality and Culture of Secrecy lead to Corrupt Practices:
➢ Culture of Confidentiality: This refers to a workplace environment where certain information is kept
confidential to protect the interests of the organization or individuals. However, it can lead to misuse
when used to hide corrupt practices or shield wrongdoings.
➢ Culture of Secrecy: This involves a broader tendency within the bureaucracy to keep information
secret or withhold it from the public. This secrecy can create an environment conducive to corruption,
as it shields actions from public scrutiny.
➢ Impact on Corruption:
✓ Both cultures can be exploited by individuals engaging in corrupt practices. When actions are
shrouded in secrecy or kept confidential without proper justification, it becomes easier for
corruption to thrive as there is less accountability and oversight.
➢ Solution:
✓ Implementing transparency measures, such as the Right to Information (RTI), can help
counteract these cultures. By providing citizens access to information, it ensures that
 4

confidentiality and secrecy are maintained only when necessary for legitimate reasons, not as a
cover for corruption.
✓ Strengthening accountability mechanisms, and ensuring that officials are held responsible for
their actions, can deter the misuse of confidentiality and secrecy.

Right to Information (RTI) as a tool of Probity in Governance:

❖ Information Sharing: RTI empowers citizens to access information held by public authorities. This openness
and transparency in information sharing act as a significant deterrent to corruption and unethical practices.
❖ Evaluation of Decision-Making: RTI allows citizens to evaluate the decision-making processes of
government officials. It ensures that decisions are made based on objective criteria, adherence to laws and
regulations, and without favoritism.
❖ Power of Questioning: RTI gives citizens the power to question government actions and decisions. This
questioning is a fundamental aspect of probity, as it holds officials accountable for their actions and ensures
they act in the public interest.
❖ Constant Monitoring of Functioning and Decision-making of Public Administration: RTI facilitates
continuous monitoring of public administration. Citizens can actively engage in overseeing the functioning of
government agencies, ensuring accountability and preventing the misuse of power.
❖ Effective Accountability: RTI establishes a mechanism for holding public officials accountable for their
actions. It ensures that those in power are answerable to the public, fostering a culture of responsibility and
ethical behavior.
Public in sovereignty:
Public in Sovereignty without RTI:
❖ Transfer of Power to Public Representatives or Political Party: In a sovereign state where the public has
limited access to information (without the RTI), the transfer of power largely relies on the decisions made by
public representatives or political parties.
➢ Impact: Lack of transparency can lead to an information gap between the government and the citizens.
Public representatives and political parties may make decisions without sufficient public scrutiny,
potentially resulting in a less informed electorate.
Public in Sovereignty with RTI:
❖ Transfer of Powers: Quality of Elections and Democracy Will Increase: With the implementation of RTI,
citizens have the right to access information held by public authorities. This empowers them to make informed
choices during elections and hold representatives accountable.
➢ Impact: The availability of information enhances the quality of elections and strengthens democracy.
Informed citizens can make better decisions, and elected representatives are more likely to be accountable
and responsive to public concerns.
❖ RTI brings a Culture of Transparency in Democracy and Governance: RTI establishes a culture of
transparency by allowing citizens to request and receive information about government actions, policies, and
decisions.
 5

➢ Impact: This transparency ensures that governance is conducted openly, and citizens are aware of the
decision-making processes. It fosters trust between the government and the public, contributing to the
overall health of democracy.
❖ RTI strengthens the values of Probity in Government: Probity refers to honesty and integrity in the conduct
of public officials. RTI, by providing a tool for citizens to scrutinize government actions, fosters a culture of
accountability and ethical behavior.
➢ Impact: Public officials are more likely to act under probity, knowing that their decisions are subject to
public scrutiny. This strengthens the values of integrity and ethical conduct in government.
Why after enacting the Right to Information we are not getting the desired consequences?
❖ Reactive Nature of RTI: The reactive nature of RTI means that it is primarily used in response to specific
queries or concerns rather than being a proactive tool for transparency and accountability.
➢ This can limit its effectiveness in preventing corruption or promoting better governance, as it is more
focused on addressing issues after they arise.
❖ Lack of Awareness: Many people may not be aware of their rights under the RTI Act or the process involved
in filing an information request.
➢ Lack of awareness can result in underutilization of the law, as people may not realize the power they have
to access information and hold authorities accountable.
❖ Underutilization by those in need: Ironically, those who might benefit the most from the RTI Act, such as
marginalized communities or individuals facing corruption, may not be utilizing the law to its full potential.
➢ Factors such as illiteracy, lack of resources, or fear of reprisals may discourage certain segments of the
population from using the RTI mechanism.
❖ Lack of Funds and Infrastructure: Effective implementation of the RTI Act requires adequate funds and
infrastructure, both at the central and state levels.
➢ Insufficient resources can lead to delays in processing requests, limited outreach programs, and inadequate
training for officials involved in the implementation of the RTI Act.
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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 53
Probity in Governance
(Part – 04)
 2

Citizen Charter
Citizen’s Charter:
❖ A Citizen's Charter is an undertaking made by a public institution, wherein it commits to delivering a
defined level of service to the public.
❖ This document typically includes specific provisions and outlines the precise obligations the public
institution must fulfill while providing its services.
❖ The Citizen's Charter serves as an effective means of addressing day-to-day issues and concerns that
citizens may encounter when interacting with government or public services.
❖ One of its primary objectives is to place citizens at the core of administrative processes, ensuring that their
needs, rights, and expectations are central to the functioning of the institution.
❖ 6 standards that were envisaged by the Labour Party in 1998 are:
➢ Quality: Citizen charter deals with the quality of the product which should be of high quality.
➢ Standards: Standards set by an individual or an organization should be of high quality.
➢ Value: An individual should strive towards giving a perfect value to the institution to maintain
credibility.
➢ Accountability: Institutions should maintain accountability to protect their merit.
➢ Transparency: The institution or department should set up a separate department for all the sections to
maintain transparency.
➢ Choices: Service delivery given by the government should not carry any next choice. The choice should
be always single.
➢ So a citizen charter can remove the corruption in the government.
Hurdles of Probity in Governance:
❖ Misuse of power and authority
❖ Culture of Bribe
❖ Absence of efficiency
❖ Absence of effective individual or institutional accountability
❖ Citizens are in the bureaucracy
❖ Indiscipline
❖ Absence of Punctuality
❖ Violation of code of conduct effective grievance
❖ Absence of work culture which should be consistent with the code of ethics
How will the Citizen Charter remove these hurdles?
❖ This can be solved by setting the division of departments, Identifying individual or sectional
accountability, setting the punishment as a condition, and setting a grievance redressal mechanism. So
the ideas that can bring accountability are:
➢ Quality
➢ Choice
➢ Standard
➢ Value
➢ Transparency
 3

