LESSON 3 | INFANCY
Babies are such a nice way to start people.
—Don Herold American Writer, 20th Century
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
PATTERNS OF GROWTH
• Infants grow rapidly during the first two years of life.
• An extraordinary proportion of the total body is occupied by the head
during prenatal development and early infancy.
• The cephalocaudal pattern is the sequence in which the earliest growth
always occurs at the top—the head—with physical growth and differentiation
of features gradually working their way down from top to bottom (for
example, shoulders, middle trunk, and so on).
Head to foot
This same pattern occurs in the head area, because the top parts of the head—the eyes
and brain—grow faster than the lower parts, such as the jaw.
• Motor
development generally proceeds according to the cephalocaudal principle.
 For example, infants see objects before they can control their
torso, and they can use their hands long before they can crawl or
walk.
 However, development does not follow a rigid blueprint. One
study found that infants reached for toys with their feet prior to
reaching with their hands (Galloway & Thelen, 2004). On
average, infants first touched the toy with their feet when they
were 12 weeks old and with their hands when they were 16 weeks
old.
• Growth also follows the proximodistal pattern, the sequence in which
growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities.
 For example, infants control the muscles of their trunk and arms
before they control their hands and fingers, and they use their
whole hands before they can control several fingers (Bindler &
others, 2017).
During the first year, much time is spent coordinating motor skills.
Near to far
HEIGHT AND WEIGHT
• The average North American newborn is 20 inches long and weighs 7.6
pounds.
• Development Average birth weight of a Filipino newborn is 2.8 to 3 kg (6
to 6.6 lbs).
• In the first several days of life, most newborns lose 5 to 7 percent of their
body weight before they adjust to feeding by sucking, swallowing, and
digesting.
• Then they grow rapidly, gaining an average of 5 to 6 ounces per week
during the first month.
• They have doubled their birth weight by the age of 4 months and have
nearly tripled it by their first birthday.
• Infants grow about 1 inch per month during the first year, approximately
doubling their birth length by their first birthday.
in infancy, growth spurts may occur in a single day and alternate with long time frames
characterized by little or no growth for days and weeks.
• Growth slows considerably in the second year of life (London & others,
2017).
• By 2 years of age, infants weigh approximately 26 to 32 pounds, having
gained a quarter to half a pound per month during the second year to reach
about one-fifth of their adult weight.
• At 2 years of age, infants average 32 to 35 inches in height, which is nearly
half of their adult height. An important point about growth is that it often is
not smooth and continuous but rather is episodic, occurring in spurts
(Adolph, 2018; Adolph & Berger, 2015).
THE BRAIN
• The infant that began as a single cell is estimated to have a brain that
contains approximately 100 billion nerve cells, or neurons.
• Extensive brain development continues after birth, through infancy and
later
• At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight.
• By the second birthday, the brain is about 75 percent of its adult weight.
Because the brain is still developing so rapidly in infancy, the infant’s head should be
protected from falls or other injuries and the baby should never be shaken.
Shaken baby syndrome, which includes brain swelling and hemorrhaging, affects
hundreds of babies in the United States each year (Hellgren & others, 2017).
However, the brain’s areas do not mature uniformly.
• The portion farthest from the spinal cord is known as the forebrain. This
region includes
the cerebral
cortex and
several structures
beneath it.
• The cerebral
cortex covers the
forebrain like a
wrinkled cap.
• The brain has
two halves, or hemispheres.
• Based on ridges and valleys in the cortex, scientists distinguish four main
areas, called lobes, in each hemisphere.
LESSON 3 | INFANCY
• Although the lobes usually work together, each has a somewhat different
primary function.
Frontal lobes are involved in voluntary movement, thinking, personality, and
intentionality or purpose.
• Occipital lobes function in vision.
• Temporal lobes have an active role in hearing, language processing, and memory.
• Parietal lobes play important roles in registering spatial location, attention, and motor
control
Speech and grammar, for example, depend on activity in the left hemisphere in most
people; humor and the use of metaphors depend on activity in the right hemisphere
(Holler-Wallscheid & others, 2017).
This specialization of function in one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex or the other is
called lateralization.
• At birth, the hemispheres of the cerebral cortex already have started to
specialize: Newborns show greater electrical brain activity in the left
hemisphere than the right hemisphere when they are listening to speech
sounds (Telkemeyer & others, 2011).
CHANGES IN NEURONS
• Neurons change in two very significant ways during the first years of life.
• First, myelination, the process of encasing axons with fat cells, begins
prenatally and continues after birth, even into adolescence and emerging
adulthood (Juraska & Willing, 2017).
• Second, connectivity among neurons increases, creating new neural
pathways (Eggebrecht & others, 2017; Zhou & others, 2018).
• New dendrites grow, connections among dendrites increase, and synaptic
connections between axons and dendrites proliferate.
• Whereas myelination speeds up neural transmissions, the expansion of
dendritic connections facilitates the spreading of neural pathways in infant
development.
In the first 3 years of life the brain develops more than a million neural connections
every second.
• The age at which “blooming” and subsequent “pruning” of synapses occurs
varies by brain region.
• For example, the peak of synaptic overproduction in the visual cortex
occurs at about the fourth postnatal month, followed by a gradual retraction
until the middle to end of the preschool years. In areas of the brain involved
in hearing and language, a similar, though somewhat later, course is detected.
• However, in the prefrontal cortex, the area of the brain where higher-level
thinking and self-regulation occur, the peak of overproduction takes place at
about 1 year of age; it is not until emerging adulthood that adult density of
synapses is attained. Both heredity and environment are thought to influence
the timing and course of synaptic overproduction and subsequent retraction.
Synaptic pruning is a natural process that occurs in the brain between early childhood
and adulthood. During synaptic pruning, the brain eliminates extra synapses.
TO REMOVE UNNECESSARY NEURONAL SRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN
The process of elimination is key to forming a healthy, adaptive brain.
EARLY EXPERIENCE AND THE BRAIN
Children who grow up in a deprived environment may have depressed brain
activity.
THE NEUROCONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW
• (a) biological processes (genes, for example) and environmental conditions
(enriched or impoverished, for example) influence the brain’s development;
(b) the brain has plasticity and is context dependent; and (c) the child’s
cognitive development is closely linked to development of the brain.
• These factors constrain or advance the construction of cognitive skills
(Goldberg, 2017; Mucke & others, 2018; Schreuders & others, 2018;
Westermann, Thomas, & Karmiloff-Smith, 2011).
• The neuroconstructivist view emphasizes the importance of considering
interactions between experience and gene expression in the brain’s
development, much as the epigenetic view proposes (Moore, 2017; Smith &
others, 2018; Westermann, 2016)
A belief that biological processes and environmental conditions influence the brain’s
development; the brain has plasticity and is context dependent; and development of the
brain and cognitive development are closely linked.
SLEEP
• From
an
evolutionary perspective, all animals sleep and this sleep likely is necessary
for survival.
LESSON 3 | INFANCY