❖ The consequences of employing these norms or values are:

➢ Innovation
➢ Competitiveness
➢ Effective grievance redressal
➢ Skill development
➢ Technological updation
➢ Identification of problem
Code of Conduct:
❖ It is a set of commands which usually talks about certain prohibitions.
❖ Its objective is to bring objectivity and impartiality etc in public administration or governance.
❖ It also has an objective to stop members of civil services from misusing their authority.
❖ It strives to ensure an ethical work culture.
Strengths and weakness of the code of conduct:
❖ It promotes compassion but searches for exactness. Example: Dilemma of facing a conflict situation where
an older woman gets a chance to get government facilities without the prescribed documents.
❖ Only a code of conduct makes human values redundant.
❖ There will be many codes of conduct in the society.
❖ Though one individual is following a code of conduct he is not moral or ethical while dealing with important
situations.
❖ It can stop the discretionary power of bureaucrats.
Code of Ethics:
❖ It is a set of values which are advisory.
❖ These are positive values for guidance about declining values for dilemma solving.
❖ It can broaden the horizon of decision-making.
Strengths and weakness of the code of Ethics:
❖ It is broader but complicated to find in practice.
❖ One who is ethical won't follow these codes of ethics because already these ethical values are imbibed in
them.
Utilization of public funds:
❖ The objective of this utilization is to stop financial corruption.
❖ It also has an objective to eliminate the culture of bribing.
❖ It also mandates the use of every single penny for public causes.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 54
Ethics In Public Administration
and Doubt Session (Part – 2)
 2

Ethics In Public Administration and Doubt Session (Part - 2)

We can discuss this topic in three parts:
1. Idea or relevance or mode of ethics in public administration
➢ Why we need ethics in public administration.
2. Problems or challenges of ethics in public administration.
➢ Status and Problems: Ethical concerns and dilemmas in government and private institutions.
3. Means and methods for resolution of ethical problems in Public Administration.
Ethics in Public Administration:
❖ Public administration is a profession that offers an unusual array of opportunities to make moral or
immoral decisions, to make ethical or unethical choices, and to do good or evil things to people.
❖ Ethics provide a framework for accountability between the public and the administration. Ethics and
values have a key role in the smooth functioning of the public administration system.
Reasons behind the need for ethics in Public Administration:
❖ Asymmetric Development: There is asymmetric development because a large number of people are
dependent on the state for everything.
❖ Pervasive inequality, and social injustice: There is all-pervasive inequality, and social injustice which
makes it necessary to have ethics in public administrations. Without state support, these deprived people
cannot survive.
❖ Requirement of Societal Reform: Because we need social change to solve societal problems.
❖ Public Administration is responsible for bringing ethical ideals: In Indian contexts bureaucracy of public
administration is responsible for bringing ethical ideals into society therefore ethics in public administration
is a necessary prerequisite.
➢ Need a strong Ethical Framework: To overcome the colonial legacy we need a strong ethical
framework in public administration.
➢ Need to prevent Economic Corruption: Public administration has a very prominent role in economic
affairs therefore to prevent economic corruption we need ethics in public administration.
➢ Unempowered citizens and weak sense of entitlement makes it easy for public administration to
enclose the rights of citizens therefore to prevent this we need a robots ethical framework in public
administration.
Status and Problems of Ethics in Public administration:
❖ This also covers ethical concerns and dilemmas in government and private institutions.
❖ In Indian contexts we have four major challenges which create problems regarding ethical conduct and
norms in public administration.
➢ Political construct.
➢ Legal construct.
➢ Personal standard.
➢ Civil society.
 3

Political Construct:
❖ Lack of ethics in politics has created a weak ethical framework in public administration.
❖ State has some objectives and to achieve these objectives a government is created. And to assist this
government we have bureaucracy and this will look after public administration.
❖ The formation of government is associated with politics or political process.
❖ N.N.Vohra committee, Administrative Reform Council (ARC) and Indrajit Gupta Committee have
mentioned about criminalisation of politics.
❖ Political process in India is a combination of Casteism, Communalism, Black money, Criminalisation of
Politics becoming unethical etc.
Legal Construct:
❖ Indian Penal Code (IPC), Code of Criminal Procedure (CRPC) and Evidence Act in India are colonial
laws. By design it is not pro people.
❖ The core objective of this whole legal framework is to give power to government and administrative
institutions. But they have given more power to bureaucracy and are not pro poor.
Decline in Personal Standard:
❖ This happens because of the narrow meaning of good life.
❖ Personal lacks ethics, compassion, and emotional intelligence which will lead to decline in his personal
standard.
Weak Civil Society:
❖ Civil society lacks the intent of active participation which will create a lack of ethics in public
administration.


 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 55
Case Study 2016, 2017
 2

Case Study 2016, 2017

John Stuart Mill:
Q. You are aspiring to become an IAS officer and you have cleared various stages and now you have been selected
for the personal interview. On the day of the interview, on the way to the venue, you saw an accident where a
mother and child who happen to be your relatives were badly injured. They needed immediate help.
What would you have done in such a situation? Justify your action. (250 words)
The first step is to find the Ethical issues or dilemmas:
 Duty as a student versus duty as a relative.
 Duty as a student versus duty as a citizen or duty as a human being.
 My interest versus the interest of injured relatives.
 Compassion, impartiality versus consequences.
The second step is to find out ethical principles:
 Ethics of Rights
 Duty Ethics
 Fundamental Values of Civil Services
 Aptitude required for the Civil Services
 Value of Integrity
 Emotional Intelligence
The third step is to find out stakeholders and options:
1. To see if any ambulance is available or not.
2. I can get help from my driver or friend if someone is accompanying me.
3. I will call a police van.
4. I will go to the venue of the interview, leaving them assuming that someone else will help them.
5. I will leave my interview and take them to the hospital.
1) To see if any ambulance is available or not:
Merits:
 Immediate assistance: Checking for an ambulance may lead to quick medical aid for the injured relatives,
increasing their chances of survival.
 Utilitarian benefit: The action aligns with utilitarian principles by promoting overall well-being and
minimizing harm.
Demerits:
 Delay in response: Depending on the situation, it might take time to find an available ambulance, leading to
a potential delay in getting medical help to the injured.
2) Taking help from my driver or friend if someone is accompanying me:
Merits:
 Prompt assistance: Seeking help from someone accompanying you may lead to immediate aid for the injured
relatives, improving their chances of receiving timely medical attention.
 Virtue ethics: Seeking help from someone who is accompanying you shows compassion and concern for
others, which are virtuous traits. It reflects the values of empathy and support for family members in distress.
 3

Demerits:
 Limited resources: Your driver or friend may not have the necessary medical knowledge or equipment to
provide adequate assistance.
3) Calling a police van:
Merits:
 Quick response: A police van may arrive quickly at the scene and provide immediate assistance.
 Access to resources: Police vans often carry basic medical supplies and can provide initial aid until an
ambulance arrives.
 Duty-based ethics (deontology): Calling a police van demonstrates fulfilling your duty to help others in need
and uphold societal rules and regulations. Police vans often provide quick assistance during emergencies.
Demerits:
 Limited medical expertise: The police van may not have trained medical professionals onboard, which could
limit the level of care provided.
4) Going to the venue of the interview, leaving them assuming that someone else will help them:
Merits:
 None (from an ethical perspective): This action may allow you to attend the interview, but it does not
prioritize the well-being of the injured relatives.
 Consequentialism: This action may be viewed as consequentialist as it prioritizes the personal goal of
attending the interview over the immediate needs of the injured relatives. It may lead to potential harm or
delays in getting help to them.
Demerits:
 Potential harm: Leaving the injured relatives without immediate help could worsen their condition and lead
to more significant harm.
 Ethical concerns: This option raises ethical questions about prioritizing personal goals over the welfare of
others, especially family members.
5) Leaving my interview and taking them to the hospital:
Merits:
 Family values: This action demonstrates a strong sense of responsibility and care for family members in
distress.
 Virtue ethics: This action aligns with virtue ethics as it reflects the virtues of compassion, responsibility, and
caring for family members. It shows a sense of moral duty and prioritizes the well-being of others over
personal ambitions.
Demerits:
 Personal sacrifice: Leaving the interview may affect your career aspirations and long-term goals as an
aspiring IAS officer.
 Missed opportunity: Missing the interview could result in a lost chance to pursue a desired career path.
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Considering the ethical implications, option 5 (Leaving my interview and taking them to the hospital) appears to
align most strongly with virtue ethics and reflects a moral duty to prioritize the immediate well-being of the injured
relatives over personal ambitions.
Q. You are the head of the Human Resources department of an organization. One day one of the workers died on
duty. His family was demanding compensation. However, the company denied compensation because it was
revealed in investigation that he was drunk at the time of the accident. The workers of the company went on to
strike demanding compensation for the family of the deceased. The Chairman of the management board has asked
for your recommendation.
What recommendation would you provide to the management?
Discuss the merits and demerits of each of the recommendations. (250 words)
Recommendation 1: Deny Compensation
Merits:
 Reinforces accountability: Denying compensation in cases of negligence due to alcohol consumption can
send a message about the importance of adhering to safety protocols and company policies.
 Cost management: Avoiding compensation payments can be financially beneficial for the company.
 Consequentialism: This recommendation might be justified from a consequentialist perspective if denying
compensation prevents future instances of employees being under the influence of alcohol while on duty,
potentially reducing accidents and ensuring workplace safety.
Demerits:
 Lack of compassion: Denying compensation to the family of the deceased worker might be seen as heartless
and unsympathetic, especially considering the emotional and financial difficulties the family may face.
 Employee morale: This decision could negatively impact the morale and trust of the current workforce,
leading to potential issues with employee satisfaction and productivity.
Recommendation 2: Provide Partial Compensation
Merits:
 Demonstrates empathy: Providing some compensation shows the company's understanding of the family's
loss and challenges they might face.
 Mitigates employee dissatisfaction: Partial compensation may help pacify the striking workers and reduce
the negative impact on company operations.
 Virtue ethics: Offering partial compensation may reflect virtues such as fairness and empathy, demonstrating
the company's concern for the well-being of its employees' families while also acknowledging the
consequences of the deceased worker's actions.
Demerits:
 Ethical scrutiny: The decision to offer partial compensation could be criticized for not fully recognizing the
family's loss and financial needs.
 Setting a precedent: Providing partial compensation might lead to expectations of similar treatment in future
cases, potentially creating financial strain on the company.
 5

Recommendation 3: Provide Full Compensation

Merits:
 Upholds employee rights: Providing full compensation acknowledges the family's entitlement to support
following the worker's death during work duties.
 Ethical responsibility: The company accepts its ethical duty to take care of its employees and their families
during difficult times.
 Rights-based ethics: This recommendation aligns with the idea that employees and their families have a right
to be compensated for work-related accidents, regardless of the circumstances leading to the incident.
Demerits:
 Encouraging irresponsible behavior: Offering full compensation despite the worker's negligence might
inadvertently send the message that the company tolerates such behavior.
 Financial burden: Paying full compensation may strain the company's finances and affect its long-term
viability.
Recommendation 4: Offer Support and Benefits, not Cash Compensation
Merits:
 Holistic approach: Offering support services, such as counseling, education, or medical benefits, can assist
the family more thoroughly.
 Maintains workplace safety message: This approach avoids rewarding negligence while still demonstrating
concern for the family.
 Utilitarianism: Providing support and benefits rather than cash compensation could be seen as a compromise
aimed at maximizing overall well-being, as it addresses the family's needs without potentially encouraging
irresponsible behavior.
Demerits:
 Family dissatisfaction: The family may feel that their immediate financial needs are not being adequately
addressed, leading to potential unrest and legal challenges.
 Employee discontent: Workers might perceive this recommendation as a lack of commitment from the
company to fully compensate for work-related accidents.