• A second perspective is that sleep replenishes and rebuilds the brain and body and environment. Nature and nurture, the infant and the environment, are all
body, which the day’s waking activities can wear out. In support of this working together as part of an ever-changing system.
restorative function, many of the body’s cells show increased production and
REFLEXES
reduced breakdowns of proteins during sleep (Frank, 2017).
• Reflexes are built-in reactions to stimuli; they govern the newborn’s
• Further, a current emphasis is that sleep is essential to clearing out waste in
movements, which are automatic and beyond the newborn’s control.
neural tissues, such as metabolites and cerebrospinal fluid (Aguirre, 2016).
• Reflexes are genetically carried survival mechanisms.
A third perspective is that sleep is critical for brain plasticity (Sterpenich,
Ceravolo, & Schwartz, 2017). • The rooting and sucking reflexes are important examples. Both have
survival value for newborn mammals, who must find a mother’s breast to
• Further, a research review concluded that not only can sleep improve
obtain nourishment.
memory, but losing a few hours of sleep a night is related to negative effects
on attention, reasoning, and decision making (Diekelmann, 2014). • The rooting reflex occurs when the infant’s cheek is stroked or the side of
the mouth is touched. In response, the infant turns its head toward the side
• In sum, sleep likely serves a number of functions with no one theory
that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck.
accounting for all of the functions.