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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 57
Case Study and Doubt Session
 2

Case Study and Doubt Session

Q7. Rakesh is a responsible district level officer, who enjoys the trust of his higher officials. Knowing his honesty,
the government entrusted him with the responsibility of identifying the beneficiaries under a health care
scheme meant for senior citizens.
The criteria to be a beneficiary are the following:
(a) 60 years of age or above.
(b) Belonging to a reserved community.
(c) Family income of less than 1 Lakh rupees per annum.
(d) Post-treatment prognosis is likely to be high to make a positive difference to the quality of life of the
beneficiary.
One day, an old couple visited Rakesh’s office with their application. They have been the residents of a village
in his district since their birth. The old man is diagnosed with a rare condition that causes obstruction in the
large intestine. As a consequence, he has severe abdominal pain frequently that prevents him from doing any
physical labor. The couple has no children to support them. The expert surgeon whom they contacted is willing
to do the surgery without charging any fee. However, the couple will have to bear the cost of incidental charges,
such as medicines, hospitalization, etc., to the tune of rupees one lakh. The couple fulfills all the criteria except
criterion ‘b’. However, any financial aid would certainly make a significant difference in their quality of life.
How should Rakesh respond to the situation? (UPSC-2018) (250 words)
Identification of dilemmas or Moral issues:
❖ Rule ethics versus ethics of compassion
❖ Procedures versus good consensus
❖ Rule versus Humanism/ Treating human beings as an end.
The following are the ethical issues involved in this case study:
❖ Honesty and integrity: Rakesh is a responsible and honest officer. He has been entrusted with the
responsibility of identifying the beneficiaries under a government health care scheme. He is expected to be fair
and impartial in his decision-making.
❖ Social justice: The health care scheme is meant to benefit senior citizens from reserved communities. The old
couple in this case study does not belong to a reserved community. However, they are poor and needy. Rakesh
needs to decide whether to consider their application despite them not meeting the criteria of belonging to a
reserved community.
❖ Compassion and empathy: The old couple is in a difficult situation. The old man is suffering from a serious
medical condition and needs surgery. The couple cannot afford the cost of the surgery. Rakesh needs to decide
whether to help them even though they do not meet all the criteria for the health care scheme.
Identification of stakeholders/moral standards:
❖ Constitutional status of fundamental rights (Article 21)
❖ J.S. Mill’s Utilitarianism
❖ Foundational values of civil services.
 3

❖ Ethics of service
❖ Idea of superior value
❖ Rawls idea of justice
The criteria given in the case study for identifying beneficiaries under the health care scheme for senior citizens
can be:
❖ Fairness and Equity:
➢ Age Criteria (60 years or above): The age criterion seems reasonable from an equity standpoint as it
targets senior citizens who are more likely to have healthcare needs. However, fairness would require
considering exceptions for individuals slightly below the age limit who have exceptional health needs.
➢ Reserved Community Criteria: This criterion raises ethical concerns. While affirmative action and
reservation policies aim to rectify historical injustices, excluding non-reserved individuals who are in
need of assistance may not align with the principles of fairness and equity.
❖ Justice:
➢ Income Criteria (Less than 1 Lakh rupees per annum): The income criterion aligns with the principle
of distributive justice, ensuring that limited resources are directed toward those who are economically
disadvantaged. However, justice may require flexibility in cases where individuals have unusual financial
burdens, as in the case of the old couple.
❖ Compassion and Benevolence:
➢ Positive Prognosis Criteria: The criterion of a positive post-treatment prognosis is ethical as it ensures
that resources are directed towards treatments that can genuinely improve the quality of life. This reflects
compassion and benevolence towards senior citizens.
❖ Individual Circumstances:
➢ Exceptional Cases: Ethical principles should allow for flexibility to address exceptional cases like the
old couple who are in dire need of medical treatment. Strict adherence to criteria without considering
individual circumstances may lead to unjust outcomes.
❖ Transparency and Accountability:
➢ Documentation and Review: The ethical principle of transparency is upheld by requiring thorough
documentation and review of cases. This ensures that decisions are made based on evidence and in a
transparent manner.
❖ Balancing Ethical Principles:
➢ Balancing Act: Ethical decision-making often involves balancing these principles. In this case, the
challenge lies in balancing the need for fairness and equity with the recognition of exceptional cases like
the old couple's.
❖ Consultation and Due Process:
➢ Consultation with Superiors: Consulting with higher officials and seeking legal opinion demonstrates a
commitment to due process and ensures that ethical decisions are made collectively and within the bounds
of the law.
 4

The criteria for identifying beneficiaries under the health care scheme for senior citizens are designed to promote
fairness, equity, and justice; they should also allow for flexibility to address exceptional cases where strict
adherence to the criteria may lead to undue suffering or denial of essential healthcare. Ethical decision-making in
this context involves a careful consideration of these principles and a commitment to ensuring that the scheme's
benefits reach those who are truly in need while maintaining transparency and accountability in the process.
The following are the possible courses of action that Rakesh can take:
❖ Reject the application: On the basis of the value of objectivity which is core or foundational value of civil
services I will reject his application as I cannot take arbitrary decision by going beyond the criteria and
procedure. Rakesh can reject the application of the old couple on the grounds that they do not meet the criteria
of belonging to a reserved community. This would be the most straightforward course of action. However, it
would also be the least compassionate.
Demerits of this decision:
❖ It is against the ethical standard which says that human beings are at an end.
❖ It violates the supremacy of liberal ethical values.
❖ It is against article 21 of the Indian constitution.
❖ It is against the foundational value of compassion of civil services.
❖ Accept the application : As a civil servant my primary loyalty should be constitutional morality. Rakesh can
approve the application of the old couple with a waiver of the criteria of belonging to a reserved community.
This would be a more compassionate course of action. However, it would also be more controversial. Rakesh
would need to be prepared to justify his decision to his superiors. nit is consistent with the idea of justice and
compassion towards weaker sections of the society. It is also consistent with Gandhi's idea of sarvodaya and
Talisman, Kantian maxim, ethics of humanism, and Rawl's theory of justice.
❖ Help the old couple find other sources of financial assistance: Rakesh can help the old couple find other
sources of financial assistance, such as charitable organizations or government schemes. This would be a less
controversial course of action. However, it would not guarantee that the old couple would be able to get the
help they need.
The best course of action for Rakesh to take will depend on the specific circumstances of the case. However, he
should carefully consider all the ethical issues involved before making a decision. Rakesh should make his decision
based on the ethical principles of honesty, integrity, social justice, compassion, and empathy.
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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture - 58
Ethics in Public Administration (Part - 03)
 2

Public Administration (Part - 03)

Q. Why do we have a weak or diluted ethical framework in Public Administration?
The ethical framework in Indian Public Administration faces significant challenges stemming from various
sources, including:
❖ Political Construct:
➢ The absence of ethics in politics has a direct impact on the ethical framework within public
administration.
➢ Government formation, driven by political processes, sets the tone for the bureaucracy's role in public
administration.
➢ The intertwining of politics with issues like casteism, communalism, black money, and the
criminalization of politics contributes to the erosion of ethical values.
➢ Reports such as the N.N. Vohra Committee, Administrative Reform Council (ARC), and Indrajit
Gupta Committee highlight the growing unethical dimensions within the political landscape.
❖ Legal Construct:
➢ The legal framework, represented by colonial laws such as the Indian Penal Code (IPC), Code of
Criminal Procedure (CRPC), and Evidence Act, plays a pivotal role in shaping the ethical landscape.
➢ However, these laws, designed to empower government and administrative institutions, are criticized
for not being pro-people.
➢ This weak legal framework contributes to ethical challenges within public administration, as it may not
adequately address evolving ethical standards and issues.
➢ Additionally, constitutional protection for ethical conduct is often perceived as weak, with gaps and
deficiencies needing attention. Strengthening constitutional provisions is imperative to fortify the ethical
foundations of public administration.
➢ Moreover, the lingering influence of colonial-era legal structures necessitates comprehensive legal
reforms aligned with modern ethical standards.
❖ Decline in Personal Standards:
➢ The decline in personal standards and virtues among individuals in public administration is another
critical challenge.
➢ The narrow interpretation of a “good life” often leads to a lack of ethics, compassion, and emotional
intelligence.
➢ The absence of these qualities contributes to a decline in the overall personal standards of those serving
in public administration.
➢ Also, the transformation of civil service from a vocation to a career choice has significant implications
for the personal standards of individuals in public administration.
➢ The shift in perspective influences aspirants' motivations, with a growing tendency to pursue civil
service primarily for the associated power and lifestyle.
➢ This shift raises concerns about the commitment to public service ethics, as individuals may prioritize
personal gains over the public welfare mission of the civil service.
➢ The allure of power and an appealing lifestyle can overshadow the importance of ethical considerations,
creating challenges in maintaining high standards of conduct.
 3

❖ Weak Civil Society:

➢ When people in society are not actively involved in keeping an eye on and holding the government
accountable, it makes it easier for those in charge, like bureaucrats, to do things without proper checks.
➢ A strong and active society is like a watchman that ensures the government behaves well, follows the
rules, and acts ethically.
➢ But, when people are not paying much attention or not getting involved, the usual ways of keeping the
government in check don't work as effectively.
➢ This lack of oversight can lead to problems, as those in power might not feel as accountable or motivated
to do the right thing.
Thus, addressing the weak ethical framework in Indian public administration requires a comprehensive approach
that tackles challenges at the political, legal, personal, and societal levels. Reforms in political processes, revisiting
colonial-era laws, promoting a broader understanding of a 'good life,' and fostering an engaged civil society are
essential steps toward reinforcing ethical norms in public administration.
Challenges/Dilemmas in Ethics in Public Administration:
❖ Post-liberalization era challenges
➢ Transitioning to a market-driven economy poses the challenge of balancing economic efficiency with
the ethical responsibility to prevent social inequalities; market-driven growth may exacerbate disparities,
requiring a delicate balance between fair benefits distribution and economic promotion;
➢ The call for minimum government raises concerns about social welfare, necessitating a balance
between bureaucratic efficiency and the ethical duty to address societal needs; privatization introduces
profit motives, demanding effective regulation to prevent ethical lapses and ensure accessibility.

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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 57
Case Study and Doubt Session
(Part 02)
 2

Case Study and Doubt Session (Part 02)