Why Do We Sleep? A number of theories have been proposed about why we sleep. • The sucking reflex occurs when newborns automatically suck an object
placed in their mouth. This reflex enables newborns to get nourishment
• When we were infants, sleep consumed more of our time than it does now before they have associated a nipple with food and also serves as a self-
(Goh & others, 2017). soothing or self-regulating mechanism.

• The typical newborn sleeps approximately 18 hours a day, but newborns The newborn is not completely helpless. Among other things, it has some basic reflexes.
vary greatly in how much they sleep (Dias & others, 2018; Sadeh, 2008). For example, when submerged in water, the newborn automatically holds its breath and
contracts its throat to keep water out.
• The range is from about 10 hours to about 21 hours a day.

• In a recent study, sleep sessions lasted approximately 3.5 hours during the
first few months and increased to about 10.5 hours from 3 to 7 months
(Mindell & others, 2016).
• A previous research review concluded that infants 0 to 2 years of age slept
an average of 12.8 hours out of the 24, within a range of 9.7 to 15.9 hours
(Galland & others, 2012).
They allow infants to respond adaptively to their environment before they have had the
opportunity to learn.
• the Moro reflex, which occurs in response to a sudden, intense noise or
movement
• When startled, the newborn arches its back, throws back its head, and flings
out its arms and legs. Then the newborn rapidly draws in its arms and legs.

• The Moro reflex is believed to be a way of grabbing for support while

SLEEP AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT falling; it would have had survival value for our primate ancestors.

• Might infant sleep be linked to children’s cognitive development? • The grasping reflex, occurs when something touches the infant’s palms.

• A recent research review indicated that there is a positive link between
infant sleep and cognitive functioning, including memory, language, and
executive function (Tham, Schneider, & Broekman, 2017).
• A study also revealed that a lower quality of sleep at 1 year of age was
linked to lower attention regulation and more behavior problems at 3 to 4
years of age (Sadeh & others, 2015).
• And in another study, infants with poorer sleep patterns showed more
distractibility during an attention task (Geva, Yaron, & Kuint, 2016).
• The link between infant sleep and children’s cognitive functioning
likely occurs because of sleep’s role in brain maturation and memory
consolidation, which may improve daytime alertness and learning.
What are some of the benefits of breast feeding?
• The infant responds by grasping tightly. By the end of the third month, the
grasping reflex diminishes and the infant shows a more voluntary grasp.
• As its motor coordination becomes smoother, the infant will grasp objects,
carefully manipulate them, and explore their qualities.
• The old view of reflexes is that they were exclusively genetic, built-in
mechanisms that governed the infant’s movements. The new perspective on
infant reflexes is that they are not automatic or completely beyond the
infant’s control. For example, infants can alternate the movement of
their legs to make a mobile jiggle or change their sucking rate to listen to
a recording (Adolph & Robinson, 2015).
The movements of some reflexes eventually become incorporated into more complex,
voluntary actions

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

THE DYNAMIC SYSTEMS VIEW

• The perspective on motor development that seeks to explain how motor

behaviors are assembled for perceiving and acting.

• Notice that perception and action are coupled

• To develop motor skills, infants must perceive something in their

environment that motivates them to act and use their perceptions to fine-tune
their movements. Motor skills assist infants in reaching their goals (Adolph,
2018).

According to dynamic systems theory, infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and
acting.

Thus, according to dynamic systems theory, motor development is not a passive process
in which genes dictate the unfolding of a sequence of skills over time. Rather, the infant
actively puts together a skill to achieve a goal within the constraints set by the infant’s
LESSON 3 | INFANCY
GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
FINE MOTOR SKILLS
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
• Schemes – in Piaget’s theory, actions or mental representations that
organize knowledge.
• Assimilation occurs when children use their existing schemes to deal with
new information or experiences.
• Accommodation occurs when children adjust their schemes to take new
information and experiences into account.
• Organization- Piaget’s concept of grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts
into a higher- order, more smoothly functioning cognitive system.
• Equilibration- A mechanism that Piaget proposed to explain how children
shift from one stage of thought to the next.
As the infant or child seeks to construct an understanding of the world,
said Piaget (1954), the developing brain creates schemes. These are
actions or mental representa- tions that organize knowledge. In Piaget’s
theory, a baby’s schemes are structured by simple actions that can be
performed on objects, such as sucking, looking, and grasping.
To explain how children use and adapt their schemes, Piaget offered two
concepts: assimilation and accommodation.
A boy who has only a vague idea about how to use a hammer may also
have a vague idea about how to use other tools. After learning how to use
each one, he relates these uses, organizing his knowledge.
Assimilation and accommodation always take the child to a higher ground, according to
Piaget. In trying to understand the world, the child inevitably experiences cognitive
conflict, or disequilibrium.
• In short, according to Piaget, children constantly assimilate and
accommodate as they seek equilibrium.
• There is considerable movement between states of cognitive equilibrium
and disequilibrium as assimilation and accommodation work in concert to
produce cognitive change.
• The result of these processes, according to Piaget, is that individuals go
through four stages of development.
• A different way of understanding the world makes one stage more
advanced than another. Cognition is qualitatively different in one stage
compared with another.
• In other words, the way children reason at one stage is different from the
way they reason at another stage. In this chapter we will focus on Piaget’s
stage of infant cognitive development.
THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
• The sensorimotor stage lasts from birth to about 2 years of age.
• During this stage of cognitive development, infants construct an
understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as
seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions—hence the term
“sensorimotor.
• At the beginning of this stage, newborns have little more than reflexes with
which to work.
• At the end of the sensorimotor stage, 2-year-olds can produce complex
sensorimotor patterns and use primitive symbols.
Object Permanence
• There is no differentiation between the self and world; objects have no
separate, permanent existence.
• By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the
self and permanent.
• Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even
when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
• Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant’s most
important accomplishments, according to Piaget.
Imagine how chaotic and unpredictable your life would be if you could not distinguish
between yourself and your world. This is what the life of a newborn must be like,
according to Piaget.
LESSON 3 | INFANCY
Whatever language they learn, infants all over
the world follow a similar path in language in
different contexts. development. What are some
key milestones in this development?
SOCIOEMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENTAL IN INFANCY
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• Emotion is a feeling, or affect, that
occurs when a person is in a state or an
interaction that is important to him or her,
especially to his or her well-being.
• Emotions play important roles in (1)
communication with others, and (2)
behavioral organization
• Through emotions, infants communicate important aspects of their lives
such as joy, sadness, interest, and fear (Taylor & Workman, 2018).
• In terms of behavioral organization, emotions influence infants’ social
responses and adaptive behavior as they interact with others in their world
(Cole, 2016; Cole & Hollenstein, 2018).
• Emotions are influenced by biological foundations, cognitive processes, and
a person’s experiences (Foroughe, 2018; Perry & Calkins, 2018).
Emotional well-being during the early years has a powerful impact on social
relationships.
EARLY EMOTIONS
• Primary emotions are present in humans and other animals; these
emotions appear in the first 6 months of the human infant’s development.
 Primary emotions include surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness,
fear, and disgust.
• Self-conscious emotions require self-awareness that involves consciousness
and a sense of “me.”
 Self-conscious emotions include jealousy, empathy,
embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt, most of these occurring