Mains Question 2019
9. An apparel manufacturing company having a large number of women employees was losing sales due to
various factors. The company hired a reputed marketing executive, who increased the volume of sales within
a short period. However, some unconfirmed reports came up regarding his indulgence in sexual harassment at
the workplace.
After some time, a woman employee lodged a formal complaint to the management against the marketing
executive for sexually harassing her. Faced with the company’s indifference in not taking cognizance of her
grievance, she lodged an FIR with the Police.
Realizing the sensitivity and gravity of the situation, the company called the women employee to negotiate. In
that, she was offered a hefty sum of money to withdraw the complaint and the FIR and also to give in writing
that the marketing executive was not involved in this case.
Identify the ethical issues involved in this case: what options are available to the women employee?
Answer:
Ethical concerns in this case revolve around the violation of laws and Supreme Court guidelines, such as the
Vishakha guidelines, constitutional norms (Right to Life, Article 21), morality, patriarchal mindset, business
ethics, lack of social attitude, and issues related to emotional intelligence and corruption.
As for options available to the woman employee:
❖ Expand the FIR: Consider broadening the scope of the FIR to include the entire company, recognizing its
involvement in the matter.
❖ Engage Women's Union and NGOs: Seek support from women's unions, civil societies, and NGOs
specializing in gender justice to amplify the issue.
❖ Media Involvement: Bring the matter to the public through media channels to raise awareness and send a
message to society about the importance of addressing such issues.
❖ Deterrence through Exposure: Highlight the case's potential impact on the company's reputation and profits,
creating a deterrent for such unethical practices.
❖ Legal Pursuit: Continue pursuing legal action, emphasizing gender justice and ensuring accountability for
both the individual and the company.
❖ By pursuing these options, the woman employee can strive for justice, promote gender equality, and hold both
the individual and the company accountable for their actions.
Mains Question 2020
11. Parmal is a small but underdeveloped district. It has rocky terrain that is not suitable for agriculture, though
some subsistence agriculture is being done on small plots of land. The area receives adequate rainfall and has
an irrigation canal flowing through it. Amria, its administrative center, is a medium-sized town. It houses a
large district hospital, an Industrial Training Institute, and some privately owned skill training centers. It has
all the facilities of a district headquarters. A trunk railway line passes approximately 50 kilometers from Amria.
 3

Its poor connectivity is a major reason for the absence of any major industry therein. The state government
offers a 10 year tax holiday as an incentive to new industry.
In 2010 Anil, an industrialist, decided to take benefits to set up Amria Plastic Works (APW) in Noora village,
about 20 km from Amria. While the factory was being built, Anil hired the required key labour and got them
trained at the skill training centres at Amria. This act of his made the key personnel very loyal to APW.
APW started production in 2011 with the labour drawn fully from Noora village. The villagers were very
happy to get employment near their homes and were motivated by the key personnel to meet the production
targets with high quality. APW started making large profits, a sizable portion of which was used to improve
the quality of life in Noora. By 2016, Noora could boast of a greener village and a renovated village temple.
Anil liaised with the local MLA to increase the frequency of the bus services to Amria. The government also
opened a primary health care center and primary school at Noora in buildings constructed by APW. APW used
its CSR funds to set up women’s self-help groups, subsidize primary education to the village children and
procure an ambulance for use by its employees and the needy.
In 2019, there was a minor fire in APW. It was quickly extinguished as fire safety protocols were in place in
the factory. Investigations revealed that the factory had been using electricity in excess of its authorized
capacity. This was soon rectified. The next year, due to a nationwide lockdown, the requirement of production
fell for four months. Anil decided that all employees would be paid regularly. He employed them to plant trees
and improve the village habitat. APW had developed a reputation of high-quality production and a motivated
workforce.
Critically analyze the story of APW and state the ethical issues involved. Do you consider APW as a role
model for development of backward areas? Give reasons.
Answer:
Ethical Issues:
❖ Environmental Impact: APW's efforts to enhance the greenery of Noora are commendable, but the potential
environmental impact of plastic production, including pollution and waste generation, necessitates transparent
disclosure of waste management practices and strategies to mitigate environmental consequences.
❖ Labor Practices: While APW's initial focus on training and fair wages is positive, ongoing concerns exist
regarding long-term labor safety and fair compensation during periods of reduced production. The reliance on
a single employer raises ethical questions about the potential for exploitation, necessitating careful
documentation and consideration of the well-being of the workforce.
❖ Governance and Transparency: The collaboration between APW and the local MLA and government is
praiseworthy. However, there is a need to scrutinize the nature of Anil's influence to ensure it is not
manipulated for personal gain. Establishing clear guidelines and involving the community in decision-making
processes is essential to maintain transparency and uphold ethical governance standards.
❖ Sustainability: While APW's contribution to village development is significant, there is a potential
vulnerability arising from an over-reliance on the company. To ensure long-term sustainability, it is imperative
to foster self-reliance within the community and diversify income sources. This approach will mitigate risks
associated with financial difficulties at APW or the possibility of the company deciding to leave.
 4

Role Model for Development:

Despite ethical concerns, APW stands out as a potential role model for development due to the following positive
aspects:
❖ Local Employment and Skill Development: The provision of jobs and training by APW empowers villagers,
fostering skill development and contributing to the growth of the local economy.
❖ Improved Infrastructure and Social Services: APW's significant contributions to schools, healthcare, and
transportation facilities markedly enhance the overall quality of life in the community.
❖ Community Engagement and Environmental Awareness: APW's initiatives, such as greening the village
and tree planting during the lockdown, underscore a dedicated commitment to environmental responsibility
and community engagement.
❖ Collaboration with Local Government and Institutions: The collaboration with the MLA and the strategic
use of CSR funds reflect APW's willingness to actively contribute to broader development efforts in
partnership with local government and institutions.
Mains Question 2019
8. Honesty and uprightness are the hallmarks of a civil servant. Civil servants possessing these qualities are
considered as the backbone of any strong organization. In line of duty, they take various decisions, at times
some become bonafide mistakes. As long as such decisions are not taken intentionally and do not benefit
personally, the officer cannot be said to be guilty. Though such decisions may, at times, lead to unforeseen
adverse consequences in the long-term.
In the recent past, a few instances have surfaced wherein civil servants have been implicated for bonafide
mistakes. They have often been prosecuted and even imprisoned. These instances have greatly rattled the moral
fiber of the civil servants.
How does this trend affect the functioning of the civil services? What measures can be taken to ensure that
honest civil servants are not implicated for bonafide mistakes on their part? Justify your answer.
Answer:
Impact on Civil Services Functioning:
The trend of implicating civil servants for bona fide mistakes significantly impacts the functioning of civil services
in several ways:
❖ Inhibited Decision-Making: The fear of prosecution may lead civil servants to avoid innovative decisions or
initiatives, hindering the progress and adaptability of the organization.
❖ Potential Policy Paralysis: Continuous prosecution for honest mistakes can create a situation of policy
paralysis, where civil servants may become hesitant to make crucial decisions, fearing legal repercussions.
❖ Diminished Motivation: Ongoing legal actions against civil servants for genuine errors can erode motivation
within the civil service, affecting their dedication and enthusiasm to serve effectively.
❖ Negative Interpretation of Rules: The constant threat of legal consequences may incline civil servants to
interpret rules more conservatively, avoiding any potential risks, which could hinder progressive decision-
making.
 5