for the first time at some point in the second half of the first year
through the second year.
EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
• Crying is the most important mechanism newborns have for
communicating with their world.
• The first cry verifies that the baby’s lungs have filled with air.
• Cries also may provide information about the health of the newborn’s
central nervous system. A recent study found that excessive infant crying in
3-month-olds doubled the risk of behavioral, hyperactive, and mood
problems at 5 to 6 years of age (Smarius & others, 2017).
• Babies have at least three types of cries:
 Basic cry. A rhythmic pattern that usually consists of a cry,
followed by a briefer silence, then a shorter whistle that is
somewhat higher in pitch than the main cry, then another brief
rest before the next cry. Some infancy experts believe that hunger
is one of the conditions that incites the basic cry.
 Anger cry. A variation of the basic cry in which more excess air
is forced through the vocal cords.
 Pain cry. A sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath
holding; no preliminary moaning is present. The pain cry is
stimulated by a high-intensity stimulus.
• Smiling is a key social signal and a very important aspect of positive social
interaction in developing a new social skill.
• Researchers have found that smiling and laughter at 7 months of age are
associated with self-regulation at 7 years of age (Posner & others, 2014).
• The power of the infant’s smiles was appropriately captured by British
theorist John Bowlby (1969): “Can we doubt that the more and better an
infant smiles the better he is loved and cared for? It is fortunate for their
survival that babies are so designed by nature that they beguile and
enslave mothers.”
• Two types of smiling can be distinguished in infants:
 Reflexive smile. A smile that does not occur in response to
external stimuli and appears during the first month after birth,
usually during sleep.
 Social smile. A smile that occurs in response to an external
stimulus, typically a face in the case of the young infant. Social
smiling occurs as early as 2 months of age.The infant’s social
smile can have a powerful impact on caregivers (Martin & Mess)
TEMPERAMENT
CHESS AND THOMAS’ CLASSIFICATION
• Psychiatrists Alexander Chess and Stella Thomas (Chess & Thomas, 1977;
Thomas & Chess, 1991) identified three basic types, or clusters, of
temperament:
 An easy child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes
regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences.
 A difficult child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages
in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change.
 A slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level, is somewhat
negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.
Involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of
responding.
KAGAN’S BEHAVIORAL INHIBITION
• Another way of classifying temperament focuses on the differences between
a shy, subdued, timid child and a sociable, extraverted, bold child.
• Jerome Kagan (2002, 2008, 2010, 2013) regards shyness with strangers
(peers or adults) as one feature of a broad temperament category called
inhibition to the unfamiliar.
LESSON 3 | INFANCY
• Inhibited children react to many aspects of unfamiliarity with initial
avoidance, distress, or subdued affect, beginning at about 7 to 9 months of
age.
ROTHBART AND BATES’ CLASSIFICATION
• Mary Rothbart and John Bates (2006) argue that prior classifications of
temperament have not included a key temperament style: effortful control
(self-regulation).
• Extraversion/surgency includes approach, pleasure, activity, smiling, and
laughter. Kagan’s uninhibited children fit into this category. One study
revealed that preschool children with high levels of surgency were more
likely to engage in a number of obesity-related eating behaviors such as
eating in the absence of hunger (Leung & others, 2014).
• Negative affectivity includes “fear, frustration, sadness, and discomfort”
(Rothbart, 2004, p. 495). These children are easily distressed; they may fret
and cry often. Kagan’s inhibited children fit this category. In the study
mentioned above, preschool children with higher levels of negative
affectivity were more likely to have tantrums if they were denied food, but
less likely to eat in the absence of hunger (Leung & others, 2014).
• Effortful control (self-regulation) includes “attentional focusing and
shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity
pleasure” (Rothbart, 2004, p. 495). Infants who are high on effortful control
show an ability to keep their arousal from getting too high and have
strategies for soothing themselves. By contrast, children low on effortful
control are often unable to control their arousal; they become easily agitated
and intensely emotional.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Emotions and temperament form key aspects of personality, the enduring
personal characteristics of individuals.
TRUST
• According to Erik Erikson (1968), the first year of life is characterized by
the trust- versus-mistrust stage of development.
• Following a life of regularity, warmth, and protection in the mother’s
womb, the infant faces a world that is less secure.
• Erikson proposed that infants learn trust when they are cared for in a
consistent, warm manner. If the infant is not well fed and kept warm on a
consistent basis, a sense of mistrust is likely to develop.
• The issue of trust versus mistrust is not resolved once and for all in the first
year of life. It arises again at each successive stage of development and can
have positive or negative outcomes.
THE DEVELOPING SENSE OF SELF
• The infant begins to develop a self-understanding called self-recognition at
about 18 months of age.
When does the individual begin to sense a separate existence from others? One
ingenious strategy to test infants’ visual self-recognition is the use of a mirror tech-
nique, in which an infant’s mother first puts a dot of rouge on the infant’s nose. Then an
observer watches to see how often the infant touches its nose. Next, the infant is placed
in front of a mirror, and observers detect whether nose touching increases. Why does
this matter? The idea is that increased nose touching indicates that the infant recognizes
the self in the mirror and is trying to touch or rub off the rouge because the rouge
violates the infant’s view of the self. Increased touching indicates that the infant realizes
that it is the self in the mirror but that something is not right since the real self does not
have a dot of rouge on it.
INDEPENDENCE
• Erikson describes the second stage of development as the stage of
autonomy versus shame and doubt.
• Autonomy builds as the infant’s mental and motor abilities develop.
• At this point in development, not only can infants walk, but they can also
climb, open and close, drop, push and pull, and hold and let go. Infants feel
pride in these new accomplishments and want to do everything themselves,
whether the activity is flushing a toilet, pulling the wrapping off a package,
or deciding what to eat.
• It is important for parents to recognize the motivation of toddlers to do what
they are capable of doing at their own pace.
Erik Erikson (1968) stressed that independence is an important issue in the second year
of life.
But when caregivers are impatient and do for toddlers what they are capable of
doing themselves, shame and doubt develop. It is only when parents consistently
overprotect toddlers or criticize accidents (wetting, soiling, spilling, or breaking, for
example) that children develop an excessive sense of shame and doubt about their
ability to control themselves and their world.
ATTACHMENT AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
• Attachment is a close emotional bond between two people.
• Freud emphasized that infants become attached to the person or object that
provides oral satisfaction.
• Physical comfort and sensitive care, according to Erikson (1968), are key to
establishing a basic sense of trust in infants.
• The infant’s sense of trust, in turn, is the foundation for attachment and sets
the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant
place to be.
• The ethological perspective of British psychiatrist John Bowlby (1969,
1989) also stresses the importance of attachment in the first year of life and
the responsiveness of the caregiver.
• Bowlby maintains that both infants and their primary caregivers are
biologically predisposed to form attachments.
• He argues that the newborn is biologically equipped to elicit attachment
behavior. The baby cries, clings, coos, and smiles. Later, the infant crawls,
walks, and follows the mother.
• Following are four such phases based on Bowlby’s conceptualization of
attachment (Schaffer, 1996):
 Phase 1: From birth to 2 months. Infants instinctively direct their
attachment to human figures. Strangers, siblings, and parents are
equally likely to elicit smiling or crying from the infant.
 Phase 2: From 2 to 7 months. Attachment becomes focused on
one figure, usually the primary caregiver, as the baby gradually
learns to distinguish familiar from unfamiliar people.
 Phase 3: From 7 to 24 months. Specific attachments develop.
With increased locomotor skills, babies actively seek contact with
regular caregivers, such as the mother or father.
 Phase 4: From 24 months on. Children become aware of others’
feelings, goals, and plans and begin to take these into account in
forming their own actions.
• Bowlby argued that infants develop an internal working model of
attachment, a simple mental model of the caregiver, their relationship, and
the self as deserving of nurturant care.
• The infant’s internal working model of attachment with the caregiver
influences the infant’s and later the child’s subsequent responses to other
people (Cassidy, 2016; Hoffman & others, 2017).
LESSON 3 | INFANCY

• The internal model of attachment also has played a pivotal role in the
discovery of links between attachment and subsequent emotional
understanding, conscience development, and self-concept (Bretherton &
Munholland, 2016; Vacaru, Sterkenburg, & Schuengel, 2018).

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN ATTACHMENT

• securely attached babies - Babies who use the caregiver as a secure base
from which to explore the environment.

• insecure avoidant babies - Babies who show insecurity by avoiding the

caregiver.

• insecure resistant babies - Babies who often cling to the caregiver, then
resist the caregiver by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or
pushing away.

• insecure disorganized babies - Babies who show insecurity by being

disorganized and disoriented

What can you do as a parent to improve the likelihood that your baby
will form a secure attachment with you?