❖ Impact on Empathy and Compassion: The fear of legal repercussions may dilute the principles of empathy
and compassion in decision-making, as civil servants may become overly cautious to avoid any unintended
adverse consequences.
❖ Weakening Code of Ethics and Conduct: The trust and integrity within the civil services can be
compromised if civil servants are unjustly penalized for bona fide mistakes, potentially weakening the overall
code of ethics and conduct.
Measures to Safeguard Honest Civil Servants:
❖ Clear Grounds for Decisions: Civil servants should explicitly state the grounds and reasoning behind their
decisions, ensuring transparency and accountability.
❖ Rational Explanation for Decision-Making: Providing a rational explanation for decision-making at the time
of the decision can serve as evidence of good faith, helping protect civil servants from unwarranted legal
actions.
❖ Inclusive Decision-Making: Decision-making processes should be more inclusive, involving multiple
perspectives and opinions to minimize the risk of unintended mistakes.
❖ Soliciting Opinions Before Decisions: Seeking expert opinions and public input before making decisions of
public importance can enhance the quality of decisions and provide a safeguard against unjust legal actions.
❖ Explicit Mention of Consequences: Civil servants should explicitly mention the anticipated consequences of
their decisions during the decision-making process to demonstrate foresight and good faith.
❖ Benefit of Doubt: In cases where civil servants are not personally benefiting from their decisions, the benefit
of the doubt should be accorded to them, acknowledging the absence of personal gain.
Mains Question 2021
11. A reputed food product company based in India developed a food product for the international market and
started exporting the same after getting necessary approvals. The company announced this achievement and
also indicated that soon the product will be made available for the domestic consumers with almost the same
quality and health benefits. Accordingly, the company got its product approved by the domestic competent
authority and launched the product in the Indian market. The company could increase its market share over a
period of time and earn substantial profit both domestically and internationally. However, the random sample
test conducted by the inspection team found the product being sold domestically in variance with the approval
obtained from the competent authority. On further investigation, it was also discovered that the food company
was not only selling products which were not meeting the health standard of the country but also selling the
rejected export products in the domestic market. This episode adversely affected the reputation and profitability
of the food company.
(a) What action do you visualize should be taken by the competent authority against the food company for
violating the laid down domestic food standard and selling rejected export products in the domestic
market?
(b) What course of action is available with the food company to resolve the crisis and bring back its lost
reputation?
(c) Examine the ethical dilemma involved in the case.
 6

Answer:
(a) Action by Competent Authority: The competent authority should take stringent actions against the food
company for violating domestic food standards and selling rejected export products in the domestic market:
➢ Legal Consequences: Initiate legal proceedings against the company for non-compliance with domestic
food standards. This may include fines, sanctions, or even suspension of operations.
➢ Product Recall: Mandate an immediate recall of the non-compliant and rejected products from the market
to prevent further harm to consumers.
➢ Revocation of Approvals: Consider revoking the product approvals granted to the company, prohibiting
it from selling the said product until it meets the required standards.
➢ Penalties for Deceptive Practices: Impose penalties for deceptive practices, as selling rejected export
products without proper disclosure constitutes a breach of consumer trust and safety.
➢ Regular Inspections: Increase the frequency of inspections on the company's products to ensure ongoing
compliance and rebuild consumer confidence.
(b) Course of Action for the Food Company: To resolve the crisis and regain lost reputation, the food company
should take the following steps:
➢ Acknowledgment and Apology: Publicly admit the mistake, take responsibility, and issue an
unconditional apology for the lapse in adhering to domestic standards and selling rejected products.
➢ Transparency and Assurance: Conduct a press conference to transparently communicate the corrective
measures being implemented. Assure consumers that stringent quality control measures will be in place
in the future.
➢ Restoration of Public Trust: Undertake initiatives to restore public trust, such as engaging in awareness
campaigns on food safety, conducting outreach programs, and collaborating with consumer advocacy
groups.
➢ Compensatory Measures: Issue compensatory coupons or refunds to consumers who suffered due to the
consumption of non-compliant or rejected products. This demonstrates a commitment to consumer rights
and fairness.
➢ Internal Quality Control: Strengthen internal quality control processes, including robust testing and
adherence to both domestic and international standards, to prevent such incidents in the future.
(c) Ethical Dilemma: The ethical dilemma in this case involves conflicting priorities:
➢ Profit vs. Consumer Rights: The company's pursuit of profit compromised consumer rights, leading to
the sale of substandard and rejected products in the domestic market.
➢ Profit vs. Public Health: Prioritizing profit over public health standards jeopardizes the well-being of
consumers and undermines the trust they place in the company.
➢ Loss of Public Trust: The company's actions eroded public trust, emphasizing the ethical imperative of
maintaining transparency and integrity in business practices.
➢ Issue of Integrity: The discrepancy between the company's public announcements and the actual quality
of products raises questions about its integrity, emphasizing the need for ethical business conduct.
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Mains Question 2022

9: The Supreme Court has banned mining in the Aravalli Hills to stop degradation of the forest cover and to
maintain ecological balance. However, the stone mining was still prevalent in the border district of the affected
State with connivance of certain corrupt forest officials and politicians. Young and dynamic SP who was
recently posted in the affected district promised to himself to stop this menace. In one of his surprise checks
with his team, he found loaded truck with stone trying to escape the mining area. He tried to stop the truck but
the truck driver overrun the police officer, killing him on the spot and thereafter managed to flee. Police filed
FIR but no breakthrough was achieved in the case for almost three months. Ashok who was the Investigative
Journalist working with leading TV channel, suo moto started investigating the case. Within one month, Ashok
got breakthrough by interacting with local people, stone mining mafia and government officials. He prepared
his investigative story and presented to the CMD of the TV channel. He exposed in his investigative report the
complete nexus of stone mafia working with blessing of corrupt police and civil officials and politicians. The
politician who was involved in the mafia was no one else but local MLA who was considered to be very close
to the Chief Minister. After going through the investigative report, the CMD advised Ashok to drop the idea
of making the story public through electronic media. He informed that the local MLA was not only the relative
of the owner of the TV channel but also had an unofficially 20 percent share in the channel. The CMD further
informed Ashok that his further promotion and hike in pay will be taken care of in addition the soft loan of `10
lakhs which he has taken from the TV channel for his son's chronic disease will be suitably adjusted if he hands
over the investigative report to him.
(a) What are the options available with Ashok to cope up with the situation?
(b) Critically evaluate/examine each of the options identified by Ashok.
(c) What are the ethical dilemmas being faced by Ashok?
(d) Which of the options, do you think, would be the most appropriate for Ashok to adopt and why?
(e) In the above scenario, what type of training would you suggest for police officers posted to such districts
where stone mining illegal activities are rampant?
Answer:
(a) Options available to Ashok:
➢ Accept the advice of CMD.
➢ Publish the investigative report.
➢ Accept the advice of CMD and leak the report to other media channels or provide clues.
(b) Analysis of Options
➢ Accept CMD's advice:
✓ Pros: Job security, potential financial benefits.
✓ Cons: Compromises journalistic ethics, perpetuates corruption.
➢ Publish the report:
✓ Pros: Upholds journalistic integrity, exposes corruption.
✓ Cons: Potential backlash, risking job security and personal benefits.
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➢ Accept CMD's advice and leak the report to other media channels or give clues:
✓ Pros: Exposes corruption, maintains job security.
✓ Cons: Danger his personal benefits
(c) Ethical Dilemmas being faced by Ashok:
➢ Professional ethics vs personal benefits: Ashok must weigh the ethical responsibility of revealing the
truth against potential personal gains offered by the CMD.
➢ Ethics of media vs job security of Ashok: The decision to expose corruption challenges Ashok to
prioritize journalistic principles over his own job security.
➢ Code of conduct of journalism vs personal benefits: Ashok faces a conflict between adhering to
journalistic integrity and succumbing to personal benefits offered by the CMD.
(d) Most Appropriate Option for Ashok:
Option 2, publishing the report, appears the most appropriate as it aligns with journalistic integrity, exposes
the truth, and ensures justice for the deceased police officer. This choice may have short-term consequences
for Ashok but upholds professional ethics and the role of media in uncovering corruption.
(e) Training for police officers:
➢ Proper evidence collection: Equip officers with the skills to gather evidence effectively and ethically.
➢ Collaboration with different agencies: Stress the importance of sharing information and collaborating
with various agencies to combat corruption.
➢ Filing FIR against involved parties: Ensure officers follow legal procedures and file First Information
Reports against individuals engaged in illegal activities.
➢ Proper police action with precautions: Train officers to take appropriate actions against illegal activities
while prioritizing their safety and avoiding corruption within their ranks.
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 1

DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Ethics

Lecture – 60
Laws, rules, regulations, and
conscience as sources of ethical
guidance
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Laws, rules, regulations, and conscience as sources of ethical guidance

Laws and Rules for Bureaucrats:
❖ Bureaucrats are accountable but politicians are responsible for society.
❖ A better governance in the country can build trust in the people but weak governance makes people revolt
against the state.
❖ Laws, rules, and regulations are the outside factors to keep bureaucracy accountable but conscience is the
internal thing that regulates a civil servant.
Objective:
❖ Effective accountability in public administration. For this to be achieved there are two means:
➢ Theoretical means: Here we have deontological tools called laws, rules regulations, and conscience.
➢ Accountability framework or action plan: For this to be achieved, we have tools like Sevottam, social
audit and political reforms, and Institutional reforms.
The theoretical framework of accountability in Public administration:
❖ External actors or outside actors are called laws, rules, and regulations.
❖ Internal or inside the actors is called conscience.
Topics to study:
❖ Meaning of law, rules, and regulation.
❖ How law in ethics is different from law in other countries.
❖ Why do we need regulations and law rules for accountability along with laws?
❖ How can we identify whether a law is morally valid or not?
❖ What is conscience and what is its role in accountability?
❖ Types of conscience and crisis of conscience?
❖ How do these two external and internal sources of ethical guidance provide a complete, holistic framework of
accountability?
What is law?
❖ Definition by Thomas Acquinas: “Law is an ordinance of reason for common good which is promulgated by
him who has care for the community”.
❖ Law carries following tenets:
➢ Law is basically an ordinance of reason.
➢ Objective is common good.
➢ Sense of care of community.
❖ Any valid law must be backed by rational arguments and justifications.
❖ Objective of law is to achieve the common good of community or society.
❖ Only these people or the person can enact laws or legislatures who have care for the community in their minds.
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External deontological Accountability:

❖ Rule I: Law which is general in nature. Law will be applied in all without any discrimination.
❖ Rule II: These are pragmatic applications of law according to institutional need and framework.
❖ Rule III: Regulations are identity centric accountability and compliance principles.
Strength and Weakness of this accountability framework:
Merits or Strengths:
❖ Objectivity: It will bring quality in the system.
❖ Transparency: Accountability can bring openness in governance.
❖ Uniformity: Uniformity is achieved by bringing accountability.
❖ Inaction of arbitrariness: An accountable man never goes for making arbitrary laws in the country.
Demerits or Weakness:
❖ Fear of Punishment: Accountability through laws create a sense of fear of punishment.
❖ 2nd Administrative Reform Commission (ARC) mentions that the laws must be limited where they can be
kept in the front pocket, then only they can be effective. And it also mentions that even a lay man should
understand the law then only they can be effective. Because without knowing laws a lay man cannot recognise
the work of a civil servant.
Conscience:
Topics of Study:
❖ What is conscience?
❖ Why do we need conscience for accountability along with laws, rules, and regulations?
❖ Types of conscience?
❖ Crisis of conscience?
❖ Merit and dimensions of conscience or model of conscience as a tool of accountability?

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